EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

A. Exploring The Field of EP

• Historical background
• The field of EP was founded by several pioneers in
psychology just before 20th C.
• Let’s explore their contributions briefly:
1. William James (1842-1910)
• The applications of psychology to educating
children.
• Laboratory psychology experiments sometimes
can’t tell us how to effectively teach children.
• The importance of observing teaching and
learning in classroom
• To start lesson at a point just beyond the child’s
level of knowledge and understanding , in order
to stretch the child’s mind.

2. John Dewey (1859-1952)

• Children learn best by doing.
• Education Should focus on the whole child and
emphasizes in adaptation to the environment.
• Not only educated in academic topic, but
should learn how to think and adapt to a world
outside school.
• Children should learn how to be reflective
problem solvers.
• All children Girls and boys as well as children
from different socioeconomic and ethnic
groups should equally deserve and have a
competent education.
3. E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
• Emphasis on assessment and measurement.
• Promote the scientific underpinnings of
learning. ( what is the best way to learn?)
• To sharpen children’s reasoning skills.
• Excelled at doing scientific studies of teaching
and learning.
• Promoted the idea that EP must have a
scientific base.
Educational Psychology:
Art or Science?
• EP is the branch of psychology that specializes
in understanding teaching and learning in
educational settings.
• Both science and practice play important role
in EP.
• There is a big debate about how much
teaching can be based on science v.s about
how much it is an art.
• As a science, EP’s aim is to provide us with
research knowledge that we can effectively
apply to teaching situation.
• But, scientific knowledge alone can’t inform us
about all of the teaching situations that we will
encounter, that is why EP is also an art.
• We need to make some important judgments
in the classroom based on our personal skills
and experience as well as accumulated
wisdom of other teachers.
B. The complex, fast-paced nature of
teaching
1. teaching is multidimensional
• One reality of teaching is that many events
occur simultaneously that it involves many
different domains.
• We often think teaching in terms of academic
and cognitive domains. (emphasizing thinking
and learning only in subject areas.)
• Teaching also involves social, affective, moral,
and healthy domains as well as many others
aspects of student’s lives.
• Teachers’ agenda must consist teaching
academic subjects, promoting socialization,
and personal development.
• Teaching involves helping students learn how
to be self-reliant, and monitor their own work,
as well as learn how to work cooperatively and
productively with others.
2. Teaching involves uncertainty
• In the classroom, it is difficult to predict what
effect a given action by the teacher will have on
any particular student.
• Often teacher must make quick decisions that
have uncertain outcomes.
• Uncertainty includes the need to teach student
in ways that teachers might not have been
taught themselves.
• Current educational reform emphasizes the
social context of learning, the use of portfolios,
and conducting long term projects.
• Teacher’s role : to guide and help students
construct their knowledge.

3. Teaching involves social and ethical matters.

• The social and ethical matters of teaching include
the question of educational equity.
• E.g. when teachers make decisions about routine
matters , such as which students to call on, what
kind of assignments to make, how to group
students, which can create advantages and
disadvantages to some students.
• In some cases, might unintentionally create
injustices to students from particular
backgrounds.
• Why does this happen?
• How can it be countered?
• These are important practical questions.
4. Teaching involves a diverse mozaic of students
• Your classroom will be filled with students who are
differ in many ways.
• They will have different levels of intellectual ability,
different personality profiles, different interests ,
different motivation to learn, different family,
economy, religious, and cultural background.
• furthermore, Students with disabilities and disorders
are increasingly being taught in the normal school.
• So, these variations and diversity increase the
classroom’s complexity and contribute to the
challenge of teaching.
c. Effective teaching
• Teachers must master a variety of perspectives
and strategies, and be flexible in their
application.
• This requires three important keys:
a. professional knowledge and skills
B. commitment
C. professional growth.
A. professional knowledge and skills
1. Subject matter competence: having a
thoughtful, flexible, conceptual standing of
subject matter includes a lot more than just
facts, terms, and general concepts.
Knowledgeable about organizing ideas,
connecting among ideas, ways of thinking,
and arguing, and the ability to carry out ideas
from one discipline to another.
2. instructional strategies
• With these strategies, teachers would not have
children memorize information rotely but
would give them opportunities to meaningfully
construct the knowledge and understanding
themselves.
• In other words: information is not directly
poured into children’s minds. Rather children
are encouraged to explore their world.
Discovered knowledge , reflect, and think
critically. (constructivist view).
• Not everyone agrees with the idea of constructivist.
• Some traditional educators believe that the
teachers should direct and control children’s
learning more than the constructivists idea implies.
• They believe that they often do not focus enough
on basic academic tasks or have sufficiently high
expectations for children’s achievement.
• Whether you adopt current idea or the traditional
one, you can still be an effective teacher.
3. goal and planning setting
• Set high goals for teaching and develop
organized plan for reaching those goals.
• Develop specific criteria for success. Spend
considerable time in instructional planning,
organizing lessons to maximize student’s
learning.
• Be able to make learning both challenging and
interesting.
4. classroom management skills
• Being able to keep the class as a whole
working together and oriented toward
classroom tasks.
• Being able to establish and maintain an
environment in which learning can occur.
• Organizing group, monitoring pacing
classroom activities, and being able to handle
misbehavior.
5. motivational and communication skills
• Having good strategies for helping students
become self-motivated to learn.
• Providing real-world learning opportunities
that are of optimal difficulty and novelty for
each student.
• Knowing very well that students are motivated
when they can make choices that are in line
with their personal interests. E.g: giving
opportunity to think creatively and deeply
about projects.
• Using good communication skill to interact
with students, parents, administrators, keep
criticism at a minimum, and have an assertive
rather than aggressive, manipulative , or
passive communication style.
• Work to improve students’ communication
skills as well.
6. technological skills
• Develop their technological skills and integrate
computers appropriately into classroom learning.
• Know how to use and teach students to use
computers for discovery and writing.
• Know how to use and teach students to use
computer-mediated communication resources such
as internet.
• Knowledgeable about various assistive devices to
support the learning of students with disabilities.
B . Commitment
• Being motivated , having a good attitude, and
caring about students.
• Having confidence in their own self-efficacy
and don’t let negative emotions diminish their
motivation.
• These qualities are contagious and help make
the classroom a place where students want to
be.
• Have a caring concern for students and are
dedicated to helping them learn.
• Spending extra time to engage with students
in learning, consider feeling.
• Although , they are caring, they keep their
role as a teacher distinct from students roles.
• Know their limits as teachers and boundaries .
C. professional growth
• Develop a positive identity: your identity is the
whole of you, a composite of many pieces, it
includes more than your role as a teacher, it also
includes your personal life, lifestyle,
relationship, physical health, mental health, and
personal interest.
• Seek advice from experience teachers: especially
when you are a beginner teacher, seeking advice
from experienced teacher can be a valuable
resources.
• However, need to remember that not every
experienced teacher is a good teacher. A
competent up to date experienced teacher
would be the best advice to consider.
• Never stop learning: learning is ongoing and
lifelong.
• Currently there is much educational reform
taking place, and reform is likely to continue
into the foreseeable future.
• It is an exciting time to become a teacher
because of the many new developments.
• Make a commitment to keep up-to-date about
research and knowledge on effective teaching.
• This will include: taking advantage of
workshops, taking course beyond your initial
degree, reading educational journals and books,
seeking information from experts in various
educational domains.
INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS
A. Intelligence
• Intelligence: verbal ability, problem-solving
skills, and the ability to adapt and to learn
from life’s everyday experiences.
• Intelligence: referred to the cognitive abilities
of an individual to learn from experiences , to
reason well, and to cope effectively with the
demands of daily living.
• Intelligence is such an abstract, broad concept, it is
not surprising that there are so many different
possible definitions of it.

• Theories of Multiple Intelligences

1. Robert J. Sternberg (1986)
• In his Triarchic Theory of Intelligence,
intelligence comes in three forms: analytical,
creative, and practical.
• A. analytical intelligence: the ability to analyze,
judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast.
• Children with this ability tend to be preferred
in conventional school.
• They often do well in direct instruction classes,
they often are considered to be “smart”
students who get good grades. Do well on
traditional tests of intelligence and the SAT (
standardized aptitude test ). And later get
admitted to competitive colleges (best
colleges).
B. creative intelligence: the ability to create,
design, invent, originate, and imagine.
• Children with this type are often not on the
top rung in the class. They might not like to
teacher’s expectations about how assignment
should be done, but they give unique answers
and results, that is why sometimes they got
less marks.
• Sternberg believes, that too often a teacher’s
desire to improve student’s knowledge
depresses creative thinking.
C. Practical intelligence: the ability to use , apply,
implement, and put into practice.
• Children with this type often do not do well to the
demands of school, but they do well outside the
classroom.
• They might have excellent social skills, and good
common sense.
• It is important in teaching to balance instructions
related to 3 types of intelligence.
• Children should be given opportunities to learn
through analytical, creative and practical thinking.
2. Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind (1983)
• Howard Gardner believes there are eight types of
intelligence.
1. Verbal skill: the ability to think in words and to use
language to express meaning, such as: authors,
journalists, and speakers.
2. Mathematical skills: the ability to carry out
mathematical operations, such as: scientists,
engineers, accountants.
3. Spatial Skills: The ability to think three
dimensionally, such as architect, painter, sailor.
4. bodily-kinesthetic skills: the ability to
manipulate objects and be physically adept,
such as: surgeons, craftspeople, dancers,
athletes.
5. musical skills: a sensitivity to pitch, melody,
rhythm, tone, such as: composers, musicians,
sensitive listeners.
6. interpersonal skills: the ability to understand
and effectively interact with others, such as:
successful teachers, mental health
professionals.
7. intrapersonal skills: the ability to understand
oneself, and effectively direct one’s life, such as:
theologians, psychologists.
8. naturalist skills: the ability to observe patterns
in nature and understand natural and human-
made systems, such as: farmers, botanists,
ecologists, landscapers.
• By using project spectrum, we can identify and
examine the proposed eight intelligences in
young children.
The Binet Test
• In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked
psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method of
identifying children who were unable to learn in
school.
• The purpose: to reduce crowding by placing in
special school students who did not get benefit
from regular classroom teaching.
• Finally Binet and his student Theophile Simon
developed an intelligence test.
• The test is called 1905 Scale. It consisted of 30
questions, ranging from the ability to touch
one’s ear to the ability to draw designs from
memory and define abstract concepts.
• Binet developed the concept of Mental Age
• (MA) is: an individual’s level of mental
development relative to others.
• In 1912, William Stern created the concept of
Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which refers to a
person’s mental age (MA) divided by
Chronological Age (CA),( the real age) multiplied
by 100. that is IQ= MA/CA X 100.
• If mental age is the same as chronological age,
then the person’s IQ is 100. If mental age is
above chronological age, then IQ is more than
100. e.g. a 6-yr-old with a MA of 8 would have
an IQ of 133. If a MA is below CA, then IQ is less
than 100. e.g. a 6-yr-old with a MA 5 would have
an IQ of 83.
• The Binet test has been revised many times to
incorporate advances in the understanding of
the intelligence and intelligence testing.
• These revisions are called “ The Stanford Binet
Tests”. (made at the Stanford Univ.).
• By doing the test to large numbers of people of
different ages from different backgrounds,
researchers have found that scores on a Stanford
Binet test approximate a normal distribution.
• A normal distribution: is symmetrical, with a
majority of the scores falling in the middle of the
possible range of scores appearing toward the
extremes of the range.
• The current Stanford -Binet is administered
individually to people aged 2 through adult.
• The test includes a variety of items, some of which
require verbal responses and nonverbal responses.
E.g. items for a 6-yr-old’s age the verbal ability to
define at least six words, such as: orange, and
envelope, as well as the nonverbal ability to trace a
path through a maze.
• E.g. items for an adult’s age such as defining words
like what is disproportionate and regard? Explaining
a proverb, and comparing idleness and laziness.
• The fourth edition of his test was
published in 1985.
• An important addition to this version was
the individual’s responses in terms of four
functions: verbal reasoning, quantitative
reasoning, abstract visual reasoning, and
short-term memory.
• The Stanford Binet test continues to be one of
the most widely used tests to assess student’s
intelligence.
• The normal curve and the Stanford Binet test
IQ scores
• The distribution of IQ scores approximates a
normal curve. Most of the population falls in
the middle range of scores. Notice, that
extremely high and extremely low scores are
very rare. Slightly more than two-third of the
scores fall between 84 and 116.
• Only about 1 in 50 persons has an IQ of more
than 132, and only about 1 in 50 persons has
an IQ of less than 68.
Learning: the major focus of Educational
Psychology
• Certainly not all learning occurs in school.
• Just think of how much children have learned
before they ever enter a classroom.
• They know how to understand and use
language, they can perform many motor skills,
and they often understand a wide variety of
concepts.
• The purpose of schools is to promote learning,
and as a teacher our primary responsibility is
to help students learn.
• We will explore in some details four schools of
thought concerning of how people learn:
Behavior approach, Cognitive approach, The
Social learning approach, and The Humanistic
approach.
1. Behavioral Approach
• Based on the philosophy of empiricism, the
believe that a person can acquire knowledge
only about things that can be experienced by
means of the senses of sight, touch, hearing,
smell, and taste.
• Then the individual verifies knowledge through
observation and experiment.
• The person also acquires knowledge by
forming various associations among different
aspects of the environment that one can
experience through one’s senses.
• E.g. a person acquires knowledge of flower is
on the basis having had sensory experiences
with flowers by forming associations among
the shape, color, fragrance, and perhaps the
feel of different flowers the person has
previously encountered.
• Behaviorists attempt to explain how learning
occurs by explaining how associations are
formed between events occurring in the
environment and the behavior individuals
exhibit when these events occur.
• An event occurring in the environment is
called a stimulus ( plural stimuli ).
• The behavior a person exhibits when the
stimulus occur is called response.
• Behaviorists refuse to consider intervening
mental process, such as paying attention, that
are not directly observable.
• They became one of the major schools of
thought in psychology.
• Dominated the study of learning in the US
from 1920s to the 1960s.
• Although behaviorism’s influence has
diminished, it is still popular among many
psychologists and educators.
Conditioning
• Behaviorists use the concept of conditioning to
explain how learning occurs.
• Conditioning: the process by which an
organism’s behavior ( the behavior of human
being and animal, e.g. running, eating, sleeping,
etc) becomes associated/connected with some
stimulus in the environment, so that when the
stimulus is presented, the behavior occurs.
Two kinds of conditioning
A. Classical conditioning:
• Is the process by which one learns to make a
familiar respond to a new stimulus
• CC was discovered by Ivan Pavlov while carrying
out his well-known studies of the salivation
response of dog.
• In his experiment, dog’s saliva flows if a piece of
meat is put in dog’s mouth.
• In this case, the meat is unconditioned
stimulus, while saliva that flows is
unconditioned response, why?
• Because both situations are natural ( when we
put meat in dog’s mouth, saliva will flow).
• Another stimulus that introduced to this
experiment is “ a bell”, it was rung while
giving meat to the dog, when this experiment
been repeated many times, the bell alone
caused the saliva flows.
• In this case the bell is conditioned stimulus and
flow saliva (because of the bell was rung) is
conditioned response.
• At the end, the dog learned how to respond to
a new stimulus (whenever bell is rung, saliva
will flow).
• This type of learning we called classical
conditioning.
B. Operant conditioning
• Assumes that behavioral responses become
connected to environmental stimuli largely
(because) as a result of what happen after the
response occurs.
• Eg: when a teacher compliments a student for
handling in an assignment on time.
• In short, in Operant conditioning response is
controlled by stimuli that occur after the
response is made. While classical conditioning,
response is controlled by stimuli that occur
before the response is made.
• Reinforcers : stimuli occurring after a response
(behavior).
• A reinforcer may be perceived as pleasant, or
unpleasant by the learners.
• Do not think that what is pleasant or desirable
to one student will pleasant to another
student.
• Reinforcers also can be presented or removed.
• Positive Reinforcement: is the representation of a
pleasant stimulus following the occurrence of a
response.
• Receiving the pleasant stimulus increases the
likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
• Punishment ; the presentation of unpleasant
stimulus following a response.
• The use of punishment and it’s consequences are
controversial.
• Critics note that punishment can hurt students’
self-esteem, cause them to perceive school and the
classroom negatively, and associate learning with
punishment.
• Extinction : is a way to decrease the frequency
of a response (behavior) which involves
removing a pleasant stimulus that previously
followed a response.
• e.g : a boy learn that whenever he cries his
mother will give him sweets, (pleasant stimulus),
next time, whenever he wants sweets he will
start crying. But, when the mother stop giving
him sweets whenever he cries, extinction will
happen and the boy will decrease or stop crying
to get sweets.
• Negative reinforcement : a method of
increasing behavior through the removal of
unpleasant stimulus following a response.
• e.g.: a student with speech difficulty may not
speak in the class because of other students will
laugh at him/her. But, if the teacher stops
his/her friends : that is laughter (unpleasant
stimulus), he/she might speak up.
• In this case, Laughter is a negative
reinforcement.
• Remember !!!!
• Extinction and negative reinforcement involve
removing stimuli to change behavior. While
Positive reinforcement and punishment
involve introducing stimuli to change
behavior.
• Stimulus Discrimination: is the process by
which individuals learn that a particular
response is suitable to a special stimulus and
not suitable to other similar stimulus.
• E.g: when a toddler learn the word “baba”,
whenever he sees any man he will call him
baba. Later on he will learn that any man he
calls baba is not his father because of the
response that man gave to toddler.
• Stimulus generalization : is the process by
which individuals learn to make the same
response to more than one stimulus.
• E.g: when the toddler calls any man baba.
• Shaping : is the process of teaching a new
behavior by reinforcing behaviors that become
closer to the desired behavior ( the behavior
that we really want to change).
• E.g : an English teacher in the beginning may
praise (reinforce) students who speak English
even if they make mistakes. But, later on, she
only praises students those who speak without
mistakes.
2. Cognitive Approach
• Cognition: a term used to describe all of our mental
processes such as perception, memory, and judgment.
• This approach focuses most attention on studying of
how people think.
• Emphasis more on getting students to monitor,
manage, and regulate their own behavior rather than
letting it be controlled by external factors.
• There are two major approaches to the study of
thinking.
A. the cognitive developmental model
B. the information-processing model
A. the cognitive developmental model
• This approach focuses on changes that occur in
how people think as they progress from
infancy through childhood and adolescence
and into adulthood.
• Jean Piaget the famous Swiss Psychologist
(1896-1980) was best known for this theory.
• He explained our understanding of how
children think and construct knowledge.
• He said, children as active learners who
behave like “ little scientists “ who develop
their own theories about how the world
works, and set out to confirm these guesses.
• His main concern was to discover how people
acquire knowledge.
• His studies have shown that throughout the
lifespan, people go through a sequence of four
qualitatively different stages of thinking.
• First stage: Sensorimotor Stage ( from birth to
2 yrs of age) infants acquire knowledge based
on the sensory experiences of sight, hearing,
touch, taste, and smell with physical actions.
• Infants coordinate their sensory experiences
such as seeing and hearing with their motor
actions such as reaching and touching.
• Second stage: Preoperational Stage ( from 2 to 7
yrs of age) preschoolers progress to the stage of
acquiring knowledge of the world through their
perceptions of their own experiences in the world.
In this stage, young children begin to use scribbled
designs to represent people, houses, cars, and
many other aspects of the world. Because young
children are not very concerned about reality,
their drawings are fanciful and inventive.
• Eg: in their imaginative world: suns are blue, skies
are green, cars float on the cloud.
• Third stage: Concrete Operational Stage ( 7 to
11 yrs of age) older children begin to apply
roles of logic to understand how the world
works. They can now reason logically about
concrete events and classify objects into
different sets.
• At this level, children can do mentally what
they previously could do only physically.
• Fourth stage: Formal Operational Stage ( 11 yrs of
age through adulthood).
• adolescents and adults progress to the stage where
they can apply logic to hypothetical as well as to
real situations. At this level, they reasons in more
abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.
• Adolescents engage in extended speculation about
the ideal qualities they desire in themselves and
others. These idealistic thoughts can merge into
fantasy. Many adolescents become impatient with
their new found ideals and the problem of how to
leave them out.
• At the same time , they also are beginning to
think more logically. They think more like
scientists. They devise plans to solve problems
and systematically test solutions.
• They can develop hypotheses about ways to
solve problems and systematically reach a
conclusion.
• He believed that people are constantly trying
to make sense of the world by comparing their
internal understanding of how the world
works with their external evidence.
• Given Piaget’s theory, it seems clear that an
important role of a teacher is to provide
students with experiences that will help them
develop more accurate understanding of how
the world works.
B. the information processing model
• Is using the way a computer works as a way of
understanding how the human mind works.
• Computer works: takes in input, processes it, and
produces output.
• Human mind works: takes in information (sensory
experiences), processes it ( thinks), and produces
output ( behavior).
• This model concerned with the nature of cognitive
processes rather than with developmental stages
through with thinking evolves.
• According to this model, students learn most
effectively when they can relate new
knowledge to what they already know.
• This model has made its greatest contribution
in explaining how human memory works, that
is how we take in information (encoding),
organize it in our minds (storage), and get
access to it when it needed (retrieval).
3. The social learning process
• Is also called observational learning, it focuses
on how we learn by observing the behavior of
others.
• This theory provides a link between the
behavioral and cognitive approaches.
• According to this theory, people may learn
simple by observing a model “ other people”.
• E.g. students may learn how to write capital letters
by observing their teacher writing capital letters.
• This theory said, learning may happen without any
observable response “ a behavior that we can
observe” and without any reinforcement.
• E,g, children may learn the meaning of certain
words without showing that they have learnt.
• Although reinforcement is not necessary for
learning, but the use of it increases the possibility
that what has been learned will actually be
performed.
The phases of social learning
• There are four sequential phases for learning
by observing:
1. attention phase: learners should pay
attention to what the model is doing.
• This phase consists of two parts:
a. getting the learner’s attention,
b. maintaining the attention.
2. retention phase: during this phase learners
record the observed behavior in memory.
3. reproduction phase: during this phase
learners actually try to perform the behavior
that they have observed.
4. motivation phase: during this phase learners
decide whether or not to perform the behavior
they have learned.
• Reinforcement is the key to motivation in this
theory.
4. The Humanist Approach
• This approach focuses on the effective or
emotional components of learning.
• It’s goal is to enable students to express
themselves creatively, to understand and cope
with their feeling, and to become independent
learners.
• From this perspective, teachers should pay
attention more to how students learn rather
than what they learn.
• Open education: humanist approach formed
the basis for the open education, OE is
referred to educational setting in which
students are largely responsible for their own
learning, and creativity and emotional growth
are emphasized.
• OE is relatively new being introduced in 2002.
• No academic admission requirement.
• To have a hand-on education experiences
instead of a strictly text-book focused
education.
Building self-esteem
• This approach says, education should promote
student’s self-esteem.
• Positive self-esteem will motivate students to
learn.
Values clarification
• Humanistic education emphasis the
development of students values, not by teaching
specific values, but by encouraging students to
think of their own values.
• What is value? What is most important to you in
your life, about what do you want to live by, and
live for. It is about your own identity.
• E.g being with people, being loved, being
married, having a good friend, having financial
security.
• Teaching without grading
• Many humanists believe in teaching without
grading. According to them, students should
value learning for its own sake, not because they
want a good grade.
Criticism on this approach
• Critics think that this approach is too
unstructured.
• Their concepts are not well defined.
• Their programs have not been evaluated
properly to determine their effectiveness .
(whether successful or not ).
• PEERS
• In addition to families and teachers , peers are
also play a powerful roles in children’s
development.
• Peers : are children of about the same age or
maturity level.
• One of the most important functions of the
peer groups is to provide a source of
information and comparison about the world
outside of the family.
• Good peer relation is very important and
necessary for normal development. The inability
to join a social network for the children will link
with many problems and disorders, ranging
from delinquency (immoral behaviour) drinking
problem to depression.
• Another reason, according to the study, poor
peer relations in childhood was associated with
dropout of school and delinquent behaviour in
adolescence.
• Peer Statuses
• According to developmentalists , they are four
types of peer status:
• 1. Popular children : are frequently nominated
as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their
peers.
• 2. Neglected children : are infrequently (not
always ) nominated as a best friend but are
not disliked by their peers.
• 3. Rejected children: are infrequently
nominated as someone’s best friend and are
often actively disliked by their peers.
• 4. Controversial children : are frequently
nominated both as someone’s best friend and
as being disliked.
• Rejected children often have more serious
adjustment problems than do neglected
children .
• The most important factor in predicting whether
rejected children would engage in delinquent
behaviour or dropout of secondary school was
aggression towards peers in elementary school .
• Aggression , impulsiveness ( do something
immediately without thinking deeply the danger
or the problem ) and disruptiveness characterise
the majority of rejected children , although 10-
20 % they are actually shy children.
EXPLORING MOTIVATION
• Motivation : involves the process that
energizes, direct, and sustain behavior.
• Different psychological perspective explain
motivation in different ways.
The Behavioral Perspective
• Emphasizes that external rewards and
punishments as keys in determining a
student’s motivation.
• Incentives are positive or negative stimuli or
events that can motivate a student’s behavior.
The use of incentives emphasize that students
add interest or excitement to the class or
direct intention toward appropriate behavior
and away from inappropriate behavior.

• Type Of Incentives:
1. numerical scores and letter grades.
2. check marks or stars.
3. giving students recognition such as certificate of
achievement, placing them on the honor roll,
verbally mentioning their accomplishments.
4. allowing students to do something special such
as a desirable activity as a reward for good
work, or extra time at recess, playing computer
games, a field trip, party.
The Humanistic Perspective
• Emphasizes on student’s capacity for personal
growth, freedom to choose their destiny, and
positive qualities (such as being sensitive to
others).
• This perspective is closely associated with Abraham
Maslow.
• In his Hierarchy of Needs, according to him,
individual’s needs must be satisfied in this
sequence.
1. Physiological : hunger , thirst, sleep.
2. Safety: ensuring survival, such as protection
from war and crime
3. Love and belongingness: security, affection,
and attention from others.
4. Esteem: feeling good about ourselves.
5. Self-actualization: realization of one’s potential.
• According to Maslow, students must satisfy
their need for food before they can achieve.
• Self-actualization is the highest and most
elusive of Maslow’s needs.
• It is the motivation to develop one’s full
potential as a human being.
• In his opinion, self-actualization is possible
only after the lower needs have been met.
3. The Cognitive Perspective
• According to cognitive, students’ thoughts
guide their motivation.
• The cognitive has also stresses the importance
of goal setting, planning and monitoring
progress toward a goal.
• The cognitive recommends that students
should be given more opportunities and
responsibility for controlling their own
achievement outcomes.
4. The Social Perspective
• The need for affiliation or relatedness is the motive
to be securely connected with other people. This
involves establishing, maintaining, and restoring
warm, close personal relationships.
• Students need for affiliation is reflected in their
motivation to spend time with peers, close
friendship, attachment to their parents, and their
desire to have a positive relationship with their
teachers.
• Students in schools with caring and supportive
interpersonal relationships have more positive
academic attitudes and values and are more
satisfied with schools.
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
• Extrinsic motivation: external motivation to do
something to obtain something else.
• It is often influenced by external incentives
such as rewards and punishments. Eg: a
student may study hard for a test to get a good
grade.
• Intrinsic motivation: internal motivation to do
something for its own sake. Eg: a student may
study hard for a test because she/he enjoys
the course.
• Two Types Of Intrinsic Motivation.
1. The intrinsic motivation of self-determination
and personal choice
• In this view, students want to believe that they
are doing something because of their own will,
not because of external success or rewards.
• Student’s internal motivation in school tasks
increase when they have some choices and
some opportunities to take personal
responsibility for their learning.
• Teachers are encouraged to help students to
set their own goals, plan how to reach the
goals, and monitor their progress toward
goals, and to take personal responsibility
toward their behavior to reach the goal that
they had set.
2. The intrinsic motivation of optimal experience
and flow.
• Optimal experiences involve feelings of deep
enjoyment and happiness.
• The term “flow” used to describe optimal
experiences in life.
• Flow occurs most often when people develop
a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state
of concentration while they engage in an
activity.
• Also, flow occurs when individuals are engaged
in challenges they find neither too difficult nor
too easy.
• When students’ skills are high but the activity
provides little challenge, the result is boredom.
• When both the challenge and skill level are
low, students feel apathy ( lack of interest or
enthusiasm ).
• When students face a challenging task that
they don’t believe they have adequate skills to
master, they experience anxiety.
Developmental Shifts In Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Motivation
• Many psychologists and educators believe that
it is very important for children to develop
greater internalization and intrinsic motivation
as they grow older.
• However, study has found that as students
move from the early elementary school years
to the high school years , their intrinsic
motivation decreases while their extrinsic
motivation increases. Why?
• One explanation is that school grading
practices reinforce an external motivation
orientation .
• As students get older, they lock into the
increasing emphasis on grades and as a result,
their internal motivation drops.
• Middle and junior high schools are more
impersonal , more formal, more evaluative,
and more competitive than elementary school.
• Students compare themselves more with other
students because they increasingly are graded
in term of their relative performance on
assignment and standardized tests.
Parenting Styles
• According to Diana Baumrind (1996), a leading
authority on parenting, parenting styles come in
four main forms.
A. Authoritarian parenting
• Is restrictive and punitive. Authoritarian parents
exhort( urge) children to follow their directions and
respect them.

• Characteristics
• They place firm limits and controls on their children
.
• Allow little verbal exchange.
• No discussion between parents and children, and allow
for little open dialogue.
• Parent usually ask children to follow a strict set of rules
and expectations.
• Parents demanding a lot but not responsive.
• Parents rely on punishment to demand obedience or
teach a lesson.

• Consequences :
• Children under this style often behave in socially
incompetent ways.
• Tend to be anxious about social comparison .
• Fail to initiate activity
• Have poor communication skills.
• Prone to having low self-esteem, being fearful or
shy.
• Possible misbehaving when outside of parental
care.

• Recognizing authoritarian style

• Do you have very strict rules that you believe
should be followed no matter what?
• Do you often find yourself offering no
explanations for the rules other than “ because I
said so?”
• Do you give your child few choices and
decisions about their own life?
• Do you find yourself utilizing punishment as a
means of getting your child to do what you
ask?
• Are you reserved in the amount of warmth
and nurturing you show your child?
B. Authoritative parenting
• is widely regarded as the most effective and beneficial
parenting style for normal children.

• Characteristics :
• Encourages children to be independent but still put
limits and control on their actions.
• Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed
• They are nurturant and supportive.
• Have high expectations for their children, but temper
these expectations with understanding a support as
well.
• Put their arms on the children’s shoulder in a
comforting way and say.
• Consequences:
• Often behave in socially competent ways.
• Tend to be self-reliant, delay gratification.
• Get long with their peer so easily.
• Show high self-esteem.

• Recognizing authoritative style

• Does your child’s day have structure to it?
Such as a planned bedtime and understood
household rules?
• Are there consequences for disrupting this
structure or breaking the household rules?
• Does your child understand the expectations
that you have for their behavior ? And are these
expectations reasonable?
• Do you have a healthy and open line of
communication with your child? Does your child
feel that they can speak to you about anything
without fear of negative consequences or harsh
judgment?
• Parenting styles will naturally need to differ in
order to accommodate different children, and
you may find that this style does not work for
you if your child has behavioral problems.
• In this case, it is best to adjust your parenting
style appropriately , and if possible to seek out
help from a licensed therapist if you have
difficulty handling.
C. Neglectful parenting
• Is a permissive form of parenting in which parents
are uninvolved in their children’s lives.
• Is one of the most harmful styles of parenting
• When their children are adolescents or perhaps
much younger, these kind of parents can not
answer the question like : it is 10 pm, do you know
where your child is?
Consequences :
• Develop the sense that other aspects of their
parents’ lives are more important.
• They often behave in socially incompetent
ways.
• Have a harder time forming relationship with
other people, particularly children their age.
• Have poor self-control
• Don’t handle independence well
• Are not achievement motivated
• Recognizing neglectful style
• Do you care for your child’s needs? Emotional, physical, and
otherwise?
• Do you have an understanding of what is going on in your
child’s life?
• Does the home provide a safe space for the child where
they can share their experiences and expect positive
feedback rather than negative or no feedback?
• Do you spend long periods of time away from home, leaving
the child alone?
• Do you often find yourself making excuses for not being
there for your child?
• Do you know your child’s friends? Teachers?
• Are you involved in your child’s life outside the home?
• If the above describe you or someone you
know, a child is at risk of being damaged by a
neglectful household.
• It is damaging to children of course, because
they have no trust foundation with their
parents from which to explore the world.
• And it is time to seek help by talking to the
family doctor, or going to a therapist or
counselor.
D. Indulgent parenting/permissive
Characteristics:
• Responsive but not demanding
• Tend to be lenient while trying to avoid confrontation
• Parents with this style are highly involved with their children
but place few limits or restrictions on their behaviors.
• Often let their children do what they want and get their
way.
• They set up rules, but are inconsistent when they do exist.
• Some parents adopt this method as an extreme opposite
approach to the authoritarian upbringing, while others are
simply afraid to do anything that may upset their child.
Consequences
• Usually do not learn how to control their own
behavior.
• Grow up with little self-discipline and self-
control.
• Would be a child’s favorite parenting style as it
provides a sense of freedom without
consequences.
• This style can have long-term damaging
effects.
• Teens with permissive parents are three times
more likely to engage in heavy underage
alcohol consumption, because of their lack of
consequences for their behavior.
• Insecurity in children from of lack of set
boundaries.
• Poor social skills, such as sharing , from lack of
discipline.
• Poor academic success from lack of
motivation.
• Clashing with authority.
• Recognizing permissive style
• Do you not have set limits or rules for your
child? Do you often compromise your rules to
accommodate your child’s mood?
• Do you avoid conflict with your child?
• Do you have a willingness to be your child’s
best friend rather than their parent?
• Do you often bribe your child to do things
large rewards?