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III. Saint Thomas Aquinas Since man does an action because of an end,
human actions are then, voluntary. This means that
Thomas Aquinas, O.P. (Aquino, 1225-Fossanova, 7
if human actions are directed towards an end, the
March 1274) was an Italian Dominican priest and
agents therefore intends and end as he performs an
an influential philosopher and theologian in the
act
tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor
Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis. The agent performs voluntary or with actions
"Aquinas" is not a surname as use of surnames through the following:
were not common in Europe). "Aquinas" is hailed
a. If the act is over (externally manifested),
from a Latin adjective which means "of Aquino," his
place of birth. b. If the agent acts because of a motive.
He was the foremost classical proponent of natural c. If the agent is responsible for the consequences
theology, and the father of Thomism. His ideas of his actions.
considerably influenced Western thought and
Accordingly. Thomistic ethics is center on the
modern philosophy. Agustin's ideas receive
natural law and the eternal law. For St. Thomas
considerable reactions particularly in the areas of
Aquinas, God plans and directs all things to them
ethics, natural law, and political theory.
according to its proper order, purpose, or ends.
Ethical Teachings of Saint Thomas Aquinas
Eternal law - This is the reason why we say things
Aquinas, as an avid follower of Aristotelian have their own purpose and end. Now, this plan
philosophy, and ethics. Christianized the pagan and direction of God to all things.
moral philosophy of Aristotle. However. Thomistic
Natural law-The natural order of things, which is
ethics does not appreciate Aristotelian ethics.
nothing else but the attainment of God's plan and
For Aquinas, the connatural and supernatural direction of these things.
virtues will equip man the necessary requirements
Natural moral law-This refers to application of
towards his well-being on earth and his eternal life
natural law to man. The natural order of man as a
in heaven. As a whole, the Aristotelian virtues and
being of action, as a rational being. and as a free
supernatural virtues, which are faith, hope, and
being (Babor, 2006, pp. 46-49).
love, will help man attain Beatific Vision (St.
Thomas' reference to salvation where man sees Characteristics of Eternal Law and Natural Law
God face-to-face).
The eternal law is God's the ideal type or order of
According to Aquinas, human actions are always the universe pre-existing in His mind. God, as a
geared towards ends. When these ends are divine architect, plan a structure before it is built.
attained, they also become the means for the God's eternal law is His wisdom in "planning" and
attainment of other ends. Simply put, there is a creating the universe. God imprints on nature "the
series of ends in human actions. It follows then that principles of its proper actions. Thus, the eternal
there should be an end to all these needs. Socrates, law has both an inaccessible and accessible
Plato, and Aristotle call this final or ultimate end of dimension to it.
human actions happiness.
Natural law is the focus of our inquiry. Aquinas
Thus, end is understood as final if it complies with describes natural law as follows: "It is evident that t
these all things partake somewhat of the eternal law, in
so far as, namely, from its being imprinted on
criteria:
them... Wherefore it (humans' nature) has a share
a. If it is desirable to us for its own sake. If it is of the eternal season, whereby it has a natural
desirable to us for its own sake. inclination to its proper act and end: and this
participation of the eternal law in the rational
b. If it is sufficient in itself to satisfy us.
creature is called the nature natural law."
c. If it is attainable by the wise among us.
Thus, the natural law exists in the world, but it is
d. If it offers happiness to us. not something out there. It is, as he says later in the
answer, "Whereby we discern what is good and
what is evil." This is the "function" of the natural
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law, and Divine light." law is is "nothing else than become a private tutor. Through the help of a
an imprint on us of the He concludes, 'It is friend, Kant was able to finish his university studies.
therefore evident that the natural nothing else than In 1770, Kant enjoyed a professorship title at
the rational creature's eternal law." (Juriprudennce, Konigsberg University. There were two things full a
(nd). participation of the eternal law Kant did for whatever, reason nobody knows. First,
he never got married. Second, he never traveled
DISCUSSION:
outside Germany (Babor, 2006, p.541.
SUMMA THEOLOGICA
Ethical Teachings of Immanuel Kant
Summary of all questions and answers in theology
Kant's moral theory is deemed idealistic which is
PROF TIMBREZA concerned with what ought" Kant developed his
moral philosophy in three works: Groundwork of
There exists a natural moral law that is manifested
the Metaphysic of Morals (1785), Critique of
by the natural light of human reason
Practical Reason (1788), and Metaphysics of Morals
NATURAL MORAL LAW (1797). For him, living a moral life is necessary and
not just an investigation.
Demands the preservation of natural order and
forbidding each violation. Kant's groundwork method includes converting
rational knowledge of morality into philosophical
The source of moral law is reason itself
knowledge. His other works emphasized the use of
Reason directs individuals accordingly to what is "practical reason," which is based only on what can
good be deduced using reason. Experience to reach the
conclusion. (Babor, 2006, p. 54).
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF NATURAL LAW
Maximum of Immanuel Kant
Do good and avoid evil
Kant is known for his "Categorical Imperative,"
SYNDERESIS
which espouses that there is a single moral
Capacity of each individual to desire what is good obligation derived from the concept of duty.
Categorical imperatives are principles that are
The capacity to recognize what is good and evil
intrinsically valid and must be by all at all times. It is
Voice of right reason or CONSCIENCE in these principles that man's obligations are
generated and tested. According to Kant,
C. Modern Ethics
categorical imperative is applicable to moral means
Christianity developed and shaped traditional and ends. In that, rational beings should use
ethics which substantially contributed to the appropriate means to achieve certain ends. Ends
evolution of modern ethics. However, modem that are based on physical needs or wants will give
ethics, advances away from mere religious hypothetical imperatives. On the other hand,
interpretations of facts and events. categorical imperative may be based on the "end in
itself." That is, an end that is a means only to itself
Traditional ethics has now evolved into the modern
and not to some other need, desire, or purpose.
ethics, still with emphasis on the study of good and
bad, right and wrong. With the same emphasis, The categorical imperative is the central
modern ethics takes on a more rational approach philosophical tenet in the moral philosophy of
as opposed to what was a purely emotional one, Immanuel Kant. The three categorical imperatives
despite no change with the object of the study - are:
man. Empirical criteria has become the criteria of
1. "Act only according to the maxim whereby you
choice or judgement.
can at the same time will that it should become a
D. Immanual Kant universal law."

Immanuel Kant was a son of a saddler. He was born 2. "Act in such a way that you treat humanity,
in Konigsberg, East Prussia in 1724. At 16, he whether in your own person or in the person of any
studied theology at Konigsberg University. Later, his other, always at the same time as an end and never
interest was focused on science and philosophy. In merely as a means to an end."
1746, after his father died, he forced himself to
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3. "Therefore, every rational being must so act as if - Principle sometimes has no clear way of
he were through his maxim always a legislating resolving cases of conflicting duties
member in the universal kingdom of ends." - Categorical imperative fail to establish
duties in cases involving maxims that cannot
Kant believes that moral rules such as not lying or
be with to become universal law for some
telling the truth is an example of categorical
subjective reason
imperatives.
- The problem related to the notion that we
DISCUSSION: have the duty to treat others as rational
being or person
KANTIAN ETHICS
A. Utilitarianism
Intention or motive and duty of the moral agent
Utilitarianism is an "ethical theory that advocates
DUTY OR OBLIGATION DEONTOS
the that human happiness is the measure of
Intention of the moral agent to always do his duty goodness." This interpretation utilitarianism
and that duty is to do good espouses that man's act should primarily be
motivated to produce the happiness for the most
Rightness and wrongness of an act is acted upon its
number of people or recipients. An action is
motive
deemed a right action if it yields the greatest and
UNIVERSALIBILITY OF THE ACT the most widely distributed amount of happiness.
An act which opposes this idea is considered
- You have acted from the sense of your duty
wrong. (Babor, 2006).
- characteristic of categorical imperative
According to J. S. Mill (Anuradha, 2023), there is a
- universal law or code of behavior for people to clear difference between utilitarian and
follow utilitarianism. Utilitarian "refers to a somewhat
narrow economic or pragmatic viewpoint, while the
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
philosophical is a much broader view and
- doing an act with no mental reservation encompasses all aspects of people's lives."

PERFECT DUTY Utilitarianism is divided into two areas: the act

utilitarianism and the rule Utilitarianism. In the act
- duty which we are obliged to do all the time
utilitarianism, ethics requires that man should act
- no lies, no killing, no physical harm to produce the greatest happiness to the greatest
number of people. Act utilitarianism is also called
IMPERFECT DUTY
eudemonistic and hedonistic utilitarianism. This is
-duty which we should do as often as possible but well represented by the works of John Stuart Mill
cannot be expected to do always and Jeremy Bentham.

-loving, charitable On the other hand, rule utilitarianism espouses that

man should act according to the rules governing his
KANTIAN ETHICS
action that will produce the greatest happiness for
1. It is always wrong to lie the greatest number of people. The main
2. People should be treated as ends and not as proponents of rule utilitarianism are John Rawls
means and J.S. Smart. Mill's rule utilitarianism is also
3. Treat ourselves as ends to preserve our relative in that he encourages people to do acts
dignity and worth as human beings that "higher pleasure." Higher pleasure includes
4. The action is right and so far, as it satisfies forms of art like literature, poetry and the opera.
the categorical imperative However, the metaethics of rule utilitarianism can
5. The station between the perfect and be questioned as it can be considered absolutists,
imperfect duties suggest that some rights since Mill is absolute in what he values as a higher
must be recognized. pleasure (Dewey & Hurlbutt, 1977).

CRITICISMS OF KANTIAN ETHICS Both rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism are
teleological which means that these are
consequential. However, the act utilitarianism of
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Bentham is primarily absolutist, even though it is

considered more free than the other theories such
I. Jeremy Bentham
as that of Immanuel Kant. This means that all acts
require "felicific calculus" to achieve "the greatest Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) outlined his theory in
pleasure for the greatest number." his 1789 work, "Introduction to the Principles of
Morals and nd Legislation, an odd request in his
It is dependent on:
will. In the said document, he requested that his
1.Intensity remains be preserved and displayed to friends and
followers during occasions. Bentham like Plato,
2. Duration
believed that ethics is nature-based For him, nature
3. Certainty or uncertainty demands from man to be moral. Nature subjects
man to be governed by two sovereign masters: pain
4. Propinquity or remoteness
and pleasure.
5. Fecundity or the chance it has of being followed
After more than two thousand years of discussions,
by similar sensations
philosophers are still having the same arguments
6. Purity or the chance it has of not being followed under the same contending banners. Despite the
by, sensations of the opposite kind numerous arguments, neither philosopher or
mankind are unanimous on the subject.
7. Extent to the number of people who are affected
(Rosen, 2003). When the young Socrates listened to the old
Protagoras and asserted that Plato's dialogue be
DISCUSSION:
grounded on real conversation, the theory of
ETHICS utilitarianism would go against the popular morality
of the so-called sophist. In his ethical theory,
TELEOLOGICAL/ TELOS, TELEOS/ end purpose
Bentham maintains that the greatest good lies in
ONTOLOGICAL/ ONTOS/ duties man's pursuit to happiness while evil lies in the
avoidance of pain. Bentham clarifies further his
RIGHTNESS / WRONGNESS of an act depends on
understanding of utility. He says, "By utility is
the CONSQUENCES of an act
meant that property in any object whereby it tends
CONSEQUESTIALIST MODEL to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good or
happiness or to prevent the happiness of mischief,
- john stuart mill- son of james mill- student of
pain, evil or unhappiness to the party whose
Jeremy bentham
interest is considered..." (Bentham, 2006).
PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY
Psychological Hedonism - The contention that man
- actions are good and so far, as they tend to by nature is capable of doing only those actions
promote happiness which give him pleasure and he avoids those
actions that give him pain is embraced. Doing the
-actions are bad if they tend to produce
opposite of these means man's violation of his
unhappiness
nature. Bentham has cited this earlier, that by
PRINCIPLE OF GREATEST HAPPINESS nature, man is a subject of two sovereign masters:
pleasure and pain.
- greatest happiness for the greatest number of
people In Egoistic Hedonism, the contention which is
valued is that man is primarily obligated to seek for
CRITICISM OF UTILITARIANISM
his own pleasure even if it means the deprivation of
1. that utilitarian principle lacks the principle others. To clarify this issue, Bentham sets forth four
of justice sanctions to guide individuals in a healthy
2. seeing all the possible consequences of an inclination for pleasure which are: physical, moral,
action popular, and religious.
3. considers only the consequence of the act
The physical sanction keeps man's physical sensual
and not the intention or motive behind the
pleasures within bounds. Man use painful
act
experience to reduces his intemperate pleasure of
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over indulgence, Bentham, in his utilitarianism, did enjoyment superiority in quality so far outweighing
not only stop in providing due sanctions to man's quantity...."
natural desire for pleasure. He also tries to measure
Bentham's emphasis is pleasure, while Mill's is
the quantity of pleasure. For him, the best way to
happiness. This seems tantamount to saying that
index the quantity of pleasure is through a theory
happiness, as a quality, higher in degree than
he calls hedonistic calculus (Babor, 2006).
pleasure. Mill espouses that "Happiness is... the
DISCUSSION: most fundamental principle of morality the source
of moral obligation." This leads Mill to introduce his
7 ASPECTS
own concept of "the greatest happiness to get
1. Intensity greatest degree." In totality, the two philosophers
2. Duration are one in contending that the good in ethics is
3. Certainty man's happiness. They are also in unison in saying
4. Propinquity man's happiness is through pleasure. To assess
5. Fecundity their ethical theories, it should be then said that
6. Purity their brand of morality is hedonistic (Babor, 2006).
7. extent
B. Existentialism
II. John Stuart Mill
Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes the
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was a British uniqueness and of the experience in a hostile and
philosopher and a civil servant. Mill is also an indifferent universe. It sees human existence as
influential contributor to social and political theory, unexplainable, and stresses freedom of choice and
and political economy. His concept of liberty responsibility for the consequences of one's act. It
justified the freedom of the individual I to oppose is also referred to as the philosophical approach or
unlimited state control. He also recognized that understanding of human existence and experiences
Bentham focused on the quantitative value of (Education. Yahoo, Existentialism, 2019).
pleasure of ethical theory(Dewey & Hurlbutt,
Existentialism is term applied to the work of a
1977).
number of philosophers since the 9th century
According to Mill as cited in Dewey and Hurlbutt which focused on the condition of human
(1977), "It is compatible with the principle of utility existence. It also banked on man's emotions,
to recognize the fact that some kinds of pleasure actions, responsibilities, and thoughts and the
are more desirable and valuable than others. It meaning or purpose of his life. Existential
would be absurd that while in estimating all other philosophers highlight beliefs and religion or
things, quality considered as well as quantity, human states, feelings and emotions such as
estimation of pleasure should be supposed to freedom, pain, guilt, and regret as opposed to
depend on quantity alone" (p. 238). analyzing objective knowledge, language, or
science.
Mill undeniably assumes Bentham's theory on
happiness, yet, he gives considerable importance to DISCUSSION:
the qualitative conception of pleasure. Mill believes
EXISTENTIALISM EMPASIZES:
that pleasure is not the only good, nor it is the
greatest good. It could be posited, however, that 1. FREEDOM- man must be free
some pleasures are more valuable than others. 2. CHOICE- expression of how you want to live
3. RESPONSIBILITY- it comes with your choices
This is what Mill's means by the qualitative
difference in pleasure. For instance, intellectual I. Soren Kierkegaard
pleasure is higher in scale or value than physical or
Soren Kierkegaard. (1813-1855) a Danish
sensual pleasure. For Mill, qualitative value of
philosopher. theologian, and religious author, is
pleasure should be given more emphasis than the
fascinated with human psychology. His
quantitative value. For Mill, it does not matter how
philosophical work emphasizes how one lives a
much pleasure one gets while performing an act,
"single individual." Kierkegaard's work prioritizes
what matters is the quality of the pleasure one
concrete human reality over abstract thinking,
savors out of the actions one performs. Mill writes:
which highlights the personal choice and
"... we are justified in ascribing to the preferred
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commitment. Christian Ethics is the focus of his ABSURDITY AND AMBIGUITY OF HUMAN
theological work and on the differences between SITUATION
the objective evidences of Christianity and the
- We became frustrated and disappointed
subjective relationship to Jesus Christ, the God
- There is no perfect life in this world
Man, emanating from faith.
RESPONSE TO ABSURDITY AND AMBIGUITY
Kierkegaard maintains that man has the
responsibility for his life's meaning. This includes - Live totally committed to your choices
living life passionately and sincerely in the midst of
II. Jean-Paul Satre
obstacles and distractions such as despair, angst,
absurdity, alienation, and boredom. In August Jean-Paul Satre, (1905-1980) a French existentialist,
1835, he wrote a a letter to his friend Peter was one of the leading figures in philosophy in the
Wilhelm Lund, which contain existentially sensitive 20 century. Sartre used existentialist themes in his
passages: 1938 novel Nausea and his his short story in his
1939 collection, The Wall. He coined the
"What I am to know, except in so far as certain
philosophical statement "being and nothingness."
knowledge must precede every action. The thing is
He was a well-known an existentialist during World
to understand myself, to see He was at the religious
War II and was later called the ultimate atheist
group of existentialists and what God really wishes
infatuated with "being" and "nothing less."
me to do, the thing is to find a truth which is true
for me, to find the idea for which I can live and DISCUSSION:
die....I certainly do not deny that I still recognize an
NAUSEA- life of feeling not in totally control of
imperative of knowledge and that through it one
ourselves
can work upon men, but it must be taken up into
life, and that is what I now recognize as the most - Existence precedes essence
important thing"(p. 26).
BAD FAITH- restrictions to the person we can be
DISCUSSION:
RESPONSIBILITIES FOR CHOICES- the individual
INDIVIDUAL EXISTENTIALISM/ SINGLE INDIVIDUAL consciousness is responsive for all choices
-Only one can live a life but the author itself III. Gabriel Marcel
-kind of life is lived by the person, it is the person Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973) was a dramatist and
only who will be able to make that life successful the first French existentialist philosopher who
coined philosophy of existence to define his
3 modes of existence
thought. By using the term "philosophy of
1. Aesthetic mode of existence existence" he is able to dissociate himself from
Sartre.
People live without direction in life
Marcel introduced existential themes in his early
The person lives aimlessly
essay Existence and Objectivity (1925), and in his
2. Moral or ethical mode of existence Metaphysical Journal (1927). His philosophical
starting point is founded in a condition of
They live very much in line with their sense of duty
metaphysical alienation where the human
to serve societal and confessional obligations
individual seeks s for harmony through a transcend
3. Religious mode of existence life. For him, harmony, is achieved through
secondary reflection using dialogical approach
People accepted they could live in the truth about
rather than a dialectical approach. For Marcel, this
themselves
requires more than mere presence, but the
LEAP OF FAITH willingness to put one's self at the disposal of
others. It should be noted though that Marcel feels
He advocated a leap of faith into a Christian way of
repulsion towards De Ge Sartre's characterizations
life which in comprehensible and full of risk, this is
of the isolated self, the death of God, and lived
the only commitment he believes that can save
experience of having "no exit."
individuals from despair
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Marcel have always resisted at the designation of novels and plays, with awareness of their senseless
his nere Philosophy as "Theistic Existentialism." For condition, rebelled against their circumstances.
him, though there are similarities with
DISCUSSION:
existentialism, it was not the essence of his
philosophy. The concept of freedom, metaphysics - his belief that man’s condition is absurd
and epistemology were the themes that were paid
analogy of Greek myth of Sisyphus
much attention to in Marcel's philosophical
themes. - He believe that man’s existence is pointless
in the myth
- Finding purpose in the task
DISCUSSION: - Noble quality of man- commitment
METAPHYSICAL - Characters in his noble place keenly aware of the
meaninglessness of the human condition
- Not material
- Beyond physical - There is humanity by rebelling against these
- Freedom and dignity circumstances
ALIENATION V. Karl Jaspers
- Strange from what we are metaphysically Karl Jaspers (1883-1964) strongly influenced
psychiatry. philosophy, and modern theology. After
STARTING POINT: metaphysical alienation
his training and practice of psychiatry, he pivoted to
SEEK HARMONY philosophical inquiry to discover an innovative
philosophical system.
- To seek harmony / harmony is achieved
through secondary reflection using Jaspers, heavily influenced by Kierkegaard and
dialogical approach Nietzsche- kegaard Existenz-philosophie, described
his existentialism as a phantom created by the
IV. Albert Camus
public. by which man seeks For Jaspers, Existenz-
Albert Camus (1913-1960), whose famous work philosophy is the means to become himself. This
The Stranger (L'Etranger), was a key a French perspective elucidates and makes the thinker an
philosopher in the 20 century. He was an editor of actual being.
the most popular leftist (former French Resistance)
As one of the proponents of modern existentialism,
newspaper and was a friend of Sartre. Like other
he made philosophy available to the general public
philosophers, Camus rejected the existentialist
and was concerned with man's to extremes
label as his work was concerned with the absurd.
conditions. Like Marcel and other philosophers,
To demonstrate the futility of existence. he used
Jaspers belongs to the religious group of
the Analogy of the Greek Myth of Sisyphus to
existentialists
provide context to his thoughts on the topic. He
compares man's existence to Sisyphus who is DISCUSSION:
condemned for eternity to roll a rock up the hill.
- There is a need to understand the world in which
When Sisyphus reaches the summit, the rock will
a mental patient by means of sympathetic
roll to the bottom again.
participation in his experience
Camus believes that man's existence is pointless
- His philosophy of existence is both immanent and
but that. the myth, Sisyphus finds meaning and
transcendental
purpose in in continuously performing the task. his
task, by Immanent- something that is existing or
operational within our interest
Camus became a French resistance member with
Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, and de Beauvoir and Transcendental- it is relating to spiritual or non-
brought "humanism" to his existentialism. His physical
philosophical belief of man's absurd existence
VI. Fyodor Dostoevsky
identifies him as an existentialist and denies his
allegiance with humanism. The character in his
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Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1884) was a Russian He published his major work The Destiny of Man in
writer of realist fiction and essays. Dostoevsky 1931 along this theme. In his work, Berdyaev
describes a man who is unhappy of his identities is explored man's philosophical ideas in freedom,
unable to fit into society. Jean-Paul Sartre in his truth, creativity, and philosophical personalism.
book Existentialism is a Humanism, quoted
For Berdyaev, freedom was the basic or ultimate
Dostoevsky Brothers Karamazov as a case of
metaphysical reality. Freedom is the prior and the
existential crisis. He quoted Ivan Karamazov who
basis to everything else. For him, freedom is the
claims that "if God did not exist. all things would be
"groundless ground" and that "freedom precedes
permitted."
existence." He espouses that to attain the ultimate
Other Dostoevsky's novels discussed issues in truth., one had to experience it firsthand. Berdyaev
existentialist philosophy. He also used story lines distinguished two kinds of truths objective and
conflicting secular existential crisis, proceeding subjective.
toward a Christian Orthodox worldview. All of
Berdyaev was quite interested in creativity
which are aligned with Dostoevsky's advocacies.
developed his understanding of it. He embraced
Dostoevsky studied individual will, freedom, and
that freedom is the center of the existence. In that,
anguish. He had a peculiar interest in abnormal and
man is free to create as God created "out of
perverted types that he analyzed with an uncanny
nothing." Man uses certain materials in creating. In
subtlety. Probably as a consequence of his long
the process, man does not simply remake or mimic
association with criminals.
what as already done, but is creating something
DISCUSSION: entirely new. For Berdyaev, in philosophical
personalism, man is communal. Thus, man, using
"if God did not exist. all things would be
his freedom, creates new things for others.
permitted."- We behave our attitude according to
such belief DISCUSSION:
HE STUDIED: - HE distinguished the world of spirit from everyday
world of objects
-individual will
FREEDOM
-Freedom
- something that we live with and that we have to
-Anguish
protect all times because it is something that we
VII. Nikolai Berdyaev have that is unique to us human beings

Nikolai Berdyaev (1874-1948), a Russian and - we are not simply product or by product of
political philosopher, was born in an aristocratic something
military family Kiev, this is where he spent his
- man should not be interpreted naturalistically but
childhood where at his father's library, he was to
as a being created in God’s Image
read extensively. At 14 years old he already excelled
in languages and already read Hegel, Schopehauer VIII. Martin Heidegger
and Kant. Berdyaev became a well-known
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), an influential
revolutionary while exiled in Paris. Using his
German philosopher, is known for his existential
background in the Eastern Orthodox Church, he
and phenomenological explorations of the question
distinguished the world of spirit from the everyday
of being. Heidegger, with Karl Jaspers, held a
world of objects.
professorship at Marburg before assuming
For Berdyaev, human freedom was entrenched in Husserl's chair at Heidegger's support of National
the realm of spirit which is independent from Socialism. In 1928 in Freiburg, they organized
scientific notions of causations. For him, while man philosophical discussions and later shared a mutual
lives in the objective world, he is estranged from admiration for Kierkegaard.
authentic spiritual freedom. He further stressed
Heidegger's lectured extensively on Nietzsche.
that man should not be interpreted naturalistically
However, whether he is existentialist is debatable.
but as a being created in God's image.
In Being and Time, Heidegger presented a method
of ingraining philosophical explorations into or
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human existence which analyzed using existential

categories. For this, he was considered an impotent
figure in the existentialist movement.
His best-known work is Being and Time, which is
considered one of the most important
philosophical works of the 20th century. It is argued
that confronting the question of the meaning of
being. encompassing one's own death, was central
for an authentic human existence. Later, though he
denied being an existentialist, was called "The non-
Christian atheist infatuated with time." Heidegger

DISCUSSION:
INAUTHENTIC EXISTENCE
-INFERIOR WAY OF LIVING
- uncritical participation in the world
- they have nothing to contribute
- they do not bring newness
- self estrangement
- not real human existence
AUTHENTIC EXISTENCE
-SUPERIOR WAY OF LIVING
Consist of: Analysis of the self
- to live authentically means to exist, to exist means
to stand out because of being active
- humans can never hope to understand why they
are here, instead individual must choose a goal and
follow it with passionate conviction