Prepared by: Mykko G.

Guerrero, MA
PERSONAL INFORMATION
 He was born in Athens, Greece in the year 428 B.C.E.
 His given name was Aristocles but he earned the name
“Plato” which means “broad” or “wide” due to his
physical attributes like his wide forehead and wide
shoulders.
 He founded a school of philosophy which was named
after the Greek hero Acamedus which later became
known as the “Academy”.
 His university lasted for almost 900 years until Emperor
Justinian closed it in the year 529 A.D.
 Plato died in 348 B.C.E.
ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY

Allegory of the Cave

GOOD

The ideal dog

World of
Forms

SUN

World of
Mere Things

ALLEGORY Mere dog copies

OF THE CAVE
There is evil in the world
because the soul is
imprisoned in the body of the
person.

Also, ignorance is the cause

of evil acts.
For a healthy soul…

The correct action or the moral

action is an action that is
commanded by man’s reason.

Reason must control the appetites

and must direct the will away from
the sensuous pleasures.
If one comes to know the Good,
one becomes good. Ignorance is
the only sin.
PERSONAL INFORMATION
 He was born in Stagira, Thrace in 384 B.C.E.
 His father was the physician of the king of Macedonia.
 At the age of 17, he was sent to Plato’s Academy where
he stayed there for 20 years.
 Because of his prolific intelligence, he earned the
reputation as the “mind of the university”.
 He became the teacher of Alexander, the son of King
Philip of Macedonia.
 In Athens, he founded a school called Lyceum.
 At the age of 62, he died due to stomach complications.
ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY

Nicomachean Ethics

Aristotle‟s ethics does not

focus on what the right
thing/act to do is but rather
on „how to be a good
person‟.
 Aristotle’s ethics concentrates on defining good people
and the qualities/virtues that make them good.
GOOD…

Characteristics of the good

a. The good is the end of the action.

b. The good is complete.
c. Happiness meats the criteria for completeness, but other
goods do not.
d. The good is self-sufficient, so is happiness.
e. The good is most choice-worthy, so is happiness.
GOOD…

Clearer statement of the best good

a. If something has a function, its good depends on its

function.
b. The human function, that is, rational function.
c. The human good is activity expressing virtue.
d. The good must also be complete.
VIRTUE…

VIRTUE vs. VICE

Disposition of the soul, or Habituation with wrong

habituation guided by right intention
intention

Two extremes:
Latin Phrase: Excessiveness and Deficiency
“Medio Stat Virtus.”

“Virtue lies in the middle.”

VIRTUE…

Extreme: Virtue: Extreme:

Deficiency Mean Excess

Cowardice Courage Recklessness

Stinginess Generosity Prodigality
VIRTUE…

Two sorts of virtue

1) Virtue of Thought – arises and grows mostly from

teaching and hence needs experience and time.
2) Virtue of Character – results from habit.
 Aristotle’s ethics is agent-centered morality.

Is X a good
Hi! I‟m X.
person?
The best and happiest life, according to Aristotle,
involved living well in a community or society,
respecting both other people and your own interests.
Three forms of friendship

For Aristotle, human relationships, in general, and

friendship, in particular, is a vital element in the cultivation
of a good life.

1. Friendship oriented on pleasure.

2. Friendship grounded on utility or usefulness.
3. Friendship rooted on goodness.
The good (best) life means to have a happy life. But to
achieve this, one must live a virtuous life.

The virtuous life means to be aware and to practice

moderation guided by prudent judgment.

The good (best) life means living well or a life living

according to what is virtuous.
A good person is a virtuous person.

o The virtuous person has practical wisdom or phronesis,

that is, the ability to know when and how best to apply
the various moral perspectives.

Retreat!!!
o The virtuous person knows how to live his life to the
fullest.
o The virtuous person understands life by living well.
PERSONAL INFORMATION

 Thomas was the son of the Count of Aquino and was

born in the family castle in Lombardy near Naples, Italy.
 Thomas was sent to the Benedictine abbey for schooling
when he was five. When he was eighteen, he went to the
University of Naples to finish his studies.
 He joined the Dominican Order or Order of Preachers in
1244 A.D.
 He is one of the greatest Doctors of the Catholic Church
and is considered the universal patron of universities,
colleges, and schools.
 In March 7, 1274, he died at the age of forty-nine.
ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY

Aristotelian Ethics Thomistic Ethics

Thomistic Ethics is centered on the concept of the…

Eternal Law
and
Natural Law
Eternal Law
For Aquinas, God, in His divine providence, plans for all
things and directs all things to their proper order, proper
purpose, and proper ends.
Hello there!

Hi Omnipotent Being!
Eternal Law extends to all acts and movements in the
universe.

Ex.
1. Law of gravity 2. Plants grow
3. Animals follow the 4. The earth turns on its axis
guidance of instinct
Man alone may refuse the
direction of the Eternal Law in
matters of free choice.
Natural Law

Do Good

Avoid
Evil
For St. Thomas, the natural law
is the eternal moral law, or
God’s law. God has written unto
the very nature of each person
the eternal law, telling each
person to direct himself towards
the good.
I know that… Lies and
Man knows naturally, by the murder are EVIL…
Truthfulness and
light of understanding, that respect for life and
there are some things evil in property are GOOD…
themselves, and some things
which are necessarily good.

Thus, man inevitably recognizes an

order in things.
He has the knowledge of good as a thing to be done, and of
evil as a thing to be avoided.

Hence, the natural expression of the natural law is:

“Conserve the natural order,” or “Do good and avoid
evil.”
Conscience AND
Natural Law

Conscience

Latin word: conscientia

scientia – “knowledge”;
„Conscience‟ as the
“application of knowledge to con – “with”
activity”
The conscience can be mistaken, and
does not exempt human being from
culpability. If he/she is able to know
but fails to act in his/her obligation to
do so, then he/she is not free from
blame and responsibility.
Therefore…

Conscience
class

Form one‟s own

conscience
There are different kinds of conscience that may lead to
wrongdoing:

• Callous – results in the long-time persistence in doing

evil that the self is no longer concerned whether he/she
does is good/bad.
• Perplexed – one needs guidance in sorting out one’s
confusion.
• Scrupulous – fails to trust one’s ability to do good, and
overly concerns itself with avoiding what is bad to the
point of seeing wrong where there really is none.
• Ignorant – lacks education
You cannot disobey the dictates of your
conscience!

Because conscience remains to be our

proximate norm that bids us to do good and
avoid evil.
“Lack of Goodness”
I am good.
So, you are
also good.

I am good.

Just Do Good.
Nope.
You have a
mission… Am I
dead?

B
E
A
T
You are in
I
heaven because
F you are good.
I
Where
C
am I?
V
I
S
I
O
N
PERSONAL INFORMATION

 He was born in Konigsberg, Germany on April 22, 1724.

 His Parents were Pietists in the Lutheran Church.
- The Pietists were a sect in the church who emphasized
sincerity, deep feeling, and the moral life rather than
theological doctrine or orthodox belief.
 In 1755, he obtained his doctorate degree.
 He never got married. Since he devoted his life to the
study and teaching of philosophy at the University of
Konigsberg
 His magnum opus:
- The Critique of Pure Reason (1781)
- The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of
Morals (1785)
ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY

Kant’s Rule-Deontological System

Morality is:
a) A priori
- Not based and not derived
from experience. all moral principles
- Reason is “the be all and end all laws
all knowledge
all” of everything. all truths
b) It is universal.
- It applies to everybody.
Hey! I am your REASON.
Obey me for you to
become a moral person.

c) It is absolute. REASON
- Moral laws are complete and fixed.
d) Moral laws are immutable.
- Moral laws cannot be changed.
“DUTY” is the test and
mainspring of all morally
good acts.
Two kinds of Imperatives

1) Hypothetical Imperative 2) Categorical Imperative

• Formula: “If you want A, then • Formula: “Do B!”

do B” • For Kant, one must perform
moral duty solely for its own
sake, that is, duty for duty’s
sake
• This imperative is a product
of reason and it is therefore
applicable to all, since this is a
principle that could be
universalized.
Kant gives at least three formulations of the Categorical
Imperative (CI)

1) The Principle of the Universal Law

2) The Principle of Humanity or Ends
3) The Principle of Autonomy
The Principle
of the Universal Law…
“Act only according to that maxim by
which you can at the same time will,
that it would become a universal law.”
The Principle of the Universal Law…

Steps to make a Universal Law:

1. Formulate the Maxim of the Action. That is, figure out
what general principle you would be acting on if you
were to perform the action. The maxim will have
something like this form: “in situations of sort S, I will
do A.”

Example 1 Example 2
“in situations in which I am “in situations in which I need
thirsty and there is water money and know I can’t pay it
available, I will drink it” back, I will falsely promise to
pay it back”
The Principle of the Universal Law…

2. Universalize the Maxim. That is, regard it not as a

personal policy but as a principle for everyone. A
universalized maxim will look something like this: “in
situations of sort S, everyone will do A.”

Example 1 Example 2
“in situations in which anyone “in situations in which anyone
is thirsty and water is available, needs money and knows he or
that person will drink it.” she can’t pay it back, he or she
will falsely promise to pay it
back”
The Principle of the Universal Law…

3. Determine whether the universalized maxim could be a

universal law, that is, whether it is possible for everyone
to act as the universalized maxim requires.

Example 1 Example 2
“in situations in which anyone “in situations in which anyone
is thirsty and water is available, needs money and knows he or
that person will drink it.” she can’t pay it back, he or she
will falsely promise to pay it
back”
This can be a universal law. This is morally wrong.
Reason: N.A. Reason: the institution of
promising would disappear.
The Principle of the Universal Law…

If the universalized maxim

could not be a universal
It is not my
DUTY!!! law, you have a perfect
obligation not to perform
the action.

MAXIM OF
FALSE PROMISES
The Principle of the Universal Law…

If the maxim could be a universal law,

but you could not will that it be a
universal law, you have an imperfect duty
not to perform the action.
The Principle of the Universal Law…

This Photograph showing a starving

Sudanese child being stalked by a
Example vulture won Kevin Carter the 1994
Pulitzer Prize for feature
photography.
The Principle of the Universal Law…

Carter had reportedly been advised not to

touch the victims because of disease, so
instead of helping, he spent 20 minutes
waiting in the hope that the stalking bird
would open its wings. It did not. Carter
Maxim of scared the creature away and watched as
HELP??? the child continued toward the center. He
then lit a cigarette, talked to God and wept.
…… the child did survive yet died 14 years
later from malarial fever.
The Principle of
Humanity or Ends…
“Act so that you treat humanity,
whether in your own person or in that
of another, always as an end and
never as a mean only.”
The Principle of Humanity or Ends…

Man, as a rational being, is intrinsically

valuable; we ought therefore to treat
people as having a value rather than
merely as useful tools or devices by means
of which we can satisfy our own goals or
purposes.
The Principle of Humanity or Ends…

To treat somebody as mere means…

Ex.:

To have a sex partner…

The Principle of Humanity or Ends…

Also, we treat others as

mere means when we
force them to do
something, or when we
obtain their consent
through coercion or
dishonesty.
The Principle of Humanity or Ends…

What would it be to treat someone

as an end in him or herself?

For Kant, we should be able to explain

our reasons in such a way that the person
will see the reasonableness of acting in the
way we propose.

To have a family, and someone

who will accompany me someday
as I get old…
The Principle
of Autonomy…
“Every rational being is able to regard
oneself as a maker of universal law, that
is, we do not need an external authority
(like God, the State, our culture, or anyone
else) to determine the nature of the moral
law, since we can discover this for
ourselves.”
The Principle of Autonomy…

One must have an autonomous will in determining the

moral goodness of one’s action, since we are rational and
autonomous legislators of our own actions.

Heteronomous will – heteronomous person is one whose

motivated by the authority of others, whether it be religion,
the state, his/her parents, or a peer group.
The Principle of Autonomy…

Kant mentioned about freedom… I AM NOT A

FREE PERSON
A person is not free if he/she
is beholden (enslaved) to the
outside influences.

Religion
Peer Group
State
Parents
The Principle of Autonomy…

Freedom means adhering to the moral law –

having one‟s will determined not, as above,
externally, but only by its own nature. The state
of being free is the state of one‟s will being
autonomous, literally, in the state of “giving the
law to oneself.”
Kant‟s Ethics and Religion

 Kant still believes in God, the Supreme Good.

 It is in God’s good reason that he imposed the
commandments to human beings.
 The commandments of God are exactly those of
morality.
 It is our duty to obey God.
 God desires that we attain the highest form of good.
 Thus, there is no conflict between morality and religion.
Kant postulated three forms of being to
make our moral actions reasonable and
credible:

1. Freedom
2. Immortality of the soul
3. The existence of God
REFERENCES

Books
• Business Ethics and Social Responsibility by Fr. Floriano C. Roa
• Looking at Philosophy by Donald Palmer
• Ethics by Rev. Msgr. Paul J. Glenn, Ph.D., S.T.D
• Ethics and Human Dignity by Christopher Ryan B. Maboloc
• Ethics by Marc Oliver D. Pasco et al.

Website
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]

Others
• Hand-outs on the topic: Aristotle; Professor: Raniel Reyes; Course Title: General
Ethics; School: Adamson University
• Hand-outs on the topic: Kant and the Deontological Theories; Professor: Raniel
Reyes; Course Title: General Ethics; School: Adamson University