FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

I. Individual Differences
- deviations among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or
number of characteristics.
- how people react to the same situation based on their differences.
- “no two persons are alike”
- All individuals differ from each other in many aspects.
II. Essence of studying individual behavior
- to properly assess the way a person behaves and reacts in daily life
situations which are affected by two factors: (1) Inherited
characteristics and (2) Learned characteristics
III. Inherited Characteristics
- features that an individual acquire from their parents or from their
forefathers.
- gifted features an individual possesses by birth.
1. Color of a person’s eye
2. Skin complexion of a person
3. Shape of the nose
IV. Learned Characteristics
- nobody learns everything by birth.
- characteristics acquired by observing, practicing, and learning from
others and the surroundings.
1. Attitude
 Abstract learned reaction or response of a person’s
entire cognitive process over a time span.
(e.g. A person who has worked with different
companies might develop an attitude of indifference
towards organizational citizenship.)

2. Emotions
 affect our behavior directly
(e.g. as in the case of aggression, or behavior that is
focused on hurting others. When a person feels
frustration, anger, tension or fear, they are more likely
to act aggressively towards others.)
 emotional decision making can affect not just the
outcome of the decision, but the speed at which you
make it.
(e.g. Anger can lead to impatience and rash decision-
making. If you're excited, you might make quick
decisions without considering the implications, as you
surf the wave of confidence and optimism about the
future.)

3. Personality

 patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and

behaving.
 characterized in terms of traits, which are relatively
enduring characteristics that influence our behavior
across many situations.
 (e.g. Understanding one’s personality can help an
employee modify behavior at work, play to strengths,
improve on weaknesses, interact with coworkers more
effectively and ultimately lead to career success.)
4. Perception
 result of the various senses like feeling, seeing, hearing
etc.
 an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli
into meaningful information.
 process of interpreting something that we see or hear
and use later to judge and give a verdict on a situation,
person, group, etc.
 how we perceive other people in our environment is
also shaped by our values, emotions, feelings, and
personality. Moreover, how we perceive others will
shape our behavior, which in turn will shape the
behavior of the person we are interacting with.
 (e.g. if you perceive that your significant other is too
focused on spending time with friends, your
interactions with her will be based upon this perception)
 (e.g. you could be frustrated and short tempered. In a
workplace setting, perceptions can also cause
miscommunications.)
MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTION

Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to meaningful

information. It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind
and use it later to judge and give a verdict on a situation, person, group.

According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as “the process by which

individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to their
environments.”

It can be divided into six types −

Of sound − The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.

Of speech − The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of language

heard.

Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.

Taste − The ability to receive flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs
known as taste buds.
Other senses − They approve perception through body, like balance, acceleration, pain,
time, sensation felt in throat and lungs etc.

Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and groups of
their social world. Example − Priya goes to a restaurant and likes their customer service,
so she will perceive that it is a good place to hang out and will recommend it to her
friends, who may or may not like it. Priya’s perception about the restaurant is good.

Perceptual Process

Three stages of the perception process are;

1. Selection

3. Organizing

4. Interpreting

Selecting

The first part of the perception process, in which we focus our attention on certain
incoming sensory information. In selection, we choose stimuli that attract our attention.

Organizing

The second part of the perception process, in which we sort and categorize information
that we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns.

Interpreting

Perception of others involves sensing, organizing, and interpreting information about

people, and what they say and do. Sensation is a main characteristic of perception as it
relates to outside input. In the perceptual process, firstly, the perceiver should select what
will be perceived.

IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTION

1. Existence of Intellectual Process:

Perception is the process which an individual experiences real world. Every Individual
perceives the world differently. The process of thought is concerned with an individual’s
views, worries, arguments, imagination etc. Every individual receives information from
environment. He collects the information and analyses it to draw a result. Every
individual has a different thinking process. Thus, selection, collection and analysis of
information are included under intellectual process. Sometimes, the intellectual process is
related to cognitive process. Thus, under perception people study the environment by the
use of mental process.

2. To Understand Employees:

The process of perception is a process of observing and understanding various situations

in different ways. Every person controls his needs, desires and problems in different
situations on the basis of his perception. All the employees in an organization do not have
similar views. Some employees are optimistic whereas the others are pessimistic. A
proper understanding of employees can be developed by making a study of perception
and thereafter, the employees can be made to work in the desired manner.

3. Importance in Cognitive Process:

Every individual selects the information collected from the environment and discusses
them to give them a meaning. Individual discusses this information on the basis of
cognition process of thought of an individual is concerned with the cognitive process.
Cognitive process includes the factors like thought, worries and imagination. In an
organization, employees make use of cognitive process for learning the information in a
desired form in order to conclude the desired results. Thus, perception has crucial role in
cognitive process in relation to an organization.

4. Study of Mental Activities:

The process of perception includes the psychological factors like thoughts, views, mental
state, imagination, motivation etc. Thus, these mental activities of the employees are
studied under perception, as a result of which, the organization can make the employees
work in the desired manner. Thus perception bears a special importance in the study of
mental activities
5. Knowledge of Unsatisfied Needs:

Unsatisfied needs or desired have a negative influence on an individual’s thought. If an

individual is incapable of satisfying his needs, then his thought gets negative. For
example, a person wants to buy a car but despite of putting efforts, he is incapable of
satisfying his needs, then it will greatly influence his thought and views and his life will
become meaningless. His attitude will become negative. Thus, the needs of the
employees in the organization should be fulfilled, so that, they may work in organization
properly and organizational objectives may be achieved properly. It is possible when
perception is studied in organization. Thus, perception has crucial role in an organization.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

Perception enables a perceiver to select, organize, and interpret a stimulus in a
seemingly meaningful manner. The factors influencing perception can be categorized as
factors in the perceiver, factors in the situation, and the target. The factors must know
how to differentiate between negative and positive attitudes in all cases besides figuring
out the targets based on the personality traits and preparing a rapprochement based on
them.
An individual's perception involves the selection, organization, and interpretation
of stimulants into something meaningful and coherent that is acceptable to them as well
as others.

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION:

1. Characteristics of the Perceiver/Factors related to the Perceiver.
 Perceiver – the person who perceives the target.

2. Characteristics of the Target/Factors related to the Target.

 Target – the person, object, or event that is perceived by another person.

3. Characteristics of the Situation/Factors related to the Situation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVER / FACTORS RELATED TO THE

PERCEIVER

a. Attitude
Attitude is the manner, disposition, feeling, and position, etc. with regard to a
person or thing. It is the way you think about any particular person or thing. 'Aptitude'
is a capability or talent innate or acquired for performing some particular tasks.
The attitude and aptitude of employees influence perception formation. If they
have positive attitudes towards the management, they directly perceive the stimuli
given by management. In the case of negative attitudes. the employees suspect the
management's approach. Employees of high aptitude have a desire and attitude for
growth. They behave positively toward the management of an organization.

b. Motives
Your motives and needs heavily influence the way you perceive things. Feelings
of uneasiness or tension arise when you think you lack something or need something.
Unfulfilled needs or reasons may also influence your perceptions. Wishful thinking is
a means of satisfying desires in a nonexistent fantasy world when one does not
receive the fulfillment of their desires. When this happens, you only see things that
agree with your preconceived notions. Furthermore, your motivation is another of the
factors influencing perception as well. For instance, a deceitful person attributes the
same traits to others.
The motives and desires of employees cause them to view stimuli differently as
per their level and angle. Helpful motives of the employees will always assist the
management. If they desire to develop themselves and the organization, they will
perceive objects and situations positively. Employees having low motives will not
work sincerely. The perception will differ depending on different types of motives.

c. Self-concept
In simple words, self-concept refers to how you see yourself in relation to the
people around you and the circumstances you find yourself in. The more you know
about yourself, the better you can see the world around you. Confident people, for
example, tend to regard others as friendly and welcoming. On the other hand,
insecure people tend to focus on the negative aspects of others. A good self-concept
goes hand in hand with accurate self-perception.
Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept. An
individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another
person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative
traits in another person.

d. Past experience
The way you perceive things is often influenced by your experiences and
expectations. Your present perspective is shaped by your past experiences. For
instance, if you have been duped by a few acquaintances in the past, you may remain
skeptical of any new friendships you may form in the future.
The experience of employees results in different levels of perception. A young
employee takes time to understand the object and situation. Experienced employees
generally understand objects quickly and correctly. However, in contradictory
situations, it is difficult to correct aged persons, whereas the young are easily
moulded towards achieving the objectives of the organization.

e. Psychological state
Your current emotional and psychological condition can have a significant impact
on how you interpret events. When you are depressed, you are more likely to see
things differently than when you are cheerful. Similarly, if you are terrified of snakes,
you may mistakenly believe that a rope tucked under your bed is a snake.

f. Belief system
Perception is heavily influenced by a person's ideas. People create their own
reality based on their perception, not what actually exists. As a general rule, the
individual suppresses stimuli in order to protect his pre-existing views from being
challenged.

g. Expectations
Your own expectations influence your impression of yourself. The anticipation of
a specific action on the part of another person is what you mean when you talk about
expectations. The non-technical personnel, for example, are expected not to know a
product's technical characteristics.
Expectations distort perceptions. People see what they expect to see. If they see
the object and the situation differently from their expectations, they get frustrated.
The employees may expect more pay and so they perceive the management from that
angle. The real stimuli are not properly perceived if expectations exist there on. The
management has to evolve expectations for proper perception.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TARGET / FACTORS RELATED TO THE

TARGET

a. Physical appearance
Observing a person's characteristics can influence what is perceived. People
generate opinions about others based on people's physical characteristics, such as
their appearance, age, gender, communication style, as well as their personality traits
and other attributes and behaviors, despite the fact that this goes against logic and
objectivity. Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast
with the norm, that are intense, or that are new or unusual. Loud people, for example,
are more likely to be noticed in a crowd than quiet ones.

b. Grouping
People, objects, and occurrences that are similar tend to be clustered together.
Employees in business attire are perceived as higher-ranking, while those in casual
attire are viewed as lower-ranking employees by their peers and coworkers.
Objects that arc close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than
separately. As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects or
events that are unrelated.

c. Communication
Your impression of others is influenced by how you communicate verbally and
nonverbally. Your choice of words and the accuracy with which you speak can
convey a lot about your intelligence and sophistication. For instance, your mood is
conveyed through the tone of your voice. Likewise, one can gauge your intelligence
by the depth of your discussion and the topics you choose to discuss. Similarly, your
body language or expressive behavior, such as how you sit or move your eyes, can
tell whether you are apprehensive or confident.

d. Social stature, occupation, and wealth

A person’s social stature, occupation, and wealth also affect perception. When
you meet a principal of a school where your child is enrolled, a Supreme Court judge,
or a famous cricketer, you tend to show more respect. You can get a skewed
impression of someone based on what others have heard about them. A person
reported to us as pleasant and warm receives different treatment from someone
described as cold and calculated.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITUATION / FACTORS RELATED TO THE

SITUATION
a. Time
The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes
place has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target.

b. Context
Your perception of things and occurrences is greatly influenced by the context in
which you view them. The physical, social, and organizational context of an event or
scenario can all affect how you perceive it, as can the pieces that make up that
context. There are many situations in which it is better to meet someone for the first
time while they are in the presence of a person admired and respected by you than
when they are with someone you despise and despise.

c. Location
An event's exact location has a significant impact on how participants act. Talking
with the boss in the casual reception area may be seen differently from having a
conversation with the boss in his office with the door closed. Thus, people's behavior
is also influenced by the environment in which they work. When allowed to interact
in a pleasant and friendly work environment, people become more trusting and less
defensive.
You would have very frequently beard people say that their manager is different
during working hours and opposite while in a social setting.

CONCLUSION
Perception plays a significant role in a professional setting. It influences one's
behavior, and this, in turn, affects one's perception of the world. There are instances
where you may not be perceived well by other people. Personality development
training can help prevent that. On the flip side, sometimes, you may misjudge people
and not take their thoughts into consideration. Empathy skills training can help you
understand the value of empathy to understand others better. In an organization, people
should be able to understand and communicate with each other without misperceptions.
That is possible if you improve your empathy skills and show compassion for others.

PERSON PERCEPTION: MAKING JUDGMENT ABOUT OTHERS

Person Perception
• Specially, Person Perception refers to the mental process (thoughts, judgment,
decision making ability) we use to form impressions and draw conclusions about the
personal characteristics of other people.
• The term is somewhat misleading beacause person perception does not deal with
perception per se. Rather, it concerns social processing issues like what information we
extract when we see other people, how we interpret what we see, and how this
interpretation influences our subsequent behavior.
What we see and how this interpretation influences our subsequent behavior, research in
person perception has focused on the social and cognitive biases that influence our
interpretation of others particularly of people we do not know.
For example, models of perception can offer accounts of what remember about the
person who serves us coffee, our impression of the couple sitting behind us on the bus,
and how we feel when someone in our social group performs poorly on task.
Attribution Theory
• Suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine
whether, it was internally or externally caused.
Classification of the difference between internal and external causation:
• Internally caused – those that are believed to be under the personal control of the
individual. If those factors such as knowledge, skill, effort, talent, hard work, positive
attitude are responsible for the occurrence of behavior, it is labeled as internally caused.
• Externally caused – is seen as resulting from outside causes;that is, the person is
seen as forced into the behavior by the situation. If those factors such as situational
factors such as location advantage, non availability of material, contacts with influential
others, etc are responsible for the occurrence of behavior, it is labeled as externally
caused.
For example, If an employee is late for work, one can attribute his late coming due to
laziness or lack of interest in the job of over sleeping. This would be internal
interpretation. If an employee late coming is due to traffic jam or road accident or his
wife sickness, then he is making external attribution.
There are three factors which are used to determine whether the behavior is caused by
internal factors or due to external factors. They are: Distinctiveness, Consensus and
Consistency.
Three determining factors:
1. Distinctiveness
• Refers to whether individual displays different behaviors in different situations
• People want to know whether the behavior is unusual?
o If yes, we will regard it as external attribution (High Distinctiveness)
o If no, we will judge the behavior to be internal (Low Distinctiveness)
For example, If a person is coming late not only to office but also to picnic party or to
birthday party or to attending meeting etc. If his late coming behavior is not unique, it
will probably be judged as internal. (Low Distinctiveness) If his late coming behavior is
unusual, that is, only to office work, his late coming behavior is due to external
attribution. (High Distinctiveness)
2. Consensus
• It refers to whether all the people who are facing with a similar situation respond
in the same way or not.
For example, If all the people are responding the same way, then there is high consensus.
If consensus is high, then his late coming behavior is due to external factors. If only this
worker is late and all others are punctual, then there is low consensus. If consensus is
low, then his late coming is due to internal factor

3. Consistency
• It refers whether a person responds the same all the time
For example, if an employee’s late coming is reported in all the days, then there is high
consistency. If there is high consistency, his late coming behavior is due to internal
factor. If his late coming is reported only one time, then there is low consistency. If there
is low consistency, then his late coming is due to external factors. The more consistent
the behavior, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to internal factors.
Errors in Attribution:
While attributing the causes for the behavior of individuals, people tend to commit two
types of errors.
1. Fundamental Attribution Error
• There is tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgment about the behavior
of others particularly with reference to the victims of accidents or failures. This is called
the fundamental attribution errors.
• For example, a sales manager is likely to attribute the poor performance of his
sales agents to laziness rather than to the new product line introduced by the competitor
or current recession prevailing in the society etc.
2. Self-Serving Bias
• There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own success to internal
factors such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors
such as luck or fate. This is called the self-serving bias.
• While assessing the performance of subordinates, the managers are likely to
provide feedback in a distorted manner depending on whether it is positive or negative.