NAT SCI 3- HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
OCTOBER 2024
4) Elasticity: Ability to return to its original length after
stretching, essential in respiration.
OUTLINE:
I. MUSCLE TISSUES, STRUCTURES, AND FUNCTIONS
a. Functions of the Muscular System
b. General Properties of Muscle Tissue Types of Muscle Fibers
c. Types of Muscle Fibers 1) Slow-Twitch (Type I)
d. Parts of a Muscle
II. CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE TISSUES
a. Smooth Muscle
b. Cardiac Muscle
c. Skeletal Muscle
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
a. Structure of Skeletal Muscle
IV. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE OF CONTRACTION
a. Types of muscle fibers
b. Organ System involved
c. Functions
d. Clinical significance
V. NAMING MUSCLES
a. Functions ● High endurance, fatigue-resistant.
b. Shapes ● Well-developed blood supply, numerous
c. Location mitochondria.
d. Origin ● Found in muscles involved in posture and
e. Insertion endurance, such as leg muscles​
2) Fast-Twitch (Type II)

MUSCLE TISSUES, STRUCTURES, AND FUNCTIONS

● Muscle tissues are specialized for contraction and
movement.
● Key Types of Muscle Tissues
○ Skeletal Muscle: Responsible for voluntary
movement.
○ Cardiac Muscle: Found in the heart, pumps
blood.
○ Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, found in hollow
organs like intestines and blood vessels. a) Type IIa (Fast-Twitch Oxidative Glycolytic):
Intermediate endurance and strength.
b) Type IIb (Fast-Twitch Glycolytic): High power,
fatigues quickly, used in short, intense
movements.

Parts of a Muscle: Connective Tissues

Key Components
1) Epimysium: Dense layer of connective tissue that
surrounds the entire muscle.
2) Perimysium: Connective tissue surrounding bundles of
muscle fibers, called fascicles.
3) Endomysium: Thin connective tissue layer surrounding
each individual muscle fiber​

Functions of the Muscular System

Parts of a Muscle: Muscle Fiber
● Movement of the Body: Skeletal muscles are
Key Components
attached to bones and facilitate movement.
1) Sarcolemma: The plasma membrane of the muscle
● Posture Maintenance: Muscles maintain body
fiber.
posture through contraction.
2) T Tubules: Inward projections of the sarcolemma that
● Respiration: The muscles of the thorax control
carry electrical impulses.
breathing.
3) Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Specialized smooth
● Heat Production: Muscle contraction generates heat,
endoplasmic reticulum that stores and releases calcium
which helps maintain body temperature.
during muscle contractions.
● Communication: Muscles control speaking, writing,
4) Myofibrils: Cylindrical structures within muscle fibers
facial expressions
composed of repeating units called sarcomeres.
● Constriction of Organs and Vessels: Smooth
5) Sarcomere: The structural and functional unit of muscle
muscle contraction helps in processes like digestion
contraction, containing actin and myosin filaments
and blood flow.
● Heartbeat: Cardiac muscle contraction pumps blood
through the body CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE TISSUES

General Properties of Muscle Tissue ● Muscle tissues are classified into three main types:
Four Major Properties of Muscle Tissue skeletal, cardiac, and smooth, each with distinct
1) Contractility: Ability to shorten forcefully. Example: structures and functions that contribute to movement
lifting an object. and bodily functions.
2) Excitability: Capacity to respond to stimuli, typically
from nerve impulses.
3) Extensibility: Ability to stretch beyond normal length.
Example: stretching arms.

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■ Ex. Epinephrine - increase heart
rate and contractility, enhancing
cardiac output (preparation for fight
or flight response).
■ Ex. Thyroid hormones - regulate
cardiac metabolism, contractility,
and relaxation.

Skeletal Muscle
● Skeletal muscle is responsible for movement of bones.
They are attached to the skeleton and facilitate
locomotion and other body movements..
Smooth Muscle - striated and has multinucleated fibers
● Smooth muscle is primarily found in the walls of hollow - attached to bones
organs (e.g., digestive tract, blood vessels, respiratory - Voluntary
tract) and moves substances through them. ● Functional Properties
- spindle-shaped a. Has the ability to shorten and stretch and
- single nucleus in the middle of the cell return to its original length after being
- non-striated stretched.
- involuntary ● Regulation of Skeletal Muscle
● Types of Smooth Muscle ○ Controlled by the somatic nervous system via
a. Visceral smooth muscle - muscle fibers motor neurons.
contract slowly, function as a single unit, and ○ Skeletal muscle growth, maintenance, and
can be autorhythmic. adaptation are influenced by various
Ex. smooth muscle in the walls of the hormones.
intestines ■ Ex. Testosterone - Promotes muscle
b. Multiunit smooth muscle - muscle fibers growth (hypertrophy).
contract rapidly in response to stimulation by ■ Ex. Growth Hormone (GH) -
neurons and function independently. Stimulates growth and repair of
Ex. iris of the eye tissues, including skeletal muscle.
● Functional Properties
a. Smooth muscle maintains a steady tension for
long periods (smooth muscle tone). CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
b. The force of smooth muscle contraction ● Skeletal muscle is an excitable, contractile tissue
remains nearly constant, despite changes in responsible for maintaining posture and moving the
muscle length. orbits, together with the appendicular and axial
● Regulation of Smooth Muscle skeletons. It attaches to bones and orbits through
○ Smooth muscle innervated by the autonomic tendons.
nervous system. - Excitable tissue responds to stimuli through
○ Hormones are important in regulating smooth electrical signals.
muscle. - Contractile tissue is able to generate tension
■ Ex. Epinephrine - stimulates some of force.
smooth muscles (blood vessels of - Extensible tissue can be stretched and
the small intestines and other elastic tissue is able to return to its original
smooth muscles in the intestinal shape following distortion.
wall).
■ Ex. Oxytocin - stimulates Cellular structure
contraction of uterine smooth
● Sarcolemma - cellular membrane
muscle, especially during childbirth.
● Terminal cisterna - extension of sarcolemma that
stores calcium.
Cardiac Muscle
● Cardiac muscle is located in the heart and is responsible ● T-tubules - invaginations of sarcolemma that transfer
for pumping blood throughout the body. action potentials to the inside of the muscle cell
- striated but each cell usually contains one ● Sarcoplasm - cytoplasm
nucleus near the center ● Sarcoplasmic reticulum - modified endoplasmic
- adjacent cells join to form branching fibers by reticulum
intercalated disks. ● Actin, myosin - contractile elements
- allow action potentials to move from ● Sarcomere - functional unit (made of actin and myosin)
one cell to the next. Thus, cardiac ● Accessory proteins - titin, tropomodulin, alpha-actinin,
muscle cells function as a unit. desmin, nebulin, dystrophin, myomesin.
- involuntary
● Functional Properties
a. Some cardiac muscle cells are autorhythmic
(can generate electrical impulses on their
own), and one part of the heart normally acts Types of fibers (cells)
as the pacemaker, Sinoatrial (SA) node.
● Type I - use aerobic metabolism to function; they appear
- initiating the heartbeat and
red because of the high amount of myoglobin; they are
regulating the heart's rhythm
slow-twitch and resistant to fatigue.
b. Cardiac muscle contracts rhythmically and
● Type IIa - get energy from oxidative glycolysis; have a
continuously without fatigue.
high amount of glycogen, are brighter than type I fibers,
● Regulation of Cardiac Muscle
and they are fast-twitch and resistant to fatigue.
○ Intrinsically regulated by pacemaker cells in
● Type IIb - get energy from anaerobic glycolysis, appear
the SA node.
pink, fast-twitch and prone to fatigue
○ Hormones play a significant role in regulating
cardiac muscle function.

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lines to attach them to each other and the
Tissue sheats plasma membrane.
● Endomysium - around single muscle fiber - Nebulin is a thin, elongated protein running
● Perimysium - around multiple muscle fibers -> arranges parallel to thin filaments. It assists α-Actinin in
them in fascicles binding the thin filaments to the Z line and is
● Epimysium - around entire muscle thought to be important during the
development of muscle tissue.
- Dystrophin is thought to link actin filaments to
the external lamina of the muscle cell
- Myomesin anchors thick filaments to the M
line.

Sarcomeres
● The sarcomere is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle
cell. Each sarcomere is about 2.5 micrometers in length.
It is made up of multiple myosin and actin filaments
oriented in parallel. The actin and myosin filaments
overlap in certain places creating several bands and
zones.
- Z disc forms the boundary of the sarcomere Neuromuscular junction
on either side. Thin actin filaments project in ● A neuromuscular junction, abbreviated NMJ, is the
either direction off of a Z disc but do not cross location at which a motor nerve ending makes a
the entire length of the sarcomere. They are synapse with a muscle cell.
almost 8 nm in diameter and have tightly - Motor neurons release acetylcholine into the
bound regulatory proteins called troponin and synaptic cleft of the neuromuscular junction.
tropomyosin. - Acetylcholine molecules traverse the
- H zones referred to the center of the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the
sarcomere lack actin filaments. muscle fiber membrane.
- M line runs down the middle of the H zone - This results in depolarization and
perpendicular to the filaments. Thick myosin subsequent contraction of the muscle cell.
filaments are found between the actin
filaments.
Control of the skeletal muscle contraction
● The sarcomere is broken up into three bands:
● Two main proprioceptors influence the strength and
- A band is in the middle and corresponds to
duration of muscle contraction:
the myosin filaments together with the thin
- Golgi tendon organs are receptors found at
filaments overlapping on both ends.
the junction between myofibrils and tendons.
- Two I bands on either side of the A band and
The receptor endings of a Golgi tendon organ
represent the area in which only actin
are intertwined with the collagenous fibers of
filaments are present.
the tendon. The role of the Golgi tendon organ
is to prevent muscles from over-contracting.
- Muscle spindles detect change in muscle
length, position, and velocity. Muscle spindle
fibers are long, thin encapsulated fibers
aligned in parallel to myofibrils. They are also
called intrafusal muscle fibers, while extrafusal
fibers are present outside the spindle
capsule.Stretching the spindle causes it to
depolarize and relay that information through
the spinal cord.

Accessory proteins
● The thick and thin filaments in the myofibrils are
supported by accessory proteins. These proteins
maintain the speed and alignment of filaments during the
contraction cycle.
- Titin is a large, elastic protein the anchors
thick filaments to Z lines to prevent excessive
stretching of the myofibril
- Tropomodulin acts like an actin cap. It
attaches to the free end of an actin filament to
maintain its length.
- α-Actinin is a short, rod-shaped protein that
arranges thin filaments into parallel bundles
and anchors them to the Z line
- Desmin is an intermediate filament that forms
a lattice surrounding the sarcomere near the Z

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● Smooth muscle fibers lack sarcomeres but utilize actin
PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION and myosin contraction to narrow blood vessels and propel
● Muscle tension can occur without the muscle changing the contents of hollow organs in the body. They are
length, such as when you hold a dumbbell in a fixed controlled involuntarily by reflexes and the body's
position or cradle a sleeping child in your arms. autonomic nervous system.
o Smooth muscle contains the same thin and
● After the muscle contraction ends, the muscle fibers thick filaments as striated muscle, but they
return to a state of low tension, which is known as are not organized into sarcomeres, and
muscle relaxation. smooth muscle lacks the troponin complex.
Instead, smooth muscle contraction is
● A unique property common to all three types of muscle controlled by a different mechanism. Three
is contractility, which is the ability of the cells to shorten key pathways increase intracellular
and generate force. calcium (Ca²⁺) concentration in smooth
muscle:
● Muscle contraction in the human body can be ▪ 1. Voltage-gated Ca channels
categorized based on muscle subtype specialization.
Generally, muscle fibers are divided into two main types: open in response to membrane
striated muscle fibers and smooth muscle fibers. depolarization.
▪ 2. Ligand-gated channels open
Types of muscle fibers
when hormones or
● Striated muscle fibers contain actin and myosin filaments neurotransmitters bind.
organized into sarcomeres, with a striped appearance.
Cardiac muscle tissue is involuntarily controlled by the ▪ 3. The phospholipase-C (PLC)
autonomic nervous system, while skeletal muscle tissue is pathway is activated by
under voluntary control. hormones or neurotransmitters
like norepinephrine or angiotensin
o Striated muscles consist of individual II, increasing intracellular inositol
muscle fibers, which contain smaller units triphosphate (IP3), which then
called myofibrils. These myofibrils are made triggers Ca release from the
up of thick and thin filaments, organized into sarcoplasmic reticulum.
units called sarcomeres that give muscles
their striated appearance under a
microscope. o Once released, calcium binds to
calmodulin instead of troponin. The
o The thick filaments are composed of the calcium-calmodulin complex activates
protein myosin, which has heavy and light myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), which
chains. The myosin heads bind to the thin phosphorylates myosin light chains. This
filaments, which are made of actin, phosphorylation activates the myosin
tropomyosin, and troponin. Tropomyosin ATPase, allowing myosin to bind to actin,
blocks the binding between myosin and leading to cross-bridge cycling and
actin when the muscle is at rest, while muscle contraction. The muscle remains
troponin regulates this interaction. contracted as long as calcium is bound to
calmodulin and MLCK is active, enabling
o The process of muscle contraction, known prolonged contractions, such as in blood
as excitation-contraction coupling, vessel vasoconstriction.
begins when a nerve signal (action
potential) depolarizes the muscle cell
membrane. This signal travels through
T-tubules and triggers the release of
calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
(SR). Calcium binds to troponin C, causing
a change that shifts tropomyosin and
exposes actin, allowing the myosin heads
to attach and form cross-bridges

o The contraction occurs through

cross-bridge cycling, where ATP binds to
myosin, allowing it to detach from actin.
ATP is then hydrolyzed, causing the myosin (smooth muscle fibers)
head to reposition and attach to a new site ● The autonomic nervous system (ANS), a part of the
on the actin filament. This cycle continues, peripheral nervous system, controls involuntary
pulling the actin filament and shortening the physiological functions such as heart rate, blood
muscle, until calcium levels drop and the pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal.
muscle relaxes.

Organ Systems Involved

● Organ Systems With Striated Muscle
o Cardiac system: heart

(striated muscle fibers)

o Skeletal system: muscle attached to bone

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o Gastrointestinal system: upper esophagus,

external anal sphincter
o Urinary system: ureters, bladder, internal
urethral sphincter

o Urinary system: external urethral sphincter

o Reproductive system: uterus

o Visual system: extraocular muscles

o Visual system: ciliary muscle

● Organ Systems With Smooth muscle fibers

o Integumentary system: arrector pili

o Vascular system: blood vessels

o Gastrointestinal system: walls of hollow

visceral organs (e.g., intestines, pancreas,
liver, gallbladder)

o Respiratory system: bronchi and

bronchioles

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o Lymphatic system: lymphatic vessels

Functions o Isometric striated muscle contraction

● The main function of skeletal muscle contraction is to involves a change in muscle tension without
enable specific movements, while also providing structural a change in muscle length. This type of
support, maintaining body posture, storing amino acids, contraction occurs when pushing against an
and regulating core body temperature through shivering. immovable object or attempting to lift a
weight that is too heavy.
● Autorhythmic cardiac cells establish the rhythm of
contraction for other cardiac muscle cells, which can be o Isotonic muscle contraction maintains
modulated by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). constant tension while the muscle length
changes. It occurs when the contraction
● Contractile cardiac cells (cardiomyocytes) constitute the force matches the total load on the muscle,
majority of the heart muscle and can contract. and is observed during activities like
walking, running, or squatting.
● two types of smooth muscle cells

o Single-unit smooth muscle cells are

located in the gastrointestinal tract and
blood vessels. They are interconnected
through gap junctions, enabling them to
o Concentric muscle contraction happens
contract as a functional syncytium. These
when the muscle has enough tension to
cells also contract myogenically and can be
overcome the load, causing it to contract
influenced by the autonomic nervous
and shorten. It's seen during activities like a
system (ANS).
biceps curl or standing from a squatting
position.
o Multiunit smooth muscle cells are located
in the muscles of the eye and at the base of
o Eccentric muscle contraction occurs when
the hair follicles. They contract individually
the muscle works to slow down a joint at the
when stimulated by nerves of the autonomic
end of a movement, protecting the joint
nervous system (ANS), enabling precise
from damage. It can happen involuntarily
control and gradual response.
(e.g., when attempting to move a weight too
Mechanism
heavy to lift) or voluntarily (e.g., when
● Types of Striated Muscle Contraction
'smoothing out' a movement or resisting
gravity, such as during downhill walking).

Clinical Significance
● Muscle spasms, also known as muscle cramps, are
involuntary and painful contractions of muscle groups,
individual muscles, or muscle fibers. They can last
from seconds to weeks, depending on the affected
muscle and the spasm's cause. In sports,
exercise-associated muscle spasms are a common
issue requiring intervention. The specific causes of
these spasms vary depending on the physiological or
pathological situation. It's important to note that a

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localized painful contraction doesn't necessarily b. Shape:Broad, flat.
mean the cause is local. In some clinical scenarios, c. Location:Covers the forehead, extending from the top of
persistent spastic muscle contractions can the skull to the eyebrows.
significantly affect body function. For example,
d. Origin: Galea aponeurotica.
congenital torticollis or spasmodic torticollis affects the
sternocleidomastoid muscle. Other relevant conditions e. Insertion: Skin of the forehead.
include exercise-induced and heat-related muscle
cramping, as well as piriformis syndrome. 2. Masseter
a. Function: Elevates the mandible (chewing).
● Manual Muscle Testing (MMT) is utilized as a clinical b. Shape: Thick, rectangular.
tool to evaluate muscle strength, graded on a scale c. Location:Located on the sides of the jaw, connecting the
from 0 to 5. It is also employed in rehabilitation to
cheekbone to the lower jaw.
assess impairments in muscle performance, which is
crucial for determining the course of rehabilitation, d. Origin: Zygomatic arch.
including therapy exercises, bracing, and functional e. Insertion: Mandible.
movement training.
3. Sternocleidomastoid
● It's important to acknowledge that many medications a. Function: Rotates and flexes the neck.
can impact muscle contraction to some extent. b. Shape; Long, thick, and strap-like.
Understanding the uses and consequences of
c. Location:Runs diagonally across the sides of the neck,
administering medications to patients is crucial,
whether it's the primary effect of the drug or a side from the clavicle and sternum to the mastoid process
effect. Pharmacological agents that directly affect behind the ear.
muscle contraction include, but are not limited to: d. Origin: Sternum and clavicle.
e. Insertion: Mastoid process of the skull.
o Skeletal muscle relaxants (e.g., botulinum
toxin, cyclobenzaprine, methocarbamol) 4. Temporalis
a. Function: Elevates and retracts mandible.
o Vasodilating medications (e.g., hydralazine,
nitrates, milrinone) b. Shape: Fan-shaped.
c. Location: Covers the temporal fossa on the side of the
o Volatile anesthetics or succinylcholine can skull, above and in front of the ear.
lead to malignant hyperthermia d. Origin: Temporal fossa.

NAMING MUSCLES e. Insertion: Coronoid process of the mandible.

● Muscles are named based on various

criteria, including their function, shape,
location, origin, and insertion.
.
1 Function
Flexors: Bend joints.
Extensors: Straighten joints.
Adductors: Move body parts towards the midline.
Abductors: Move body parts away from the midline.
Rotators: Rotate body parts.

2. Shape
Deltoid: Triangle-shaped.
Trapezius: Trapezoid-shaped.
Orbicularis: Circular.
Pectoralis: Chest-shaped.

3. Location
Brachii: Arm.
Femoris: Thigh. Muscles of the Trunk
Dorsi: Back.
Abdominis: Abdomen. 1. Pectoralis Major
a. Function: Adducts and medially rotates the arm.
4. Origin and Insertion b. Shape: Large, fan-shaped.
Origin:The fixed point of attachment. c. Location: Covers the upper chest, extending from the
Insertion: The movable point of attachment. collarbone and sternum to the upper arm.
d. Origin: Clavicle, sternum, and ribs.
● Muscles and their functions, shapes, locations, e. Insertion: Humerus.
origins, and insertion.
2. External Oblique
Muscles of the Head and Neck a. Function: Compresses abdominal contents, lateral
rotation of the trunk.
1. Frontalis b. Shape: Thin, broad.
a. Function: Raises eyebrows, wrinkles forehead.

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c. Location: Covers the sides of the e. Insertion: Metacarpals.
abdomen, running diagonally from the lower ribs to the
pelvis.
d. Origin: Lower eight ribs.
e. Insertion: Iliac crest, pubic bone.

3. Rectus Abdominis
a. Function: Flexes the spine, compresses the abdomen.
b. Shape: Long, strap-like.
c. Location:Runs vertically along the front of the abdomen,
from the pubic bone to the ribs.
d. Origin: Pubic crest and symphysis.
e. Insertion: Xiphoid process, ribs 5-7.

4. Latissimus Dorsi
a. Function: Extends, adducts, and medially rotates the
arm.
b. Shape: Broad, flat. Muscles of the Lower Limb
c. Location:Covers the lower back, extending from the
spine and pelvis to the upper arm. 1. Gluteus Maximus
d. Origin: Lower spine and iliac crest. a. Function: Extends and laterally rotates the hip.
e. Insertion: Humerus. b. Shape: Large, thick, and quadrilateral.
c. Location: Covers the buttocks, extending from the pelvis
to the femur.
d. Origin: Ilium, sacrum, and coccyx.
e. Insertion: Femur.

2. Quadriceps Group (Rectus Femoris, Vastus Lateralis,

Vastus Medialis, Vastus Intermedius)
a. Function: Extends the knee.
b. Shape: Large, thick, and four-part.
c. Location: Covers the front of the thigh, running from the
hip and thigh bone to the knee.
d. Origin: Ilium and femur.
Muscles of the Upper Limb e. Insertion: Tibia via the patellar tendon.

1. Biceps Brachii 3. Hamstring Group (Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus,

a. Function: Flexes the elbow, supinates the forearm. Semimembranosus)
b. Shape: Long, fusiform (spindle-shaped). a. Function: Flexes the knee and extends the hip.
c. Location: Runs along the front of the upper arm, from b. Shape: Long, fusiform.
the shoulder to the radius bone. c. Location: Runs along the back of the thigh, from the
d. Origin: Scapula. pelvis to the knee.
e. Insertion: Radius. d. Origin: Ischium and femur.
e. Insertion: Tibia and fibula.
2. Triceps Brachii
a. Function: Extends the elbow. 4. Gastrocnemius
b. Shape: Long, fusiform. a. Function: Plantar flexes the foot.
c. Location: Runs along the back of the upper arm, from b. Shape: Thick, fusiform.
the shoulder to the ulna. c. Location: Located at the back of the lower leg, forming
d. Origin: Scapula and humerus. the calf muscle, extending from the femur to the heel via
e. Insertion: Olecranon process of the ulna. the Achilles tendon.
d. Origin: Femur.
3. Brachioradialis e. Insertion: Calcaneus via Achilles tendon.
a. Function: Flexes the elbow.
b. Shape: Long, fusiform. 5. Tibialis Anterior
c. Location: Runs along the forearm, from the humerus to a. Function: Dorsiflexes and inverts the foot.
the radius. b. Shape: Long, narrow.
d. Origin: Humerus. c. Location: Runs along the front of the lower leg, from the
e. Insertion: Radius. tibia to the foot.
d. Origin: Tibia.
4. Flexor Carpi Radialis e. Insertion: Metatarsals.
a. Function: Flexes and abducts the wrist.
b. Shape: Long, thin.
c. Location: Runs along the inner side of the forearm, from
the elbow to the wrist.
d. Origin: Humerus.

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Muscles of the Back

1. Trapezius
a. Function: Moves the scapula and supports arm
movement.
b. Shape: Large, triangular.
c. Location: Covers the upper back and neck, extending
from the base of the skull to the shoulder blades and
upper spine.
d. Origin: Occipital bone, cervical and thoracic vertebrae.
e. Insertion: Clavicle and scapula.

2. Rhomboid Major
a. Function: Retracts the scapula. REFERENCES
b. Shape: Rectangular.
● VanPutte, C. L., & Seeley, R. R. (2017). Seeley’s
c. Location: Located between the spine and the scapula,
anatomy & physiology (11th ed., pp. 268-363).
underneath the trapezius. McGraw-Hill.
d. Origin: Thoracic vertebrae. ● Gash, M. C., Kandle, P. F., Murray, I. V., & Varacallo, M.
e. Insertion: Scapula. (2023, April 1). Physiology, muscle contraction.
StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf.
3. Erector Spinae Group (Iliocostalis, Longissimus, Spinalis) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537140/
● https://youtu.be/NfEJUPnqxk0?si=g1nRirCpe1b2_KfH
a. Function: Extends the spine and maintains posture.
b. Shape: Long, thin.
c. Location: Runs vertically along both sides of the spine,
from the lower back to the upper back and neck.
d. Origin: Sacrum, ilium, ribs, vertebrae.
e. Insertion: Ribs, vertebrae, skull.

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