UNIT-IV
Perception: Definition; Factors influencing perception; Perceptual selectivity.
Personality: Definition; Determinants; Big Five Personality Model; Use of psychometric
test.
Organizational Culture: Definition; Functions; Factors influencing.
Organizational Climate: Definition; Dimensions
Perception is a process by which we organize and interpret sensory impressions to
give meaning to our environment.
● What we perceive can be substantially different from objective [Link]’s very unusual
to find universal agreement across people.
● The term originates from the Latin word "Perceptio"
● Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives
information about their environment – seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, and
smelling. These processes are influenced by three factors:
1. The objects or events being perceived
2. The environment in which perception occurs
3. The individual doing the perceiving.
Processes Involved in Perception : Perception is composed of six interconnected
processes:
1. Receiving – Initial sensory contact with stimuli
2. Selecting – Choosing relevant information from what is received
3. Organizing – Structuring selected information
4. Interpreting – Assigning meaning to the organized data
5. Checking – Validating interpretations
6. Reacting – Responding based on perception
Factors Influencing Perception
Perception is shaped by many factors which can be grouped into three categories:
1. Characteristics of the Perceiver- These are personal traits and mental states of the
person doing the perceiving.
● Attitudes: A person’s opinions or beliefs affect how they see others.
Example: If a manager believes women aren’t good negotiators, he may undervalue
female candidates.
● Moods: Positive moods lead to positive impressions; negative moods do the
opposite.
Example: When happy, we are more likely to see others positively.
● Motives (Needs/Desires): Unmet needs influence perception.
Example: An insecure boss might see a high-performing subordinate as a threat.
● Self-Concept: How one sees themselves affects how they view others.
Example: A person with high self-esteem tends to see the good in others.
● Interests: We pay attention to things that interest us.
Example: A person recently scolded for being late may notice others arriving late.
● Cognitive Structure: Thinking style influences perception.
Some people notice appearances; others focus on personality traits.
● Expectations: What we expect often shapes what we see.
We tend to "see what we want or expect to see."
2. Characteristics of the Target - The target is the person or object being perceived.
● Physical Appearance: Attractive or unusual individuals grab more attention.
Example: Attractive people may be rated more positively in interviews.
● Verbal Communication: What someone says, their tone, and accent affect our
perception.
● Non-Verbal Communication: Body language, eye contact, and posture are
important cues.
● Intentions: We interpret others’ actions based on what we think they intend.
Example: A manager walking into your office may be seen as coming to give more
work—or to praise.
● Grouping Effect: We often group people or events that are:
○ Close together in time or space Example: Two people resigning together
may be seen as linked.
○ Similar in appearance or behavior Example: Employees from one department
are seen as a single group.
3. Characteristics of the Situation- The context or environment in which perception
happens.
● Context or Setting: The place or occasion affects [Link]: Meeting a
manager in the office vs. a restaurant may create different impressions.
● Situational Cues (Discounting Principle): In strong situations, behavior may be
seen as influenced by the situation, not personality. Example: A car salesperson
being friendly may be perceived as acting that way to make a sale, not because they
are naturally friendly.
Perceptual selectivity refers to the process where people, although exposed to many
stimuli at the same time, choose to focus on only a few of them.
This selection depends on:
1. Previous Experience – Shapes what we expect to see.
2. Current Motives – Based on needs, desires, and interests.
A. External Factors Affecting Attention (Outside the Person):
1. Intensity → Stronger stimuli (loud sound, bright light) grab more attention.
2. Size → Larger objects are more likely to be noticed than smaller ones.
3. Contrast → Things that stand out from their background or expectations are more
likely to be noticed.
4. Repetition → Repeated messages or objects catch our attention more easily.
(e.g., repeated ads get noticed more)
5. Motion→ Moving objects attract more attention than still ones.
6. Novelty and Familiarity → Something new in a familiar setting, or something
familiar in a new setting, draws attention. (e.g., a new colleague in your usual team
meeting)
B. Internal Factors Affecting Attention (Inside the Person):
1. Learning → Past learning shapes what we notice and how we interpret it.
2. Motivation
→ Primary motives: Hunger, thirst
→ Secondary motives: Power, affiliation, achievement
(e.g., a hungry person notices food-related things more)
3. Expectations → People tend to see what they expect or want to see.
4. Personality→ A person’s traits affect what they focus on.
(e.g., an anxious person may perceive more threats)
Perceptual Organisation and Social Perception
Perceptual Organisation: It is the mental process where the human mind organizes and
interprets selected stimuli into meaningful patterns.
● As stated by psychologist William James, people don't always see things as they
are, but as they want to see them.
● Our mind actively selects, organizes, and interprets visual, audio, or other sensory
inputs to create a meaningful understanding of the environment.
Principles of Perceptual Organisation
1. Figure-Ground Relationship: We distinguish objects (figure) from the background
(ground).
2. Perceptual Grouping: We group similar or nearby items together naturally.
3. Perceptual Constancy: We see objects as the same in size, shape, and color even
when they appear different.
Social perception refers to the process of interpreting information about other people,
forming impressions, and making judgments about them based on their behavior,
appearance, communication, and context.
It plays a key role in how we understand others, predict their behavior, and interact
effectively in social and organizational settings.
Key Elements of Social Perception:
1. Perceiver - The individual forming the perception.
○ Influenced by personal characteristics like experience, attitudes, motives,
emotions, and past experiences.
2. Target-The person being observed or perceived.
○ Factors like their facial expressions, body language, gender, race, and
dress can influence perception.
3. Situation-The context in which the perception is formed (e.g., workplace, informal
setting).Context can influence the accuracy and bias of the perception.
Common Shortcuts in Judging Others (Social Perception Errors):
People often use mental shortcuts to evaluate others quickly, but these shortcuts can lead to
inaccurate judgments. These include:
1. Selective Perception -People focus only on certain stimuli while ignoring others.
● Example: A manager may notice one employee’s mistake but ignore the same
mistake made by another.
2. Stereotyping-Judging someone based on the group they belong to.
● Example: Assuming all young employees are tech-savvy.
● Stereotypes can be based on gender, age, nationality, appearance, etc.
3. Halo Effect Forming an overall impression based on a single positive trait.
● Example: Assuming someone who is attractive is also intelligent and competent.
4. First Impression Error-Placing too much importance on first impressions.
● Impact: These early judgments can be hard to change and may affect hiring or
team interactions.
5. Contrast Effect-Perceiving something as better or worse based on comparison with
something else.
● Example: A good candidate may look even better if interviewed after a weak one.
6. Projection-Attributing your own traits, feelings, or beliefs to others.
● Example: A hardworking person may expect everyone to work just as hard and
judge those who don’t.
7. Implicit Personality Theories-Using personal “mini-theories” about how traits go
together.
● Example: Believing that someone who dresses traditionally also prefers classical
music.
● These can limit objectivity by ignoring new or contradictory information.
8. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies (Pygmalion Effect)
● When expectations about a person influence how we behave toward them, causing
those expectations to come true.
● Example: If a manager expects a team member to perform poorly, they may not give
them chances—leading to poor performance.
Personality
● Derived from the Latin word “Persona” meaning "to speak through" – originally
referred to masks worn by actors.
● Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts
with others.
● In organizational behaviour, personality refers to the aggregate of thoughts,
feelings, behaviours, and responses to various situations.
● It differentiates one person from another and understanding it helps managers
better handle employee behaviour.
Determinants of Personality Personality is shaped by five main categories of factors:
1. Biological Factors
● Heredity: Traits inherited at birth like temperament, energy levels, reflexes.
● Brain: Though hard to measure, brain structure may influence behaviour.
● Biofeedback: Bodily functions once thought involuntary can now be consciously
influenced.
● Physical Features: External appearance affects how others perceive us and how we
see ourselves.
2. Cultural Factors
● Culture shapes attitudes and acceptable behaviours.
● Influences values like independence, aggression, cooperation etc.
● Children absorb cultural values through training and expectations.
● As Paul H. Mussen notes, culture defines the range of experiences and personality
traits that are reinforced.
3. Family Factors
● Family acts as the primary agent of cultural transmission.
● Major influence during early personality development.
● Identification Process (Mischel):
○ a) Similarity of behaviour and attitudes between child and model.
○ b) Desire to be like the model.
○ c) Actual adoption of model’s traits.
4. Social Factors
● Influence of peers, social groups, and organizations.
● Known as the Socialization Process:
○ It’s a lifelong process of acquiring acceptable behaviour.
○ Especially important in workplace behaviour.
○ Explains how organizational environments shape employee conduct.
5. Situational Factors
● Situations can override personal traits.
● Environment affects skills, knowledge, and behaviour.
● As Milgram observed, situational context may play a larger role than personality
alone in determining behaviour.
Understanding personality helps managers predict employee behaviour, enhance
communication, motivation, and performance.
Big Five Personality Model
The Big Five personality traits are five broad dimensions that represent the most
fundamental traits underlying human personality. These are used to explain individual
behavior and job performance, although specific traits are better predictors of behavior.
The Big Five Traits (OCEAN - Mnemonic)
Examples:
1. Openness to Experience.
● High Openness Example: A person who enjoys exploring new cultures, reading
philosophical books, or experimenting with abstract art.
● Low Openness Example: Someone who prefers routine, sticks to traditional views,
and avoids unfamiliar activities or ideas.
2. Conscientiousness
● High Conscientiousness Example: A student who keeps a detailed planner, meets
deadlines, and studies regularly.
● Low Conscientiousness Example: An employee who forgets appointments,
procrastinates, and misses project deadlines.
3. Extraversion
● High Extraversion Example: A person who enjoys attending parties, leads group
discussions, and thrives on social interaction.
● Low Extraversion (Introversion) Example: Someone who prefers quiet evenings at
home, enjoys solo activities, and avoids large crowds.
4. Agreeableness.
● High Agreeableness Example: A coworker who helps others with tasks, avoids
conflict, and listens empathetically.
● Low Agreeableness Example: A competitive person who is skeptical of others’
motives and often gets into arguments.
5. Neuroticism
● High Neuroticism Example: Someone who often worries about the future, easily
gets upset, and struggles to cope with stress.
● Low Neuroticism Example: A person who remains calm under pressure and rarely
feels anxious or depressed.
Use of Psychometric Tests
Psychometric tests are standardized tools used to measure personality traits,
intelligence, aptitudes, and behaviors.
Uses:
● Recruitment & Selection: To assess candidate fit with job roles and organizational
culture.
● Training & Development: Identifying strengths and areas for improvement.
● Career Counseling: Helping individuals choose suitable career paths.
● Team Building: Understanding team dynamics based on personality types.
Common Tests:
● MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)
● 16PF (Cattell's 16 Personality Factors)
● NEO-PI-R (Based on Big Five Model)
● DISC Personality Test
Organizational Culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, norms, and practices that
guide the behavior of individuals within an organization. It influences how employees
interact, make decisions, and approach their work.
Edgar Schein defines it as:
"A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its
problems of external adaptation and internal integration."
Functions of Organizational Culture
1. Provides Identity - Gives employees a sense of belonging and purpose.
2. Guides Behavior- Shapes acceptable behavior and decision-making processes.
3. Promotes Commitment-Encourages employees to align with and work towards
organizational goals.
4. Enhances Social System Stability - Reduces uncertainty and promotes
consistency in employee behavior.
5. Facilitates Communication- Establishes a common language and set of
understandings across the organization.
6. Supports Strategy Implementation- Aligns company values with business goals for
more effective strategy execution.
Factors Influencing Organizational Culture
1. Leadership Style - Leaders shape cultural norms through their actions, decisions,
and behaviors.
2. Founders' Philosophy- The values and vision of founders influence the cultural
foundation of the organization.
3. Organizational History- Past experiences and traditions contribute to the
organization’s cultural legacy.
4. Company Policies & Practices-HR policies (hiring, training, promotions) influence
behavioral norms.
5. Work Environment & Structure-Physical layout, hierarchy, and communication
channels shape the cultural dynamics.
6. Industry Norms-The culture is shaped by the standards and practices common in
the industry.
7. National and Regional Culture-Local customs, values, and societal norms influence
organizational culture.
Organizational Climate refers to the shared perceptions of employees regarding their
work environment, organizational policies, practices, and procedures. It reflects the
overall atmosphere or “feel” of the organization, which influences employee behavior,
motivation, and satisfaction.
● Litwin and Stringer (1968): "Organizational climate is a set of measurable
properties of the work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the people who
live and work in this environment."
● Tagiuri and Litwin (1968): "It is the relatively enduring quality of the internal
environment of an organization that is experienced by its members."
Dimensions of Organizational Climate
1. Structure
○ Degree of formal rules, policies, and procedures.
○ High structure = more control; Low structure = more flexibility.
2. Responsibility
○ Autonomy and decision-making power employees feel they have in their
roles.
3. Reward System
○ Fairness, transparency, and adequacy of rewards and recognition.
4. Risk-Taking (Challenge)
○ Encouragement for innovation, creativity, and acceptance of mistakes.
5. Warmth and Support
○ Interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and emotional support within the
organization.
6. Standard and Conflict Tolerance
○ Emphasis on high performance and healthy resolution of differences or
conflicts.
7. Clarity
○ Understanding of roles, expectations, and communication channels.
8. Identity
○ The feeling of belongingness and pride in being part of the organization.
9. Communication
○ Openness, flow, and transparency in the sharing of information.
