CHAPTER 1: CELLS 1.1.1.

Plasma Membrane
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Function of the Plasma Membrane:
-​ Flexible, transparent barrier enclosing cell
1.0. Cells as Structural Units contents.
Cells as Structural Units: -​ Separates internal cell environment from the
●​ Cells are the basic structural units of all living external environment.
organisms. -​ Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with
●​ They range from single-celled organisms (e.g., embedded proteins, cholesterol, and
amoebas) to complex multicellular organisms glycolipids.
(e.g., humans, dogs, trees).
●​ The human body contains 50 to 100 trillion
cells.

Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life:

Four Concepts of Cell Theory:

-​ Basic Unit: A cell is the basic structural and

functional unit of living organisms.
Fluid Mosaic Model:
-​ Activity of Organisms: The activity of an
organism depends on the collective activities
●​ Phospholipid Bilayer:
of its cells.
-​ Hydrophilic "heads" face outward,
-​ Complementarity Principle: Cell activities are
toward water (intracellular
dictated by their structure (anatomy), which
/extracellular fluids).
determines function (physiology).
-​ Hydrophobic "tails" align inward,
-​ Continuity of Life: Cells arise from pre-existing
avoiding water.
cells.
●​ Cholesterol
-​ Stabilizes and maintains membrane
Composition of Cells:
flexibility.
●​ Proteins
-​ Cells are made primarily of four elements:
-​ Perform various functions such as
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
enzymes, transport, and cell
-​ They also contain smaller amounts of several
recognition.
other elements.
●​ Glycoproteins
-​ Living cells are approximately 60% water,
-​ Sugar-coated proteins involved in
highlighting the importance of water for life.
cell recognition and interaction.

1.1. Anatomy of a Generalized Cell

Generalized Cell:
-​ Cells share basic parts and common functions.

Cell Junctions:
Three Major Regions:
●​ Tight Junctions
-​ Plasma Membrane: Outer cell boundary. -​ Impermeable, seal cells together,
-​ Nucleus: Typically near the cell center. prevent leakage (e.g., in the
-​ Cytoplasm: Semifluid substance surrounding intestine).
the nucleus. ●​ Desmosomes
-​ Anchoring junctions, prevent cells
from being pulled apart (e.g., in
heart muscle, skin).
-​ Button-like thickenings of adjacent Chromatin:
plasma membranes (plaques) that
are connected by fine protein -​ Composed of DNA wound around proteins
filaments. called histones and appears as a loose
●​ Gap Junctions network of "beads on a string" when the cell is
-​ Communication channels allow the not dividing.
passage of molecules (e.g., in the -​ During cell division, chromatin condenses to
heart, embryonic cells). form chromosomes.
-​ These junctions are commonly
found in the heart and between
1.1.3. The Cytoplasm
embryonic cells.
Cytoplasm
-​ The neighboring cells are connected
-​ Outside the nucleus, inside the plasma
by hollow cylinders composed of
membrane.
proteins (called connexons) that
-​ Site of most cellular activities, often referred
span the entire width of the
to as the "factory floor" of the cell.
abutting membranes.

1.1.2. The Nucleus

Function of the Nucleus:
-​ Acts as the control center or "headquarters" of
the cell.
-​ Contains DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), the
blueprint for building the body and essential
for cell reproduction.
-​ DNA houses genes responsible for protein
synthesis.

Nucleus Shape:
-​ Generally oval or spherical.
-​ Conforms to the shape of the cell.s.

Cytosol:

-​ A semi-transparent fluid that suspends cellular

elements.
-​ Contains nutrients and solutes dissolved in
water.

Inclusions:
Nuclear Envelope:
-​ Chemical substances that may or may not be
-​ A double membrane barrier called the nuclear present, depending on the cell type.
envelope, or nuclear membrane. -​ Most inclusions are stored nutrients or cell
-​ At various points, the two layers of the nuclear -​ products floating in the cytosol.
envelope fuse, generating openings called -​ Examples include lipid droplets (fat cells),
nuclear pores. glycogen granules (liver/muscle cells),
-​ Contains fluid-filled spaces between layers pigments (melanin in skin/hair), mucus, and
and large nuclear pores for selective crystals.
substance passage. -​ Acts as a cellular "pantry" for storing items
-​ The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike fluid
called nucleoplasm
Organelles:

Nucleolus (Nucleoli):
-​ Specialized cellular compartments, often
referred to as the cell's "little organs."
-​ Dark-staining, round bodies within the nucleus. -​ Act as the cell's metabolic machinery, with
-​ Site of ribosome assembly, which later moves each type performing specific functions
to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. essential for the cell's overall operation.
-​ Many organelles are enclosed by membranes,
similar to the plasma membrane. This allows
them to maintain a distinct internal
environment crucial for their specialized roles.

Organelles

Mitochondria

●​ Beanlike or sausage-shaped, changes shape

continuously in living cells.
●​ Double membrane; outer membrane is smooth,
inner membrane has cristae (shelflike
protrusions).
●​ Carries out reactions where oxygen breaks
down food to release energy.
●​ Produces ATP, the primary energy source for
cellular activities.
●​ Abundant in metabolically active cells (e.g., Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
liver, muscle cells).
●​ Replicate by pinching in half. ●​ Structure:a system of fluid-filled tunnels (or
canals) that coil and twist through the
Ribosomes cytoplasm.
●​ It is continuous with the nuclear envelope and
accounts for about half of a cell’s membranes.
●​ Structure: Tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of
●​ It serves as a mini circulatory system for the
proteins and ribosomal RNA.
cell because it provides a network of channels
●​ Function: Sites of protein synthesis.
for carrying substances (primarily proteins)
●​ Free Ribosomes: Produce proteins for use
from one part of the cell to another.
within the cell.
●​ Attached Ribosomes: Found on rough ER,
produce proteins for export or for the cell’s Types:
exterior surface.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER):

●​ Studded with ribosomes, giving it a "rough"

appearance.
●​ Functions as the cell's membrane factory.
●​ Synthesizes proteins, which are folded into
functional shapes within the ER.
●​ Proteins are transported to other parts of the
cell in membrane-bound sacs called transport
vesicles.
●​ Abundant in cells that produce and secrete
proteins (e.g., pancreatic cells).

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER):

●​ Lacks ribosomes and does not synthesize

proteins.
●​ Involved in lipid metabolism (cholesterol and
phospholipid synthesis and breakdown).
●​ Plays a role in detoxifying drugs and
pesticides.
●​ Common in liver cells and cells that produce
steroid-based hormones (e.g., male testes
cells).
Golgi Apparatus: ●​ Determines cell shape, supports organelles,
and facilitates intracellular transport and
●​ Appears as a stack of flattened membranous cellular movement.
sacs.
●​ Located near the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Composed of three main components:
●​ Functions as the "traffic director" for cellular
proteins. Microfilaments (e.g., actin): Involved in cell motility and
●​ Modifies, packages, and ships proteins shape changes.
received from the rough ER.
●​ Proteins are initially stored in Golgi vesicles. Intermediate filaments: Strong, stable fibers that help
●​ Golgi vesicles swell with proteins and pinch off form desmosomes and provide resistance to pulling
to form secretory vesicles. forces.
●​ Secretory vesicles travel to the plasma
membrane, fuse with it, and release their
Microtubules: Tubelike structures made of tubulin that
contents outside the cell (e.g., mucus, digestive
determine cell shape and organelle distribution; crucial
enzymes).
during cell division.
●​ Also packages proteins and phospholipids for
integration into the plasma membrane or
other cellular membranes. Centrioles:
●​ Forms lysosomes by packaging hydrolytic
enzymes into membrane-bound organelles ●​ Near the nucleus, forming the centrosome.
that remain within the cell. ●​ Rod-shaped, positioned at right angles to each
other.
Lysosomes ●​ Composed of a pinwheel arrangement of nine
triplets of microtubules.
●​ Generate microtubules.
●​ Membranous sacs containing powerful
●​ Direct the formation of the mitotic spindle
digestive enzymes.
during cell division.
●​ Function as the cell's "stomachs," digesting
worn-out cell structures and foreign
substances. 1.1.4. Cell Extensions
●​ Especially abundant in white blood cells Cilia and Flagelle
(phagocytes) that dispose of bacteria and cell Cilia:
debris.
●​ Enzymes within lysosomes are produced by ●​ Whiplike cellular extensions.
ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum ●​ Move substances along the cell surface (e.g.,
(ER) and are packaged by the Golgi mucus in the respiratory system).
apparatus. ●​ Many cilia project from the exposed cell
surface.
Peroxisomes ●​ Centrioles multiply and align beneath the
plasma membrane. Microtubules sprout from
centrioles and push against the membrane to
●​ Membranous sacs containing oxidase
form cilia.
enzymes.
●​ Use molecular oxygen (O2) to detoxify harmful
substances like alcohol and formaldehyde. Flagella:
●​ Main function is to neutralize free radicals,
which are reactive chemicals that can damage ●​ Longer cellular projections.
proteins and nucleic acids. ●​ Propel the cell itself.
●​ Convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide ●​ Example in Humans: Sperm cell tail.
(H2O2); the enzyme catalase then converts ●​ Similar process to cilia, but the projections are
excess H2O2 to water. longer.
●​ Especially abundant in liver and kidney cells,
which are active in detoxification. Microvilli:
●​ Unlike lysosomes, they do not arise from the
Golgi apparatus but replicate by pinching in ●​ Tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
half or budding directly from the ER. membrane.
●​ Increase the cell's surface area significantly.
Cytoskeleton: ●​ Found on cells involved in absorption, such as
intestinal and kidney tubule cells.
●​ Have a core of actin filaments that extend into
●​ An elaborate network of protein structures the internal cytoskeleton to stiffen the
throughout the cytoplasm. microvillus.
●​ Acts as the cell's "bones and muscles," ●​ Note: Microvilli are extensions of the plasma
membrane and do not involve microtubules.
providing an internal framework.
1.1.5. Cell Diversity
Cell Diversity
The human body contains over 200 different cell types,
varying greatly in size, shape, and function. Here are
some examples:

Cells that Connect Body Parts

Fibroblast:

Elongated shape, similar to the fibers it secretes. Has

abundant rough ER and a large Golgi apparatus to
produce and secrete protein building blocks of these
fibers.

Erythrocyte (Red Blood Cell):

Biconcave disc shape for carrying oxygen. Provides extra

surface area for oxygen uptake and streamlined flow
through the bloodstream. Packed with oxygen-carrying
pigment, so other organelles are absent.

Cells that Cover and Line Body Organs

Epithelial Cell:

Hexagonal shape, allowing tight packing into sheets.

Abundant intermediate filaments and desmosomes resist
tearing.

Cells that Move Organs and Body Parts

Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscle Cells:

Elongated shape filled with contractile microfilaments.

Shorten forcefully to move bones, pump blood, or change
organ size.

Cell that Stores Nutrients

Fat Cell:

Spherical shape due to a large lipid droplet in the

cytoplasm.

Cell that Fights Disease

Macrophage (White Blood Cell):

Extends long pseudopods to crawl through tissue and

reach infection sites. Contains many lysosomes for
digesting microorganisms.
Cell that Gathers Information and Controls Body 1.2. Cell Physiology
Functions Each of the cell’s internal parts is designed for a
specific function. Most cells can:
Nerve Cell (Neuron):
●​ Metabolize: Use nutrients to build new cell
Long processes for receiving and transmitting messages. material, break down substances, and produce
Extensive plasma membrane and plentiful rough ER for ATP.
synthesizing membrane components and ●​ Digest foods.
neurotransmitters. ●​ Dispose of wastes.
●​ Reproduce.
●​ Grow.
Cells of Reproduction
●​ Move.
●​ Respond to stimuli (irritability).
Oocyte (Female Egg Cell):

1.2.1 Membrane Transport

Largest cell in the body, containing several copies of all
Membrane Transport
organelles for distribution to daughter cells during
The fluid environment on both sides of the plasma
embryo development.
membrane is a solution.

Sperm (Male): A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more

components.
Long and streamlined with a flagellum for propulsion to
the egg for fertilization Examples include:

Air: A mixture of gasses.

Seawater: A mixture of water and salts.
Rubbing alcohol: A mixture of water and alcohol.

In a solution:

Solvent:

The substance present in the largest amount. Water is the

body's chief solvent.

Solutes:

Components present in smaller amounts, too tiny to be

seen with the naked eye and do not settle out.

Intracellular Fluid and Extracellular Fluid

Intracellular Fluid:

This includes the nucleoplasm and cytosol, containing

small amounts of gasses (oxygen and carbon dioxide),
nutrients, and salts dissolved in water.

Extracellular Fluid (Interstitial Fluid):

This fluid bathes the exterior of cells and acts like a rich,
nutritious "soup," containing:

-​ Nutrients: Amino acids, sugars, fatty acids,

vitamins.
-​ Regulatory Substances: Hormones,
neurotransmitters.
-​ Salts and Waste Products.

.
Plasma Membrane

Selective Permeability:

The plasma membrane allows some substances to pass

through while excluding others. This mechanism:

-​ Permits nutrients to enter the cell.

-​ Keeps undesirable or unnecessary substances
out.
-​ Retains valuable cell proteins and substances.
-​ Allows waste to exit the cell.

Transport Methods

Passive Processes:

Substances move across the membrane without energy

input from the cell.

Active Processes:

The cell uses metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the

transport process.

Passive Processes: Diffusion and Filtration

Diffusion:

●​ Molecules (and ions) move from areas of

higher concentration to lower concentration.
●​ Driven by kinetic energy, resulting in random
motion and collisions.
●​ Movement continues until equilibrium is
reached.
●​ Faster diffusion occurs with a greater
concentration gradient.

Factors Affecting Diffusion:

●​ Molecule Size: Smaller molecules diffuse faster.

●​ Temperature: Higher temperatures increase
the rate of diffusion. Types of Diffusion

Example: Tea bag in boiling water: Tea molecules diffuse Simple Diffusion:
from the bag into the water, spreading out evenly
without stirring. ●​ Unassisted diffusion of lipid-soluble solutes
through the plasma membrane.
Diffusion through Plasma Membrane: ●​ Includes substances like fats, fat-soluble
vitamins, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
●​ Hydrophobic core: Acts as a barrier to
diffusion. Osmosis:
●​ Molecules can diffuse if:
-​ They are small enough to pass ●​ Diffusion of water through a selectively
through membrane pores (channels permeable membrane (e.g., plasma
formed by membrane proteins). membrane).
-​ They are lipid-soluble. ●​ Water is polar and repelled by the nonpolar
-​ They are assisted by a membrane lipid core of the membrane.
carrier.
●​ Water passes through special pores called Active Transport:
aquaporins (water pores) created by
membrane proteins. ●​ Also known as solute pumping.
●​ Water moves down its concentration gradient. ●​ Moves substances against their concentration
●​ Osmosis occurs continuously into and out of gradients using ATP.
cells. ●​ Requires protein carriers (solute pumps).
●​ Movement of water across the membrane is ●​ ATP energizes solute pumps, allowing
rapid. movement "uphill" against the diffusion
direction.
Facilitated Diffusion:
Example: The sodium-potassium (Na⁺-K⁺) pump
●​ Provides passage for substances that are alternates transporting sodium ions (Na⁺) out of the cell
lipid-insoluble, too large, or charged (e.g., and potassium ions (K⁺) into the cell. This process is
glucose, chloride ions). crucial for nerve impulse transmission. Sodium ions are
●​ Follows diffusion laws: substances move down more concentrated outside the cell, and potassium ions
their concentration gradients. are more concentrated inside. ATP is used to
●​ Does not require ATP (passive transport). phosphorylate the pump, enabling it to transport ions
●​ Protein Channel: Allows passage of ions like against their gradients.
chloride.
●​ Carrier Protein: Assists in moving glucose and
other solutes.
Vesicular Transport:
Filtration
●​ Moves substances into or out of cells in bulk
●​ The process where water and solutes are using membrane vesicles.
pushed through a membrane by hydrostatic ●​ Requires ATP for vesicle fusion or separation
pressure. with the cell membrane.
●​ Process: Hydrostatic pressure, usually from the ●​ Does not involve substances crossing the
blood, pushes solute-containing fluid from a plasma membrane directly.
higher-pressure area through the membrane
to a lower-pressure area.
Types of Vehicular Transport:
●​ Filtration is less selective. It mainly retains
blood cells and large protein molecules,
Exocytosis:
allowing smaller solutes to pass through.

Mechanism for secreting hormones, mucus, and other

Example: In the kidneys, blood pressure forces water and
products or ejecting cellular wastes.
small solutes from capillaries into kidney tubules, forming
filtrate, which eventually becomes urine.
Process:

●​ Product is packaged into a secretory vesicle

(usually by the Golgi apparatus).
●​ Vesicle migrate to the plasma membrane.
●​ Vesicle fuse with the plasma membrane and
ruptures, releasing contents outside the cell.
●​ Docking: Docking proteins on vesicles bind
with plasma membrane docking proteins,
causing membranes to fuse.

Active Processes

Active transport requires ATP to move substances across

the cell membrane when diffusion is not possible. This
need arises due to size, lack of specific carriers, inability
to dissolve in the lipid core, or movement against
concentration gradients.
fluid containing dissolved proteins or fats.
●​ Routine activity of most cells, especially
important for cells involved in absorption (e.g.,
lining of the small intestine).

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis:

●​ Main mechanism for taking up specific target

molecules.
●​ Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane
bind with specific substances.
●​ Both receptors and bound target molecules
are internalized in a vesicle.
●​ Vesicle contents are processed accordingly.
●​ Selective process compared to phagocytosis
and pinocytosis.
●​ Specific substances taken in include enzymes,
hormones, cholesterol, and iron.
●​ Flu viruses exploit this route to enter and
infect cells.

Endocytosis:

ATP-requiring process for taking up or engulfing

extracellular substances.

Process:

●​ Extracellular substances are enclosed in a

vesicle.
●​ Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane
and moves into the cytoplasm.
●​ Typically fuses with a lysosome for digestion.
●​ In some cases, vesicle contents are released
by exocytosis on the opposite side of the cell.

Types of endocytosis include:

Phagocytosis:

●​ Engulfs large particles like bacteria or dead

cells using pseudopods.
●​ Also known as "cell eating."
●​ Performed by certain white blood cells (e.g.,
macrophages) and other phagocytes.
●​ Acts as a protective mechanism to remove
foreign debris, not for nutrient intake.

Pinocytosis:

●​ Also called "cell drinking."

●​ Involves the cell "gulping" droplets of
extracellular fluid.
●​ Plasma membrane forms a pit that engulfs the
1.2.2. Cell Division
Cell Life Cycle:
Series of changes a cell undergoes from formation to
division.

Two Major Periods:

Interphase:

●​ Cell grows and performs its usual metabolic

activities.
●​ Preparations for cell division occur.
●​ Not a resting period; the cell is highly active.
●​ Could be more accurately called the
"metabolic phase."

Cell Division:

●​ The cell reproduces itself.

●​ Includes the processes of mitosis (nuclear
division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic
division).

DNA Replication:

●​ Ensures all body cells have identical genetic

material for growth and repair.
●​ Occurs toward the end of interphase.

Process:

Unzipping:

-​ DNA helix separates into two nucleotide

chains.

Template Strands:

-​ Each strand serves as a template for a new

nucleotide strand.

Complementary Bonding:

-​ Adenine (A) bonds to thymine (T).

-​ Guanine (G) bonds to cytosine (C).

Sequence Determination:

-​ The nucleotide order on the template strand

determines the sequence of the new strand.
Events of Cell Division:

1. Mitosis:

●​ Division of the nucleus into two daughter

nuclei with identical genetic material.
●​ Preceding Event: DNA replication, ensuring
the nucleus temporarily contains double the
genes.
●​ Outcome: Each daughter nucleus has the
same genetic information as the original
mother nucleus.

2. Cytokinesis:

●​ Division of the cytoplasm.

●​ Timing: Begins when mitosis is nearly
complete.
●​ Result: Separation of the cytoplasm into two
distinct cells, each with its own nucleus.
Cytokinesis:
Stages of Mitosis:
●​ Division of the cytoplasm following mitosis.
Prophase: ●​ Timing: Begins during late anaphase and
completes during telophase.

●​ Chromatin coils and shortens into visible

chromosomes. Process:
●​ Each chromosome consists of two identical
sister chromatids connected by a centromere. Formation of Contractile Ring:
●​ Centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell
and form a mitotic spindle (microtubules). -​ Microfilaments form a cleavage furrow over
●​ Nuclear envelope and nucleoli break down. the midline of the spindle.
●​ Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers via -​ The ring contracts, pinching the cytoplasm into
centromeres. two separate parts.

Metaphase: Result:

●​ Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate -​ Two daughter cells are formed, each with less
(center of the spindle). cytoplasm than the original mother cell.
●​ Creates a straight line of chromosomes. -​ Daughter cells are genetically identical to the
mother cell and enter interphase to perform
Anaphase: normal activities until their next division.

●​ Centromeres split, separating sister Sometimes cytokinesis does not occur, leading to:
chromatids.
●​ Chromatids (now chromosomes) move toward -​ Binucleate Cells: Cells with two nuclei.
opposite ends of the cell. -​ Multinucleate Cells: Cells with multiple nuclei.
●​ Chromosomes are pulled by half-centromeres, -​ Common in the liver and in skeletal muscle
with their arms trailing. formation.

Telophase:

●​ Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin at

opposite ends of the cell.
●​ Spindle breaks down and disappears.
●​ Nuclear envelope forms around each
chromatin mass.
●​ Nucleoli reappear in each daughter nucleus.
1.2.3. Protein Synthesis The Role of RNA:
Protein Synthesis:
Function of DNA:
Importance of Proteins:
-​ DNA contains coded instructions for protein
-​ Fibrous (Structural) Proteins: Major building synthesis but cannot leave the nucleus.
materials for cells. -​ Requires decoding and a messenger to convey
-​ Globular (Functional) Proteins: Perform instructions to ribosomes.
various functions, including enzymes that
speed up chemical reactions. Types of RNA and Their Functions:

Process: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):

-​ Location: Occurs at ribosomes. -​ Helps form ribosomes, where protein synthesis

-​ Components: Uses information from DNA and occurs.
nucleic acid RNA.
Messenger RNA (mRNA):
Genes: The Blueprint for Protein Structure:
-​ Long, single nucleotide strands.
DNA's Role: -​ Carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to
ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
-​ Serves as the master blueprint for protein
synthesis. Transfer RNA (tRNA):
-​ Definition of a Gene: A DNA segment that
provides instructions for building a specific -​ Small, cloverleaf-shaped molecules.
protein. -​ Escorts amino acids to the ribosome for
protein synthesis.
Encoding Protein Information:
RNA Overview:
Base Sequences:
Differences from DNA:
-​ DNA information is encoded in sequences of
three bases (triplets). -​ Single-stranded.
-​ Each triplet codes for a specific amino acid. -​ Contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose.
-​ Uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
Examples:

AAA → Phenylalanine

CCT → Glycine

Variations: Different arrangements of bases (A, C, T, G)

enable the production of diverse proteins.

Gene and Genome Details:

-​ Single gene length: 300 to 2 million base pairs.

-​ Human genome: 20,000 to 25,000 genes.
The Process of Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis consists of two main phases: 2. Translation

transcription and translation.

-​ The process of converting mRNA information

into a protein.
-​ Occurs in the cytoplasm.

Process for Translation:

-​ mRNA Attachment: mRNA binds to a

ribosome.
-​ tRNA Role:
●​ Amino Acid Delivery: tRNA brings
amino acids to the ribosome.
●​ Anticodons: tRNA has anticodons
that match mRNA codons to ensure
correct amino acid sequence.
-​ Peptide Bond Formation: Amino acids are
linked together by peptide bonds, forming the
protein.
-​ Ribosome Movement: The ribosome moves
along the mRNA strand, facilitating the
addition of amino acids.

Final Steps:

-​ Protein Folding: The chain of amino acids

folds into its final structure.
-​ tRNA Release: Each tRNA releases its amino
acid and returns to pick up another.
1. Transcription -​ Termination: When the ribosome encounters a
stop codon, the completed protein is released

-​ The process of making a complementary

mRNA copy from a DNA gene.
-​ Transfer genetic information from DNA to
mRNA.

Process for Transcription:

-​ DNA Template: DNA serves as the template for

mRNA synthesis.
-​ Enzyme Role: An enzyme facilitates the
creation of mRNA.

Triplets and Codons:

DNA Triplet:

-​ A sequence of three bases on DNA (e.g.,

AAT-CGT-TCG).

mRNA Codon:

-​ The corresponding sequence of three bases on

mRNA (e.g., UUA-GCA-AGC).