‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living

Cell Theory things. (Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of
A Discovery of Cells
preexisting cells. (Virchow) (1858)

Robert Hooke
STEM CELL RESEARCH
 1665- English Scientist, Robert Hooke,
discovered cells while looking at a thin  The research started simple question “How
slice of cork. can the various parts of the human body
 He described the cells as tiny boxes or a began forming and how may it be possible
honeycomb. to replicate the processes.
 He thought that cells only existed in plants
and fungi
Modern cell theory
Anton Van Leuwenhoek  Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements,
 1673- Used a handmade microscope to in addition to the original Cell Theory:
observe pond scum & discovered single- 1. The cell contains hereditary information
celled organisms (DNA) which is passed on from cell to cell
 He called them “animalcules” during cell division.
 He also observed blood cells from fish, 2. All cells are basically the same in chemical
birds, frogs, dogs, and humans
composition and metabolic activities.
 Therefore, it was known that cells are
found in animals as well as plants 3. All basic chemical & physiological functions
are carried out inside the cells. (movement,
Robert Brown digestion, etc.)
 He noticed that pollen grains in water 4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-
jiggled around called “Brownian cellular structures within the cell (organelles,
motion” nucleus, plasma membrane)
-discovered nucleus
Thoughts:
Matthias Schleiden
Humans are just an intricately designed
 1838, A botanist who concluded that all
plants are made of cells. community of cells, which must work together to
survive
Theodor Schwann
 1839 A zoologist who concluded that all
animals are made of cells.
 A physician who did research on cancer Plant and Animal Cell
cells and concluded “Omnis cellula e
cellula”. “All cells are from other pre- Cell
existing cells.” Cells are the basic building blocks of all
living things.
B  3 basic components of cell theory

1. All organisms are composed of one or more

cells. (Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39)

PAGE 1 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

 Every animal-like cell has two small

organelles called centrioles. They are there
to help the cell when it comes time to
divide (cell division)

Plasma membrane
 Thin sheet or membrane that
surrounds cells and also to the membranes
that surround organelles within the cell.

Nucleus
 “Commander of the cell” or “the brain of
the cell”. It helps control eating, movement, Cell wall
and reproduction.  Cell walls made of cellulose are only found
around plant cells and a few other
Mitochondria organisms
 the “powerhouses of the cell”. the working
organelles that keep the cell full of energy. Vacuoles
 “Storage Bins to the Cells”. They are found in
Ribosomes both animal and plant cells but are much larger
 “Protein Construction team”. They are like in plant cells. Vacuoles might store food or any
variety of nutrients a cell might need to survive.
construction guys who build proteins
Chloroplasts
Endoplasmic Reticulum  Chloroplasts are the “food producers” of the
 the ER functions as a manufacturing and cell. The organelles are only found
packaging system. It works closely with in plant cells and some protists such as algae
the Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, It makes
and transports lipids, it also packages
proteins
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Golgi apparatus A UNIFYING THEMES IN THE STUDY OF
 also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi LIFE
body, or simply the Golgi packaging
organelle, it packages vesicles. Characteristics of Living Things
1. Living Things are made up of Cells
Lysosome 2. Living Things Metabolize
 lysosomes are “little digestion machines”,
they go to work when the cell absorbs or Metabolism is the sum of all life-
eats some food particles, wastes, and sustaining chemical reactions in living things
foreign substances “janitor of the cell” Anabolism - the substances needed by
organisms to grow, store energy. and repair
Centrioles tissues are synthesized or put together.

PAGE 2 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

Catabolism - some complex 250 TYA

substances are broken down, releasing the  The cenezoic era, recent life and based on
energy stored in their molecules. paleontological evidence. Homo erectus
have evolved.
3. Living Things Grow and Develop
[Link] Things Respond to Stimuli B  Prokaryote and eukaryote
Stimulus (plural: stimuli) is a signal or
change in the environment of the organism that
produces a response or reaction from that
organism
.
5. Living Things Interact
6. Living Things Reproduce
7. Living Things Adapt and Evolve
8. Living Things Have Organized Structure

4.6 - 3.8 BYA

 The early is said to be violent because of
the meteorites and volcanic eruptions. Prokaryotic cells were here first and for
With this condition, zircon crystal was formed billions of years were the only form of life on
Earth. All prokaryotic organisms are unicellular
3.5 BYA
 life on Earth initially began with Eukaryotic cells appeared on earth long after
prokaryotes, discovered in sedimentary prokaryotic cells but they are much more
rock formations called stromatolites advanced. Eukaryotic organisms unlike
prokaryotic can be unicellular or multicellular.
3.0 BYA
 The first photosyntheticorganism thrived
the earth which is blue green aigae called C  Characteristics of Prokaryote
cyanobacteria,
 Prokaryotes are the simplest type of cell.
 Oldest type of cell appeared about four
billion years ago.
2.0 BYA
 Prokaryotes are the largest group of
 Appearance of the Tist eukaryotes andThe
organisms
influx o multicellularorganisms occurred
 Prokaryotes unicellular organisms that are
1.2 billion years ago.
found in all environments.
 Prokaryotes do not have a nuclear
500 MYA
membrane. Their circular shaped genetic
 The Poleozoic era when the trilobites and
material dispersed throughout cytoplasm.
cephalopods became dominant in the
 Prokaryotes do not have membrane-bound
ocean parlicularly during the Cambrian and
organelles.
Ordovicion.
 Prokaryotes have a simple internal
structure.
251 - 65.5 MYA
 Prokaryotes are smaller in size when
 The Mesozolc era-the age of reptiles that
compared to Eukaryotes.
has a span of 251 to 65.5 MYAdivided into
Triassic, Jurassic and Crefaceous period

PAGE 3 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

Both types of cells have a liquid environment

known as the cytoplasm

Photosynthetic: energy from sunlight

Disease-causing: feed on living things
Decomposers: feed on dead things
Eukaryotes are bigger and more complicated
Organelles are membrane-bound cell parts.

E  Cell structures

Cell membrane
 delicate lipid and protein skin around
cytoplasm
 found in all cells
Cocci = spherical (round)
Bacillus = (rod shaped) Nucleus
Spirilla = helical (spiral)  a membrane-bound sac evolved to store
the cell’s chromosomes(DNA)
D  Characteristics of Eukaryote  has pores: holes
 Eukaryotic cells appeared approximately Ribosomes
one billion years ago  build proteins from amino acids in
 Eukaryotes are generally more advanced cytoplasm
than prokaryotes  may be free-floating, or
 Nuclear membrane surrounds linear  may be attached to ER
genetic material (DNA)  made of RNA
 Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have
several different parts. Endoplasmic reticulum
 Prokaryote’s organelles have coverings  may be smooth: builds lipids and
known as membranes. carbohydrates
 Eukaryotes have a complex internal  may be rough: stores proteins made by
structure. attached ribosomes
 Eukaryotes are larger than prokaryotes in
size .
prokaryotes eukaryotes
 Organelles lack a  Organelles
Differences membrane covered by a
 Ribosomes are the membrane
only organelles  Multiple organelles
 Genetic material including
Similarities floats in the ribosomes
cytoplasm (DNA  Membrane
prokaryotes eukaryotes and RNA) covered Genetic
Both types of cells have cell membranes  Circular DNA material
(outer covering of the cell)  Unicellular  Linear DNA
 Cells are smaller in May be
Both types of cells have ribosomes size multicellular or
Both types of cells have DNA  Has larger number unicellular
of organisms  Cells are larger in
 Appeared 4 billion size
years ago  Has smaller
PAGE 4 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper
number of
organisms
 Appeared 1 billion
years ago
‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

on the
Golgi Complex ehad for
 takes in sacs of raw material from ER egg cell
 sends out sacs containing finished cell entry
products Egg cell Carries  Large and
genetic bulky
Lysosomes material  A
 sacs filled with digestive enzymes chemical
 digest worn out cell parts change in
 digest food absorbed by cell the
membrane
Cytoskeleton prevents
 made of microtubules fertilization
 found throughout cytoplasm of more
 gives shape to cell & moves than one
sperm
F  Cell specialization Nerve cell Carry nerve  Long, thin
impulses axon
CELL SPECIALIZATION through the  Branching
 also known as cell differentiation. body dendrites
It is the process by which generic cells change  myelinated
to different types of cells to be able to perform Muscle cell Facilitate  Elongated
special or specific functions. movement and elastic
 Numeroud
Specialized cells in animals mitochond
name Functions adaptation ria
Red blood Carry o2  No
cells throughout nucleus Specialized cells in plants
the body  Biconcave Guard cell Regulates  Cell
shape rate of wall has
 Contains transpiration varying
hemoglobi thickne
n ss
White blood Plays an  Irregular Root hair cell Absorbs  Long
cells important shape water and and thin
role in the  Can materials with
immune produce from the soil large
system antobodie surface
s and Photosyntheti Produces  Contain
antitoxins c cells food through s
Sperm cell Fertilize an  Long tail the process of numero
egg cell to to swim photosynthesi us
make a baby  Numerous s chloropl
mitochond ats
ria’ Xylem vessel Transport  Had
 With water and lignin
chemicals mineral from  No

PAGE 5 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

the roots to protopla

other parts of sm Cell division
the plant  Cells  All cells come from other living cells.
form a  You (and other living things) grow because
contino your cells get bigger and your number of
us tube cells gets larger.
 A single cell divides into two cells.
A  The cell cycle  Two cells divide into four, etc.
 Cells must also divide because old cells
G  Cell modification die and need new cells to replace them!

Cell modification Cell cycle

 Adaptations or changes acquired by the  regular sequence of growth and division
cell division that aids the cell in varioud that eukaryotic cells undergo.
beneficial ways  Prokaryotic cells undergo binary fission

Cilia Divided into three main stages:

 hair-like organelles extending from the cell 1. Interphase
surface  cell grows into its mature size, makes a
Types of cilia copy of its DNA, and prepares for division.
 • Non-motile or 2. Mitosis
primary cilia (sensory)  one copy of the DNA is distributed into
 • Motile (movement) each of its daughter cells
1 3. Cytokinesis
Interphase
 the cytoplasm divides and organelles are
distributed into the two new cells
Flagella
 long, whip-like, tail-like structures made of Interphase is made up of 3 separate parts.
protein filaments  G1 (growth phase)
 aids in movement -Cell doubles in size
-Cell produces all of the structures it
Villi or microvilli needs to carry out its functions
 small, slender, vascular, finger-like -Think of this phase as the cell just living
projections its normal life.
 increases surface area to increase Interphase is the stage that the cell is in for
absorption most of its life!

Pseudopods
 "false feet"
 temporary extensior of the cytoplasm  S ( DNA Copying)
 movement and ingestion (phagocytosis) -Cell makes a copy of its DNA
(replication)
-This happens because the new cell
needs all of the directions for its function and
survival.
-Think of this phase as placing the DNA
on a copy machine.
Cell Division

PAGE 6 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

 G2  Nucleus disappears
-Cell prepares to divide  Spindle fibers form in the cytoplasm
-Cell produces structures needed for  Spindle fibers attach to sister chromatids
cell division

-Think of this phase as the cell double

checking everything it needs to divide.

Sister Chromatids & Chromosomes

 Human somatic cells (any cell other than a
gamete) have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
– one from mom and one from dad. These
2. Metaphase (organizational phase)
are called homologous chromosomes.
 The chromosomes line up the middle of
Mitosis and Meiosis
A  mitosis
 If a cell wants to make a duplicate of itself,
it first must copy its DNA (part of a the cell with the help of spindle fibers
chromosome). attached to the centromere of
 The copies then must be separated & eachreplicated chromosome.
sorted into two sides of the cell.  The sister chromatids are pulled to the
 The cell then splits in two. Part of each center of the cell
parent is carried to the two new cells.  They line up in the middle of the cell
 Results in cells such as internal organs,
skin, bones, blood, etc.
 During mitosis, the cells’ copied genetic
material separates and the cell prepares to
split into two cells
 This allows the cell’s genetic material to
pass into the new cells
 The resulting daughter cells are genetically
identical!! 3. Anaphase (separation phase)
 The chromosomes split in the middle and
Where Do I Find DNA? the sister chromatids are pulled by the
spindle fibers to opposite poles of the cell.
 Chromosomes are in the nucleus of every  Spindle fibers begin to shorten
cell.  The sister chromatids are pulled to the
 Chromosomes are made up of DNA opposite ends of the cell
 Genes are pieces of DNA that contain the
instructions for building a protein.

 The Four Stages of Mitosis (PMAT)

1. Prophase (preparation phase)

 The DNA recoils, and the chromosomes
condense; the nuclear membrane
disappears, and the mitotic spindles begin
to form.

PAGE 7 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ General Biology⋅˚₊‧ 𐙚 ‧₊˚ ⋅

1st Semester | 2024-2025

4. Telophase

 The chromosomes, along with the

cytoplasm and its organelles and
membranes are divided into 2
portions. This diagram shows the end of
telophase.
 The sister chromatids arrive at the
opposite poles of the cell and begin to
unravel
 New nucleus begins to form

PAGE 8 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

After Mitosis: chromosomes compared to somatic cells
CYTOKINESIS (nonreproductive cells).
 Van Beneden then proposed that an egg
 The actual splitting of the daughter cells
and a sperm fuse to produce a zygote .
into two separate cells is called cytokinesis
and occurs differently in both plant and  The zygote contains two copies of each
animal cells. chromosome (one copy from the sperm
 Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and one copy from the egg). These are
 Results in two separate daughter cells with called homologous chromosomes.
identical nuclei  Fertilization is the name for the fusion of
REMEMBER! gametes.
Interphase Reduction Division
Prophase Since the sperm and the egg contain only half
the number of chromosomes, they cannot be
Metaphase
formed from mitosis.
Anaphase
Telophase Meiosis - the process of cell division that
produces gametes with half the number of
Cytokinesis
chromosomes as somatic cells
B  Meiosis Cell undergoes 2 rounds of cell division:
Meiosis - the process of cell division that  Meiosis 1
produces haploid gametes (half the number of  Meiosis 2
chromosomes: humans: 23) Humans have 46 chromosomes in their
somatic cells.

Meiosis I
Interphase
 Meiosis is preceded by interphase. The
chromosomes have not yet condensed.
 Preceded by Interphase- chromosomes
are replicated to form sister chromatids
 Sister chromatids are genetically identical
and joined at centromere
 Single centrosome replicates, forming 2
centrosomes
 The chromosomes have replicated, and
the chromatin begins to condense.

 In 1882, British cytologist Pierre-Joseph Meiosis Prophase I

van Beneden found different numbers of  The chromosomes are completely
chromosomes in different cells condensed. In meiosis (unlike mitosis), the
 Specifically, he observed that gametes homologous chromosomes pair with one
(sperm & egg) contain half the number of another

PAGE 9 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

 Individual chromosomes first become  The cell has divided into two daughter
visible cells. Nuclear membrane breaks down
-homologous chromosomes become again
closely associated in synapsis
-crossing over occurs Meiosis Metaphase II
 Crossing over is a complex series of  chromosomes line up in the center of
events in which DNA segments are the cell and are still held together
exchanged between nonsister or sister
chromatids. Meiosis Anaphase II
 The chromosomes move to opposite
Meiosis Metaphase I ends of the cell.
 The nuclear membrane dissolves and
Meiosis Telophase II & Cytokinesis
The Cell Cycle, Cancer, and Mutations
 With the formation of four cells, meiosis is
A Cancer
the homologous chromosomes attach to
REMEMBER!
the spindle fibers. They are preparing to go
to opposite poles. For many cells, the G1 checkpoint
 The homologous chromosomes line up in seems to be the most important
the center of the cell and are still held If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at
together the G1 checkpoint, it will usually
complete the S, G2, and M phases
Meiosis Anaphase I and divide
 The chromosomes move to opposite If the cell does not receive the go-
ends of the cell. ahead signal, it will exit the cycle,
 Spindle fibers shorten switching into a non-dividing state
 The homologous chromosomes are called the G0 phase
separated (the sister chromatids are still Most cells in your body can detect when
paired) they are overcrowding and signals are
 Independent assortment – random produced to stop dividing.
chromosomes move to each pole; some Your cells also know to only grow in
may be maternal and some may be certain areas and on particular
paternal substrates.
Cancer cells ignore these signals.
Meiosis Telophase I & Cytokinesis
 The cell begins to divide into two
over. Each of these prospective germ cells
daughter cells. It is important to
carries half the number of chromosomes of
understand that each daughter cell can get
somatic cells.
any combination of maternal and paternal
Cancer
chromosomes.
 is a disease of uncontrolled cell division. It
starts with a single cell that loses its control
Meiosis Prophase II
mechanisms due to a genetic mutation.

PAGE 10 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

That cell starts dividing without limit, and  Mutations in genes that are involved in
can potentially kill the host. mitosis
 Genes that regulate apoptosis
Normal cells are controlled by several factors.  Genes that regulate growth and aging
They stay in the G1 stage of the cell cycle  Genes that stimulate new blood vessel
until they are given a specific signal to enter growth
the S phase, in which the DNA replicates and  And genes that keep cells in particular
the cell prepares for division. Cancer cells areas
enter the S phase without waiting for a
signal. Let’s look a few ways that mutations can
happen.
Another control: Normal cells are mortal.
C Kinds of Mutations
This means that they can divide about 50 times
or so and then they lose the ability to divide Gene Mutations
and eventually die. This “clock” gets re-set  Gene mutations involving a change in one
during the formation of the gametes. Cancer or a few nucleotides are known as point
cells escape this process of mortality: they are mutations because they occur at a single
immortal and can divide endlessly. point in the DNA sequence.
Point mutations include substitutions,
If abnormal cells remain only at the original insertions, and deletions.
site, the lump is called a benign tumor.
Substitutions usually affect no more than a
Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues single amino acid.
and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to Only one amino acid will not be produced. The
other parts of the body, where they may form remaining sequence is fine. Hopefully, the
additional tumors protein created still works. 

Even though all cancer is genetic, just a small The effects of insertions or deletions are
portion—perhaps 5–10% —is inherited. more dramatic.
The addition or deletion of a nucleotide causes
Most cancers come from random mutations a shift in the grouping of codons (groups of 3
that develop in body cells during one's lifetime nucleotides).
—either as a mistake when cells are going Changes like these are called frameshift
through cell division or in response to injuries
B Mutations
from environmental agents such as radiation or
chemicals. mutations.

As was mentioned before, cancer, is caused Chromosomal Mutations

by a number of mutations. These mutations  Chromosomal mutations involve changes
can effect a number of genes. in the number or structure of
chromosomes.
These almost always include:

PAGE 11 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

 Chromosomal mutations include deletions, What is cell membrane?
duplications, inversions, and The cell membrane (also called the plasma
translocations. membrane or plasmalemma) is a biological
membrane separating the interior of a cell from
the outside environment

It appears in thin sections with the electron

microscope as a triple-layered structure about
7.5–10 nanometers thick

Deletion In 1895, Ernest Overton proposed that cell

 Deletions involve the loss of all or part of a membranes were made of lipids.
chromosome.
The lipid bilayer hypothesis, proposed in 1925
by Gorter and Grendel, created speculation in
the description of the cell membrane bilayer
structure based on crystallographic studies and
soap bubble observations.

Duplication Cell Membrane

 Duplications produce extra copies of parts  The cell membrane is flexible and allows a
of a chromosome. unicellular organism to move
1.
A Chemical Compositions

Lipids
 -four major classes of lipids are commonly
Inversion present in the plasma membrane:
 Inversions reverse the direction of parts of phospholipids (most abundant),
chromosomes. spingolipids, glycolipids and sterols (e.g.
cholesterol). All of them are amphipathic.
Cholesterol is abundant in mammalian cell
and is absent in prokaryotic cells

Translocation 2. Proteins
 Translocations occurs when part of one  -plasma membrane contains about 50%
chromosome breaks off and attaches to protein. Amount and type is variable.
another. Myelin cells contains about 25% protein
internal membranes of chloroplast and
mitochondria contains 50% protein.
Proteins of plasma membranes are of two
Polyploidy is the condition in which an types ectoproteins and endoproteins.
organism has extra sets of chromosomes. Plasma membranes contains structural

Cell Membrane

PAGE 12 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

proteins, transport proteins and enzymes.  Water can freely cross the membrane
Some of them acts as receptors.(enzymes  Ions and large molecules cannot cross
present in the plasma membrane are without assistance
Acetyl phosphatase, acid phosphatase,  Allow cell recognition
ATPase, RNAase, maltase, lactase,  Provide anchoring sites for filaments of
phospholipase etc) cytoskeleton
 Provide a binding site for enzymes
3. Carbohydrates-  Interlocking surfaces bind cells together
 they are present only in the plasma (junctions)
membrane and are present exterior  Contains the cytoplasm (fluid in cell)
(glycoproteins) or polar end of
phospholipids at the external surface of Membrane Structure
plasma membrane  Membranes consist of a phospholipid
bilayer combined with a variety of proteins
Phospolipids in a fluid mosaic arrangement
 Phospholipids (PL) molecule has a polar  The surfaces of cell membranes are
head and nonpolar tails hydrophilic (water-loving); the interiors are
 The polar head is charged and hydrophilic hydrophobic
(loves water) facing outward, contains a –
PO4 group & glycerol
 The nonpolar tails are hydrophobic (hates
water) facing inward contains 2 fatty acid
chains that are nonpolar
 When PL placed in water form spherical
bilayer Models of Plasma Membrane
1. Danieli and Davson Model
Membrane cholesterol  In 1935, Danielli and Davson studied
 The amount of cholesterol may vary with triglyceride lipid bilayers over a water
the type of membrane surface
 Plasma membranes have nearly one  They found that they arranged themselves
cholesterol per phospholipid molecule with the polar heads facing outward
 It always formed droplets (oil in water) and
the surface tension was much higher than
that of cells. Called as Sandwich model

 Keeps a cell intact

B Functions of plasma membrane
 Protective barrier
 Regulate transport in & out of cell
(selectively permeable)
 Small lipid-soluble molecules, e.g. oxygen
and carbon dioxide can pass easily

PAGE 13 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

Biological micromolecules
What is an organic molecules?
 Compounds made up of hydrocarbons
 Carbon and Hydrogen atoms!!
 Living/once living (YOU are Organic!)
 (Not CO2. It’s a gas!!!!!)
2. Robertsons model
 In 1965, Robertson noted the structure of
Macromolecules
membranes seen in the electron
There are four classes of biological
micrographs
macromolecules we will be looking at:
 He saw no spaces for pores in the electron
 Proteins
micrographs
 Lipids
 He hypothesized that the railroad track
 Carbohydrates
appearance came from the binding of
 Nucleic acids (This will be last)
osmium tetroxide to proteins and polar
groups of lipids
Biological Micromolecules
 Proposed unit membrane hypothesis
 All biological macro-molecule are organic,
meaning they all contain hydrocarbons…
Carbon atoms (with attached Hydrogens!)
Other elements may include Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulfur

3. Fluid mosaic Model

Polymers
 According to S. J. Singer and Garth
Poly- means MANY
Nicolson 1972, the biological membranes
Monomers- means polymers made up of
can be considered as a two-dimensional
many single units
liquid where all lipid and protein molecules
diffuse more or less freely
“Mono” means one
 Singer studied phospholipid bilayers and
SO… a polymer is made up of many
found that they can form a flattened
monomers!!
surface on water, with no requirement for a
protein coat
1. Carbohydrates
 It occurs in form of globular protein
C, H, O
 Widely accepted model
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
They are the main source of energy for the
body !Simple sugars - Monosaccharide
Glucose, for example (Yes it IS a monomer!!),
is the main product of photosynthesis!!

Complex Carbohydrates
 Long-term storage for energy

PAGE 14 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

 Polysaccharides - made up of glucose  STORED ENERGY  Broken down for
polymers energy
 Below is a part of the polymer starch!!  They INSULATE the body to help maintain
normal body temperature and they
 CUSHION the internal organs for
protection.
 Include waxes, Oils
 include steroids such as cholesterol and
the sex hormones estrogen and
Found in: Grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, testosterone
barley) Tubers such as potatoes are rich in  Anabolic steroids build muscle
starch.  They waterproof surfaces of animals,
plants, and fruits- these are waxes!
Cellulose  THINK: Waterproof, insulate, steroids,
 ALSO a glucose polymer energy, cushion…
 Offers the plant support
 Energy storage Remember the cell membrane?
 Makes up cell wall  PhosphoLIPID bilayer of the cell
 Food source for membrane? The fatty acid tails are lipids!
 seeds and plant bulbs  It’s semi-permeable, allowing only certain
molecules to diffuse across the membrane
Glycogen in Animals to enter or exit the cell.
 A branched polymer made up of numerous
glucose monomers Fat Made up of fatty acid monomers –
 Long-term energy storage found in the liver Glycerides that have a Glycerol Backbone
 Quickly broken down into glucose for (Circled) and a Fatty Acid Tail(s)
immediate energy
Triglycerides-
Complex Carbs and Energy Glycerol Group with 3 Fatty Acid Chains
 Starches, Cellulose and Glycogen are
broken down by proteins called enzymes  They are the major structural molecules in
(remember digestion in living things for growth and repair :
lysosomes!!??.....similar concept!) muscles, ligaments, tendons, bones, hair,
 Broken down into their monomers  skin, nails…IN FACT ALL CELL
Glucose MEMBRANES have protein in them
 Glucose is further broken down during  They make up antibodies in the immune
cellular respiration in the mitochondria for system
energy  They make up enzymes for helping
 About 36 ATP molecules of energy per chemical reactions
each glucose molecule!!!  They makeup non-steriod hormones which
 THINK: Proteins= membranes, enzymes,
2. Lipids antibodies, non-steriod hormones,
Mostly C,H and some O structural molecules, “MEANS”

PAGE 15 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

supposed to be there, like certain bacteria,
3. Proteins antibodies find the invader and stick
Made up of Mostly C, H, O and N (Some themselves onto it. White Blood cells
Sulfur) destroy the invaders (hopefully)
 Aside from the protein found in animal
sources…protein can also be found in Enzymes
fruits, vegetables, grains, and nuts. (it just  Speed up the rate of a chemical reaction (a
does not have as many amino acids) catalyst) by lowering the energy needed to
begin the reaction (Below)
Made up of Amino Acid Monomers!!!  Re-usable
 Remember protein synthesis????  Molecule specific – like a lock and key
Transcription and translation?  -Example: ONLY Lactase will break down
 A peptide bond bonds amino acids lactose. It will NEVER break down proteins
together
 Creates a polypeptide

The shapes of Proteins Determines it’s

Function!

Ribosomes are Proteins that are Involved in

Creating Proteins!!

Insulin
 Chemical signaler protein produced in Lactase breaks down lactose sugar
the pancreas
 Causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat
tissue to take up glucose from blood and
convert it to glycogen that can be stored in
the liver and muscles
 Diabetes is a condition when a person has
Pepsin breaks down proteins
high blood glucose (blood sugar), either
because insulin production is inadequate,
or because the body's cells do not respond
properly to insulin, or both.

Hemoglobin
Amylase breaks down amylose
A protein in red blood cells that carries
oxygen

Remember That Enzymes are substrate-

Antobodies specific !!!!!
 Antibodies are part of the immune system.
When something enters the body that isn’t Enzymes are affected by: Temperature

PAGE 16 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

5-40 celcius

pH Affects Enzyme Reactivity

 This enzyme functions in an environment
that has a pH of about 4, which is acidic

4. Nucleic Acid

The types of Nucleic Acids

 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
 RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

 Monomers are called Nucleotides

“DNA” is short for Deoxyribonucleic Acid

*Your genetic makeup!!

RNA Ribonucleic Acid

**Works with DNA to create proteins
 RNA DNA
 Single-Stranded  Double-Stranded
 Nitrogen bases double helix
Adenine (A),  Nitrogen bases
Cytosine (C), Adenine (A),
Guanine (G), Cytosine (C),
Uracil (U) Guanine (G),
 Remember NO Thymine (T)
Thymine (T)  Remember NO
 Ribose sugar Uracil (U)
 Deoxy-ribose
sugar

PAGE 17 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

1. Which of the following is not a structural DNA damage before replication. If
component of the cell membrane? conditions are unfavorable, the cell can
- DNA is not a structural component of enter a resting state called G0.
the cell membrane. Proteins, 9. What is the function of flagella found in plant
carbohydrates, and cholesterol are all cells?
essential components of the cell
- Flagella are not typically found in plant
membrane.
2. A disorder caused by uncontrolled cell cells. They are more commonly found in
growth due to malfunction of the cell cycle? some plant sperm cells (like in algae and
- The disorder is cancer. bryophytes) to help with movement.
3. How many chromosomes do humans have 10. Which phase of the cell cycle does the cell
in each cell in the diploid stage? physically divide into two daughter cells?
- Humans have 46 chromosomes in each - The cell physically divides into two
cell in the diploid stage (23 pairs).
daughter cells during cytokinesis, which
4. What is the correct sequence of these
stages? a. chromosomes become follows telophase in mitosis or meiosis.
_______________ 11. How does the structure of the endoplasmic
- Without seeing the complete question, reticulum relate to its function?
it's likely asking for a step in mitosis. One - The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has two
possible stage could be "chromosomes types: rough and smooth. The rough ER,
become visible" (which happens in with its ribosome-studded surface, is
prophase of mitosis when the chromatin
specialized for protein synthesis and
condenses into visible chromosomes).
folding. The smooth ER, lacking ribosomes,
5. Shara's explanation about mitosis: is responsible for lipid synthesis,
- Shara's explanation that mitosis involves a detoxification, and calcium ion storage. Its
single division resulting in two daughter cells extensive, folded membrane structure
that are genetically identical is CORRECT. increases surface area, aiding these
However, if she mentioned "three mitosis," it processes.
might have been a typo or misunderstanding,
12. What is the main characteristic that
as mitosis refers to a single process, not a
repeated event. distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic
cells?
6. Which type of plant cell is responsible for - The primary difference is that
storing starch and oil? prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound
- Parenchyma cells store starch, oil, and nucleus and other membrane-bound
other nutrients in plants. organelles, while eukaryotic cells have both
7. Why do roots develop root hairs on the feet? a nucleus and organelles such as the
- Root hairs increase the surface area of mitochondria, ER, and Golgi apparatus.
the root, which enhances the plant's ability 13. A type of cell responsible for producing
to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. antibodies?
- B cells (a type of white blood cell) are
8. Which of the following statements about the responsible for producing antibodies.
G1 checkpoint is correct? When activated, they differentiate into
- The G1 checkpoint ensures the cell is plasma cells that secrete antibodies.
ready to enter the S phase by checking for
adequate size, nutrient availability, and

PAGE 18 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

14. A statement about the fluid mosaic model - Simple diffusion: Movement of small,
of the cell membrane? nonpolar molecules like oxygen and carbon
- The fluid mosaic model describes the dioxide.
- Facilitated diffusion: Uses transport
cell membrane as a flexible layer of lipid
proteins to move molecules like glucose or
molecules interspersed with proteins. The ions.
lipids provide fluidity, allowing proteins and - Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a
other components to move within the layer, selectively permeable membrane.
which is essential for membrane flexibility,
functionality, and cell signaling. 18. Lock-and-Key Hypothesis:
15. Parts of the membrane to study: - The LOCK-AND-KEY HYPOTHESIS
explains how enzymes work. According to
- Phospholipid bilayer: Provides a semi-
this model, the enzyme's active site (the
permeable barrier. "lock") has a specific shape that fits only a
- Integral proteins: Embedded within the particular substrate (the "key"). When the
membrane, involved in transport and cell substrate binds to the enzyme, it forms an
communication. enzyme-substrate complex, allowing the
- Peripheral proteins: Attached to the enzyme to catalyze the chemical reaction.
membrane surface, often involved in signaling This model highlights the enzyme's
specificity for its substrate.
or structural support.
19. What is the name of the cellular structure
- Cholesterol: Provides stability and fluidity
increases surface area of a cell who aid on
to the membrane.
absorption and secretion?
- Carbohydrate chains: Found on the outer
-The cellular structure that increases the
surface, involved in cell recognition and
surface area of a cell to aid in absorption
communication (glycoproteins and glycolipids).
and secretion is called MICROVILLI.
16. A process that enables large molecules like
20. What do you call the organelle that
fats and proteins to cross the cell membrane?
- ENDOCYTOSIS is a process that allows responsible for storage of enzymes that are
large molecules like fats and proteins to involving break down of lipids,
enter the cell. Specifically, phagocytosis carbohydrates…?
and pinocytosis are types of endocytosis -The organelle responsible for storing
where the cell engulfs large particles and enzymes that break down lipids and
fluids, respectively. Proteins can also be carbohydrates is called a LYSOSOME.
transported by exocytosis when they are
Lysosomes are membrane-bound
exported out of the cell.
17. Active and Passive Transport (Study): organelles that contain a variety of
Active Transport: hydrolytic enzymes, including lipases (for
- Moves molecules against the concentration lipids) and glycosidases (for
gradient (from low to high concentration). carbohydrates). These enzymes break
- Requires energy (usually in the form of down large molecules into smaller ones,
ATP). aiding in cellular recycling, waste
- Example: Sodium-potassium pump.
management, and the supply of nutrients.
Passive Transport: 21. A scientist is studying a particular enzyme
- Moves molecules with the concentration and has found that it has lost its ability to
gradient (from high to low concentration). function properly. Base on your understanding
- No energy required. of enzyme components, which of the following
- Types include: is responsible for the loss of function?

PAGE 19 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper

-The most likely reason for an enzyme to
lose its function is a change in its SHAPE,
specifically a conformational
change or denaturation.
22. At the definite change inside of enzymes at
which the chemical substance attach itself.
- ACTIVE SITE
23. What is called when enzyme shape is
change?
- DENATURE?
24. An enzyme shows maximal at ph7, at ph 9
the enzymes activity decreases significantly?
Which of the ff statement is true?
- (b) the pH has caused the enzyme to
denature
25. Enzyme shows maximal activity at 40
degrees Celsius, at 60-degree Celsius the
enzyme activity decreases significantly. Which
of the following statement is true.
- B. Denature?
26. What is the optimal ph foremost enzyme in
the human body?
-4

PAGE 20 Transcribe by: Bella | Cooper