Chapter 1 Science, technology and society is important to the public

because it helps address issues and problems that are of concern to

Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed
the general population. Scientific and technological principles have
the Course of Science and Technology
been and continue to be applied to solve problems that people
What is Science, Technology and Society? experience in their day--to--day aspects of living. But scientific findings
must be applied at the right scales. The impact of technological
Science and Technology and Society is an interdisciplinary breakthroughs on people, society and the environment must be
course designed to examine the ways that science and technology critically assessed to preserve its value.
shape, and are shaped by, our society, politics, and culture. It explores
the conditions under which production, distribution and utilization of Figure 1 The Interrelationship of science, technology and society
scientific knowledge and technological systems occur;; and the effects Source: Ihueze et al., 2015. [Link]
of these processes upon the entire society. History and philosophy of
science and technology, sociology and anthropology are greatly
interconnected to the discussion of STS because these are the very
factors that molded the development of science and technology as we
know it today.
Science is an evolving body of knowledge that is based on
theoretical expositions and experimental and empirical activities that
generates universal truths. Technology, on the other hand is the
application of science and creation of systems, processes and objects
designed to help humans in their daily activities. The development of
science and technology has brought immense progress in society and
men. Scientific knowledge and technology influences individuals and
society. Better understanding of science and technology is essential to
know the unique attributes of each enterprise, then addressing their
A lot of our problems in modern society involve not only
implications for society.
technology but also human values, social organization, environmental
Society is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including concerns, economic resources, political decisions, and a myriad of
the interactions that we engage in to understand the nature of things other factors. These things sits at the interface between the three fields
and to create things. It is also defined as a group of individuals involved and can also be solved (if they can be solved at all) by the application
in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same of scientific knowledge, technical expertise, social understanding, and
geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political humane compassion.
authority and dominant cultural expectations (Science Daily).
In the past, science is learned as an independent study from cope with environmental change, especially in cases of direct threats
other fields. It focuses on the scientific methods, natural processes and like natural disasters or water shortages.
understanding nature. But in the current global scenario, science is
The Role of Science and Technology
studied holistically, often in an interdisciplinary method, emphasizing
systems rather than processes, synthesis more than analysis and 1. alter the way people live, connect, communicate and
predicting nature’s behavior in order to have useful application in transact, with profound effects on economic development;;
solving contemporary problems. 2. key drivers to development, because technological and
scientific revolutions underpin economic advances,
The scientific data that have built up a considerable base of
improvements in health systems, education and
knowledge led to a vast portfolio of useful technologies, especially in
infrastructure;;
the 21st century, to solve many of the problems now facing humankind
3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century are
(UNESCO, 1999).
emerging from entirely new sectors, based on micro-
To solve our contemporary problems, science needs to become -processors, tele--communications, bio--technology and
more multidisciplinary and its practitioners should continue to promote nano--technology. Products are transforming business
cooperation and integration between the social and natural sciences. A practices across the economy, as well as the lives of all who
holistic approach also demands that science draw on the contributions have access to their effects. The most remarkable
of the humanities (such as history and philosophy), local knowledge breakthroughs will come from the interaction of insights and
systems, aboriginal wisdom, and the wide variety of cultural values. applications arising when these technologies converge.
4. have the power to better the lives of poor people in
The influence of science and technology on people’s lives is
developing countries
expanding. While recent benefits to humanity are unparalleled in the
5. differentiators between countries that are able to tackle
history of the human species, in some instances the impact has been
poverty effectively by growing and developing their
harmful or the long--term effects give causes for serious concerns. A
economies, and those that are not.
considerable measure of public mistrust of science and fear of
6. engine of growth
technology exists today. In part, this stems from the belief by some
7. interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer
individuals and communities that they will be the ones to suffer the
therapy and genetic engineering
indirect negative consequences of technical innovations introduced to
benefit only a privileged minority. The power of science to bring about B. Historical Antecedents in the World
change places a duty on scientists to proceed with great caution both
Just like with any other discipline, the best way to truly
in what they do and what they say. Scientists should reflect on the
understand where we are in science today is to look back at what
social consequences of the technological applications or dissemination
happened in the past. The history of science can teach us many
of partial information of their work and explain to the public and policy
lessons about the way scientists think and understand the world around
makers alike the degree of scientific uncertainty or incompleteness in
us. A historical perspective will make us appreciate more what science
their findings. At the same time, though, they should not hesitate to fully
really is.
exploit the predictive power of science, duly qualified, to help people
From Ancient Times to 600 BC as early as 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt, and continued to be used to
some extent until around 1100 AD.
Science during ancient times involved practical arts like healing
practices and metal tradition. Some of the earliest records from history Although the Egyptians were renowned for their medicine and
indicate that 3,000 years before Christ, the ancient Egyptians already for papyrus, other cultures had impressive inventions of their own.
had reasonably sophisticated medical practices. Sometime around Around the time that papyrus was first being used in Egypt, the
2650 B.C., for example, a man named Imhotep was renowned for his Mesopotamians were making pottery using the first known potter’s
knowledge of medicine. Most historians agree that the heart of Egyptian wheel. Not long after, horse--drawn chariots were being used.
medicine was trial and error. Egyptian doctors would try one remedy,
As early as 1,000 years before Christ, the Chinese were using
and if it worked, they would continue to use it. If a remedy they tried
compasses to aid themselves in their travels. The ancient world, then,
didn’t work, the patient might die, but at least the doctors learned that
was filled with inventions that, although they sound commonplace
next time they should try a different remedy. Despite the fact that such
today, revolutionized life during those times. These inventions are
practices sound primitive, the results were, sometimes, surprisingly
history’s first inklings of science.
effective.
The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)
The Egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared
with other ancient nations because of one of the early inventions of The ancient Greeks were the early thinkers and as far as
Egyptian civilization – the papyrus. The papyrus is an ancient form of historians can tell, they were the first true scientists. They collected
paper, made from the papyrus plant, a reed which grows in the marshy facts and observations and then used those observations to explain the
areas around the Nile river. As early as 3,000 years before Christ, natural world. Although many cultures like the ancient Egyptians,
Egyptians took thin slices of the stem of the papyrus plant, laid them Mesopotamians, and Chinese had collected observations and facts,
crosswise on top of each other, moistened them, and then pressed and they had not tried to use those facts to develop explanations of the
dried them. The result was a form of paper that was reasonably easy world around them.
to write on and store. The invention of this ancient form of paper
revolutionized the way information was transmitted from person to Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from
person and generation to generation. Before papyrus, Egyptians, the 6th century BC in pre--Socratic philosophy (Thales, Pythagoras). In
Sumerians, and other races wrote on clay tablets or smooth rocks. This circa 385 BC, Plato founded the Academy. With Plato's student
was a time--consuming process, and the products were not easy to Aristotle begins the "scientific revolution" of the Hellenistic period
store or transport. When Egyptians began writing on papyrus, all of that culminating in the 3rd to 2nd centuries with scholars such as
changed. Papyrus was easy to roll into scrolls. Thus, Egyptian writings Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus and
became easy to store and transport. As a result, the knowledge of one Archimedes.
scholar could be easily transferred to other scholars. As this This period produced substantial advances in scientific
accumulated knowledge was passed down from generation to knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy,
generation, Egyptian medicine became the most respected form of geography, mathematics and astronomy;; an awareness of the
medicine in the known world. Papyrus was used as a writing material importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the
problem of change and its cause; and a recognition of the
methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural applied in agriculture and geography enabled scientists to make
phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. accurate maps. Mathematics also flourished during the Islamic Golden
Age with the works of Al--Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshid al Kashi
The scholars frequently employed the principles developed in
that led to advanced in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic
earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate
numerals.
empirical research, in their scientific investigations. This was passed on
from ancient Greek philosophers to medieval Muslim philosophers and There was also great progress in medicine during this period.
scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the Al--Biruni, and Avicenna produced books that contain descriptions of
secular sciences of the modern day. the preparation of hundred of drugs made from medicinal plants and
chemical compounds. Islamic doctors describe diseases like smallpox
Islamic Golden Age
and measles, and challenged classical Greek medical knowledge.
The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and
Likewise, Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al--Haytham, Al--Biruni
scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the
and others studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and
eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary
criticized Aristotle’s view of motion.
scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign The significance of medieval Islamic science has been debated
of the Abbasid caliph Harun al--Rashid (786 to 809) with the by historians. The traditionalist view holds that it lacked innovation, and
inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from was mainly important for handing on ancient knowledge to medieval
various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were Europe. The revisionist view holds that it constituted a scientific
mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge revolution. Whatever the case, science flourished across a wide area
into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various around the Mediterranean and further afield, for several centuries, in a
fields of sciences began. Science and technology in the Islamic world wide range of institutions.
adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from
Science and Technology in Ancient China
contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India,
China, and Greco--Roman antiquity, while making numerous Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant
improvements, innovations and inventions. scientific innovations, findings and technological advances across
various scientific disciplines including the natural sciences,
Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of
engineering, medicine, military technology, mathematics, geology and
subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.
astronomy.
Scientific inquiry was practiced in other subjects like alchemy and
chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography and cartography, Ancient China gave the world the Four Great Inventions that
ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics and zoology. include the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing. These
were considered as among the most important technological advances
Islamic science was characterized by having practical purposes
and were only known to Europe 1000 years later or during the end of
as well as the goal of understanding. Astronomy was useful in
the Middle ages. These four inventions had a profound impact on the
determining the Qibla, which is the direction in which to pray, botany is
development of civilization throughout the world. However, some
modern Chinese scholars have opined that other Chinese inventions were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. At the same time,
were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact on Chinese Renaissance humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an
civilization – the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or
technological interaction between East and West. mathematics. Science would only be revived later, with such figures as
Copernicus, Gerolamo Cardano, Francis Bacon, and Descartes.
As stated by Karl Marx, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the
printing press were the three great inventions which ushered in The most important technological advance of all in this period
bourgeois society. Gunpowder blew up the knightly class, the compass was the development of printing, with movable metal type, about the
discovered the world market and found the colonies, and the printing mid--15th century in Germany. Johannes Gutenberg is usually called
press was the instrument of Protestantism and the regeneration of its inventor, but in fact many people and many steps were involved.
science in general; the most powerful lever for creating the intellectual Block printing on wood came to the West from China between 1250
prerequisites.” and 1350, papermaking came from China by way of the Arabs to 12th-
-century Spain, whereas the Flemish technique of oil painting was the
The Renaissance (1300 AD – 1600AD)
origin of the new printers’ ink. Three men of Mainz—Gutenberg and his
The 14th century was the beginning of the cultural movement of contemporaries Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer—seem to have taken
the Renaissance, which was considered by many as the Golden Age the final steps, casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press.
of Science. During the Renaissance period, great advances The invention spread like the wind, reaching Italy by 1467, Hungary and
occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, Poland in the 1470s, and Scandinavia by 1483. By 1500 the presses of
anatomy, manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient Europe had produced some six million books. Without the printing
scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, press it is impossible to conceive that the Reformation would have ever
and the invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster been more than a monkish quarrel or that the rise of a new science,
propagation of new ideas. which was a cooperative effort of an international community, would
have occurred at all. In short, the development of printing amounted to
Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to a communications revolution of the order of the invention of writing;;
designate the early phase of the Scientific Revolution, 1450–1630. and, like that prehistoric discovery, it transformed the conditions of life.
More recently, Peter Dear has argued for a two--phase model of early The communications revolution immeasurably enhanced human
modern science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th opportunities for enlightenment and pleasure on one hand and created
centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the previously undreamed--of possibilities for manipulation and control on
ancients;; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, when the other. The consideration of such contradictory effects may guard us
scientists shifted from recovery to innovation. against a ready acceptance of triumphalist conceptions of the
But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific Renaissance or of historical change in general.
backwardness. There were no new developments in physics or The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.)
astronomy, and the reverence for classical sources further enshrined
the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Renaissance The Enlightenment Period or the Age of Reason was
philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction characterized by radical reorientation in science, which emphasized
reason over superstition and science over blind faith. This period Industrial Revolution (1760 -- 1840)
produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries,
The rise of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were
laws, wars and revolutions. The American and French Revolutions
closely connected. It is difficult to show any direct effect of scientific
were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked
discoveries upon the rise of the textile or even the metallurgical industry
the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline. The
in Great Britain, the home of the Industrial Revolution, but there
Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th--century Romanticism.
certainly was a similarity in attitude to be found in science and nascent
The Enlightenment’s important 17th--century precursors industry. Close observation and careful generalization leading to
included the key natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, practical utilization were characteristic of both industrialists and
including Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm experimentalists alike in the 18th century.
Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to 1680s England, where in the
What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that
span of three years Isaac Newton published his “Principia
careful observation and experimentation might improve industrial
Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human
production significantly. The science of metallurgy permitted the
Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the scientific,
tailoring of alloy steels to industrial specifications, the science of
mathematical and philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major
chemistry permitted the creation of new substances, like the aniline
advances.
dyes, of fundamental industrial importance, and that electricity and
In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of magnetism were harnessed in the electric dynamo and motor. Until that
the natural sciences is regarded as the main exemplification of, and fuel period science probably profited more from industry than the other way
for, such progress. Isaac Newton’s epochal accomplishment in his around. It was the steam engine that posed the problems that led, by
Principia Mathematica consists in the comprehension of a diversity of way of a search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of
physical phenomena – in particular the motions of heavenly bodies, thermodynamics. Most importantly, as industry required ever more
together with the motions of sublunary bodies – in few relatively simple, complicated and intricate machinery, the machine tool industry
universally applicable, mathematical laws, was a great stimulus to the developed to provide it and, in the process, made possible the
intellectual activity of the eighteenth century and served as a model and construction of ever more delicate and refined instruments for science.
inspiration for the researches of a number of Enlightenment thinkers. As science turned from the everyday world to the worlds of atoms and
Newton’s system strongly encourages the Enlightenment conception of molecules, electric currents and magnetic fields, microbes and viruses,
nature as an orderly domain governed by strict mathematical- and nebulae and galaxies, instruments increasingly provided the sole
-dynamical laws and the conception of ourselves as capable of knowing contact with phenomena. A large refracting telescope driven by intricate
those laws and of plumbing the secrets of nature through the exercise clockwork to observe nebulae was as much a product of 19th--century
of our unaided faculties. – The conception of nature, and of how we heavy industry as were the steam locomotive and the steamship.
know it, changes significantly with the rise of modern science. It belongs
The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on the
centrally to the agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to contribute to the
development of modern science. The prospect of applying science to
new knowledge of nature, and to provide a metaphysical framework
the problems of industry served to stimulate public support for science.
within which to place and interpret this new knowledge
Governments, in varying degrees and at different rates, began
supporting science even more directly, by making financial grants to research. The common denominator of the sciences is the notion of
scientists, by founding research institutes, and by bestowing honors discovery, and discovery is an organised mode of observing nature.
and official posts on great scientists. By the end of the 19th century the Twentieth century cosmology greatly improved our knowledge of the
natural philosopher following his private interests had given way to the place that man and his planet occupy in the universe. The “wonder” that
professional scientist with a public role. Plato and Aristotle put at the origin of thought, today extends to science
itself. Questions now arise on the origin and on the whole, its history
The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were
and its laws.
technological, socioeconomic, and cultural. The technological changes
included the following: (1) the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron The start of the 20th century was strongly marked by Einstein’s
and steel, (2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and formulation of the theory of relativity (1905) including the unifying
motive power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, concept of energy related to mass and the speed of light: E = mc2 . He
and the internal--combustion engine, (3) the invention of new made many more contributions, notably to statistical mechanics, and
machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that he provided a great inspiring influence for many other physicists.
permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human
In the second half of the 20th century several branches of
energy, (4) a new organization of work known as the factory system,
science continued to make great progress and we here list physics,
which entailed increased division of labor and specialization of function,
chemistry, biology, geology and astronomy. For example, there was the
(5) important developments in transportation and communication,
development of the semi--conductor (transistor), followed by
including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane,
developments in nanotechnology that led to great advances in
telegraph, and radio, and (6) the increasing application of science to
information technology. In nuclear physics the discovery of sub--atomic
industry. These technological changes made possible a tremendously
particles provided a great leap forward.
increased use of natural resources and the mass production of
manufactured goods. Modern physics grew in the 20th into a primary discipline
20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age contributing to all today’s basic natural sciences, astronomy, chemistry
and biology. Although it took a hundred years since Clausius’s time for
The 20th century was an important century in the history of the it to be fully recognized that all biological processes have also to obey
sciences. It generated entirely novel insights in all areas of research – the laws of thermodynamics, the border between the origin of the living
often thanks to the introduction of novel research methods – and it and the non--living worlds has now at last been blurred. The year 1953
established an intimate connection between science and technology. was an important landmark for biology with the description by Crick and
With this connection, science is dealing now with the complexity of the Watson of the structure of DNA, the carrier of genetic information
real world. The scientific legacy of the 20th Century gave proof of the (Rosch, 2014).
revolutionary changes in many areas of the sciences – in particular,
Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of
physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences and earth and
matter and we are well on the way to an ever more consistent and
environmental sciences – and how they contributed to these changes.
unitary understanding of the entire structure of natural reality, which we
The epistemological and methodological questions as well as discover as being made up not only of matter and energy but also of
the interdisciplinary aspects become ever more important in scientific information and forms. The latest developments in astrophysics are
also particularly surprising: they further confirm the great unity of As a result of this perfect storm of technologies, the Fourth
physics that manifests itself clearly at each new stage of the Industrial Revolution is paving the way for transformative changes in
understanding of reality. the way we live and radically disrupting almost every business sector.
It’s all happening at an unprecedented, whirlwind pace.
Biology too, with the discovery of DNA and the development of
genetics, allows us to penetrate the fundamental processes of life and The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution
to intervene in the gene pool of certain organisms by imitating some of is to focus on the technologies driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI)
these natural mechanisms. Information technology and the digital describes computers that can “think” like humans — recognizing
processing of information have transformed our lifestyle and our way of complex patterns, processing information, drawing conclusions, and
communicating in the space of very few decades. The 20th century has making recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from spotting
seen medicine find a cure for many life--threatening diseases and the patterns in huge piles of unstructured data to powering the autocorrect
beginning of organ transplants. on your phone.
It is impossible to list the many other discoveries and results New computational technologies are making computers
that have broadened our knowledge and influenced our world outlook: smarter. They enable computers to process vast amounts of data faster
from progress in computational logic to the chemistry of materials, from than ever before, while the advent of the “cloud” has allowed
the neurosciences to robotics. Scientific research not only gives businesses to safely store and access their information from anywhere
expression to the strength of rationality in explaining the world and the with internet access, at any time. Quantum computing technologies
way in which this is done. The application of scientific knowledge can now in development will eventually make computers millions of times
induce changes of environmental and thus living conditions. It is these more powerful. These computers will have the potential to supercharge
aspects, the interrelations between scientific progress and social AI, create highly complex data models in seconds, and speed up the
development, which together with insights into the epistemological discovery of new materials.
structure and the ethical implications of science play an important role
Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a
in the life and the work of scientists.
VR headset) that simulate the real world, while augmented reality
Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution merges the digital and physical worlds. Examples include L’Oréal’s
The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a way of describing the makeup app, which allows users to digitally experiment with makeup
blurring of boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological products before buying them, and the Google Translate phone app,
worlds. It’s a fusion of advances in artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, which allows users to scan and instantly translate street signs, menus,
the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D printing, genetic engineering, quantum and other text.
computing, and other technologies. It’s the collective force behind many
Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes
products and services that are fast becoming indispensable to modern
to develop new technologies and products for a range of uses, including
life. Think GPS systems that suggest the fastest route to a destination,
developing new pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient
voice-­activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, personalized
industrial manufacturing processes, and cleaner, more efficient energy
Netflix recommendations, and Facebook’s ability to recognize your face
sources. Researchers in Stockholm, for example, are working on what
and tag you in a friend’s photo.
is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced.
Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots past public officials in trying to develop a technological society that is
for personal and commercial use. While we’re yet to see robot responsive to the needs of time.
assistants in every home, technological advances have made robots
Pre--Spanish Era.
increasingly complex and sophisticated. They are used in fields as
wide-ranging as manufacturing, health and safety, and human There is not much written about the Philippines during pre-
assistance. -colonial time but analysis from archeological artifacts revealed that the
3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own first inhabitants in the archipelago who settled in Palawan and
Batangas around 40 000 years ago have made simple tools or weapons
parts, with less tooling, at a lower cost, and faster than via traditional
of stone which eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and
processes. Plus, designs can be customized to ensure a perfect fit.
polishing hard stones. This very primitive technology was brought by
Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and primal needs of survival by hunting wild animals and gathering fruits
biomaterials, promise to shake up sectors including manufacturing, and vegetables in the forest. They learned that by polishing hard
renewable energy, construction, and healthcare. stones, they can develop sharp objects that are useful in their day to
day activities. From this early, we can see that technology was
The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical
developed because of a great necessity.
wearables that monitor users’ physical condition to cars and tracking
devices inserted into parcels — being connected to the internet and Still on its primitive state, the first inhabitants in the country are
identifiable by other devices. A big plus for businesses is that they can learning what can be harnessed from the environment. They have
collect customer data from constantly connected products, allowing come to understand that when clay is mixed with 2 water and then
them to better gauge how customers use products and tailor marketing shaped into something before sun drying, it hardens to an object that
campaigns accordingly. There are also many industrial applications, can also be useful to them. And because clay is moldable, it can be
such as farmers putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes shaped into various objects.
and inform decisions such as when to fertilize.
As the early Filipinos flourished, they have learned how to
Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing extract, smelt and refine metals like copper, gold, bronze and iron from
market sector, spurred by the falling cost of renewable energy nature and consequently fashion them into tools and implements. At
technologies and improvements in battery storage capacity. this point, the inhabitants of the country are showing a deeper
understanding of their nature because they were able to obtain valuable
C. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the
resources from nature.
Philippines
As the inhabitants shifted from wandering from one place to
The current state of science and technology in the country can
another and learned to settle in areas near the water source, they also
be traced back to its historical development and the latent events that
learned how to weave cotton, engaged themselves in agriculture and
helped shape it since the pre--colonial period to contemporary time.
are knowledgeable on building boats for coastal trade.
What we have or lack today in terms of science and technology is very
much an effect of the government policies that had been enacted by From the above mentioned facts, it can be concluded that
primitive Filipinos are practicing science and technology in their
everyday lives. The ancient crafts of stone carving, pottery and smelting technology by creating a water system that improved the sanitation of
of metals involves a lot of science, which is understanding the nature households in the area. Dr. Jose
of matter involved. The ingenuity of the Ifugaos in building the Banaue
Dr. Jose Rizal was a brilliant man and his life stood out among
Rice Terraces The smelting of metals exhibited the primitive Filipino’s
his contemporaries. But it cannot be said that there is no contribution
knowledge on the composition of alloy and the optimum temperature
to science and technology among the Filipino men and women during
that will produce the metal with acceptable tensile strength. All in all,
the Spanish era. The charity hospitals became the breeding ground for
the primitive Filipinos were living in perfect harmony with nature and
scientific researches on pharmacy and medicine, with great focus on
they obtain from it what is just needed in their everyday life through a
problems of infectious diseases, their causes and possible remedies.
very simple science of understanding how mother nature operates
And in 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was
Spanish Colonial Era. created and whose functions were to conduct biochemical analyses for
public health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical and
As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science
medico--legal cases. Its publication, probably the first scientific journal
and technology in the country can be traced back to the Spanish regime
in the country was titled Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas
because they established schools, hospitals and started scientific
showed the studies undertaken during that time.
research that had important consequences in the development of the
country. These schools, which are mostly run by Spanish friars, formed As the colonization of the Spaniards lengthened, they began to
the first Filipino professionals. The The 3 highest institution of learning exploit the natural resources of the country through agriculture, mining
during this time was the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo of metals and minerals and establishing various kinds of industries to
Tomas. further promote economic growth. As such, scientific research on these
fields were encouraged by the government. By the nineteenth century,
But the very strict hold of the church among citizens and its
Manila has become a cosmopolitan center and modern amenities were
intervention and meddling to the government propelled by fear of
introduced to the city. However, little is known about the
intellectual awakening among Filipinos have greatly hindered the
accomplishments of scientific bodies commissioned by the Spanish
progress of these professionals to further enhance their knowledge,
government during this time. Because of limited scientific research and
conduct scientific investigations and contribute to the advancement of
its consequent translation to technology during the Spanish regime,
society. But a few of persistent Filipino scientists succeeded by
none of the industries prosper. The Philippines had evolved into a
educating themselves abroad. One notable example of course is our
primary agricultural exporting economy, and this is not because of the
national hero, the great Dr. Jose P. Rizal. Dr. Jose Rizal is the epitome
researches undertaken on this field, but was largely because of the
of the Renaissance man in the Philippine context. He is a scientist, a
influx of foreign capital and technology which brought modernization of
doctor, an engineer (he designed and built a water system in Dapitan),
some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production.
a journalist, a novelist, an urban planner and a hero. Being a doctor and
scientist, he had extensive knowledge on medicine and was able to American Period
operate his mother’s blinding eye. When he was deported in Dapitan,
If the development in science and technology was very slow
his knowledge on science and engineering was translated into
during the Spanish regime, the Philippines saw a rapid growth during
the American occupation and was made possible by the government’s
extensive public education system from elementary to tertiary schools. was later changed to Bureau of Science. It was composed of a
The establishment of various public tertiary schools like the Philippine biological laboratory, chemical laboratory, serum laboratory for the
Normal School and University of the Philippines provided the needs for production of virus vaccine, serums and prophylactics, and a library.
professionally trained Filipinos in building the government’s The bureau was initially managed by American senior scientists but as
organization and programs. The growth and application of science were more Filipinos were trained and acquire the necessary knowledge and
still concentrated on the health sector in the form of biochemical skills, they eventually took over their positions. The Bureau of Science
analyses in hospitals. The government supported basic and applied served as the primary training ground for Filipino scientists and paved
research in the medical, agricultural and related sciences. The the way for pioneering scientific research, most especially on the study
University of the Philippines Los Baños opened the College of of various tropical diseases that were prevalent during those times like
Agriculture in 1909 while the University of the Philippines – Diliman leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri--beri.
opened the Colleges of Arts, Engineering and Veterinary Medicine in Another great contribution of the Bureau of Science to the development
1910. The College of Medicine was opened four years later. of science and technology in the country was the publication of the
Philippine Journal of Science. This scientific journal published
During this time, there were already quite a number of qualified
researches done in local laboratories and reported global scientific
Filipino physicians who held teaching positions in the College of
developments that had relevance to the Philippine society. The Bureau
Medicine, whereas most of the early instructors and professors in other
of Science became the primary research center of the Philippines until
colleges such as in the sciences and engineering were Americans and
World War II. Lastly, on December 8, 1933, the National Research
foreigners. Capacity building programs that include sending qualified
Council of the Philippines was established.
Filipinos abroad for advanced training were conducted to eventually fill
up the teaching positions in Philippine universities. Moreover, the Commonwealth Period
American colonial government sent Filipino youths to be educated as
When the Americans granted independence and the
teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers in American colleges to
Commonwealth government was established, the Filipinos were busy
further capacitate the Filipinos in various fields.
in working towards economic reliance but acknowledge the importance
However, there was difficulty in recruiting students for science and vital role of science and technology for the economic development
and technology courses like veterinary medicine, engineering, of the country by declaring that “The State shall promote scientific
agriculture, applied sciences and industrial--vocational courses. The research and invention…” The short--lived Commonwealth
enrollment in these courses were dismal that the government had to Government was succeeded by the Japanese occupation when the
offer scholarships to attract students. The unpopularity of these courses Pacific war broke out in 1941. The prevailing situations during the time
stemmed from the Filipinos’ disdain toward manual work that of Commonwealth period to the Japanese regime had made
developed from the 400 years under Spanish colonization. The developments in science and technology practically impossible. This is
Filipinos then prefer prestigious professions at that time like priesthood, also true when World War II ended and left Manila, the country’s capital,
law and medicine. in ruins. The government had to rebuild again and normalize the
operations in the whole country.
The government provided more support for the development of
science and created the Bureau of Government Laboratories in and
Science and Technology since Independence elevated to college and university status, they produced much of the
country’s professionals, although there was a great disparity on the low
In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of
proportion of those in agriculture, medical and natural sciences with
Science and was placed under the Office of the President of the
those from teacher training and commerce/business administration
Philippines. However, the agency faced lack of financial support from
courses which had higher number of graduates. The increase in the
the government and experienced planning and coordination problems.
number of graduates led to the rise of professional organizations of
In a report by the US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there
scientists and engineers. These organizations were formed to promote
is a lack of basic information which were necessities to the country's
professional interests and create and monitor the standards of practice.
industries, lack of support of experimental work and minimal budget for
scientific research and low salaries of scientists employed by the As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in
government. In 1958, during the regime of President Carlos P. Garcia, the education and training of scientists and engineers since
the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958 which independence in 1946. This is in part due to the conservative nature of
established the National Science Development Board (NSDB). self--regulation by the professional associations. Because of
specialized training, vertical organizations by disciplines and lack of
The Philippine government focused on science and technology
liaison between professions, professional associations have been
institutional capacity--building which were undertaken by establishing
unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science,
infrastructure--support facilities such as new research agencies and
technology and society and the relevance of their training to Philippine
development trainings. However good these projects were, it produced
conditions.
insignificant effects because of lack of coordination and planning,
specifically technology planning, between concerned agencies which Science and Technology in the 1960s to 1990s
hindered them from performing their assigned functions effectively.
During these years, the government gave greater importance to
This was aptly illustrated in the unplanned activities of the researchers
science and technology. The government declared in Section 9(1) of
within the agencies. Most areas of research were naively left to the
the 1973 Philippine Constitution that the “advancement of science and
discretion of the researchers under the assumption that they were
technology shall have priority in the national development.”
working for the interests of the country. They were instructed to look for
technologies and scientific studies with good commercialization On April 6, 1968, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-
potential. Without clear research policy guidelines, researches were -hectare land in Bicutan, Taguig as the site of the Philippine Science
done for their own sake, leaving to chance the commercialization of the Community. Then in 1969, the government provided funds to private
results. universities to encourage them to conduct research and create courses
in science and technology. The government also conducted seminars
Likewise, during this time, rebuilding the country involved
for public and private high school and college science teachers, training
establishing more state funded manual and trading schools which
programs and scholarships for graduate and undergraduate science
would eventually become the current state universities and colleges.
scholars, and workshops on fisheries and oceanography.
The trade schools produced craftsmen, tradesmen and technicians that
helped in shaping a more technological Philippines while still being an In the 1970s, focus on science and technology was given to
agricultural based nation. Eventually, when these trade schools were applied research and the main objective was to generate products and
processes that were supposed to have a greater beneficial impact to and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD);; Philippine
the society. Relative to this, several research institutes were Council for Industry and Energy Research Development (PCIERD);;
established under the National Science Development Board (NSDB) Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD)
which includes the Philippine Coconut Research Institute and and the National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP). NSTA
Philippine Textile Research Institute. Moreover, the Philippine Atomic has also eight research and development institutes and support
Energy Commission, another agency under NSDB, explored the uses agencies under it. These are actually the former organic and attached
of atomic energy for economic development. To prepare the pool of agencies of NSDB which have themselves been reorganized.
scientists who will work on Philippine Atomic Commission, Pres.
The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a
Marcos assisted 107 institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by
demand for high calibre scientists and engineers to undertake research
sending scientists abroad to study nuclear science and technology, and
and staff universities and colleges. Hence, measures have also been
providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers and
taken towards the improvement of the country’s science and
technicians. Then in 1972, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 4, the
manpower. In March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the
National Grains Authority was created and it was tasked to improve the
President which provided for the establishment of a national network of
rice and corn industry and thereby help in the economic development
centers of excellence in basic sciences. As a consequence, six new
of the country. This was followed by the creation of Philippine Council
institutes were created: The National Institutes of Physics, Geological
for Agricultural Research to support the progressive development of
Sciences, Natural Sciences Research, Chemistry, Biology and
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the country. The Marcos
Mathematical Sciences. Related to this efforts was the establishment
administration also established the Philippine Atmospheric
of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by Presidential Decree
Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA)
No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more qualified
under the Department of National Defense to provide environmental
scientists to work in government and encourage young people to
protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to ensure the safety of the
pursue science degrees and careers.
people through Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972. On the following
year, the Philippine National Oil Company was created by virtue of In 1986, under the Aquino administration, the National Science
Presidential Decree No. 334, s. 1973, to promote industrial and and Technology Authority was replaced by the Department of Science
economic development through effective and efficient use of energy and Technology, giving science and technology a representation in the
sources. To strengthen the scientific culture in the country, the National cabinet. Under the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan for the
Academy of Science and Technology was established under years 1987--1992, science and technology's role in economic recovery
Presidential Decree No. 1003--A, s. 1976. The National Academy of and sustained economic growth was highlighted. In this period, science
Science and Technology was composed of scientists with “innovative and technology was one of the top three priorities of the government
achievement in the basic and applied sciences” who will serve as the towards economic recovery.
reservoir of scientific and technological expertise for the country.
With the agency's elevation to full cabinet stature by virtue of
In the 1980s, science and technology was still focused on Executive Order 128 signed on 30 January 1987, the functions and
applied research. In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a responsibilities of DOST expanded correspondingly to include the
National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) composed of four following: (1) Pursue the declared state policy of supporting local
research and development Councils;; Philippine Council for Agriculture
scientific and technological effort;; (2) Develop local capability to Still under the Ramos administration, DOST established the
achieve technological self-­reliance;; (3) Encourage greater private “Science and Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND)”,
sector participation in research and development. moreover, funding a program that was significant to the field of S&T. It identified seven
for the science and technology sector was tripled from 464 million in export products, 11 domestic needs, three other supporting industries,
1986 to 1.7 billion in 1992. and the coconut industry as priority investment areas. The seven
identified export products were computer software;; fashion
The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the
accessories;; gifts, toys, and houseware;; marine products;; metal
premiere science and technology body in the country charged with the
fabrications;; furniture;; and dried fruits. The domestic needs identified
twin mandate of providing central direction, leadership and coordination
were food, housing, health, clothing, transportation, communication,
of all scientific and technological activities, and of formulating policies,
disaster mitigation, defense, environment, manpower development,
programs and projects to support national development. The Science
and energy. Three additional support industries were included in the list
and Technology Master Plan was formulated which aimed at the
of priority sectors, namely, packaging, chemicals, and metals because
modernization of the production sector, upgrading research activities,
of their linkages with the above sectors.
and development of infrastructure for science and technological
purposes. A Research and Development Plan was also formulated to In the Gloria Macapagal--Arroyo administration, numerous laws
examine and determine which areas of research needed attention and and projects were implemented which concerns both the environment
must be given priority. The criteria for identifying the program to be and science to push technology as a tool to increase the country’s
pursued were, development of local materials, probability of success, economic level. This is to help increase the productivity from Science,
potential of product in the export market, and the its strategic nature. Technology and Innovations (STI) and help benefit the poor people.
The grants for the research and development programs was included Moreover, the term “Filipinnovation” was the coined term used in
in the Omnibus Investment Law. helping the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia.
During President Fidel Ramos’s term, there was a significant The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools
increase in personnel specializing in the science and technology field. and education system such as the Philippine Science High School
In 1998, there was an estimated 3,000 competent scientists and (PSHS), which focuses in science, technology and mathematics in their
engineers in the Philippines. Adding to the increase of scientists would curriculum. This helps schools produce get more involve in this sector.
be the result of the two newly built Philippine Science High Schools in Private sectors were also encouraged to participate in developing the
Visayas and Mindanao which promotes further development of young schools through organizing events and sponsorships. Future Filipino
kids through advance S&T curriculum. The government provided 3,500 scientists and innovators can be produced through this system.
scholarships for students who were taking up professions related to
Recently, the Philippines ranked 73rd out of 128 economies in
S&T. Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta for
terms of Science and Technology and Innovation (STI) index, citing the
Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was
country’s strength in research and commercialization of STI ideas
established. The award was published in order to give incentives and
(DOST, 2018). However, a study by the Philippine Institute for
rewards for people who have been influential in the field of S&T.
Development Studies highlighted the weak ties between innovation-
­driven firms and the government, and it also identified the country’s
low expenditure in research and development (R&D). This is the reason which were generated by light detection and ranging technology for
the government is now extending all its efforts to reach out with the flood modeling. Noah helps the government in providing timely warning
private sector, explaining that STI plays an important role in economic with a lead time of at least six hours in the wake of impending floods.
and social progress and is a key driver for a long--term growth of an The country is now training the Cambodians on this technology, as part
economy. Technology adoption allows a country’s firms and citizens to of the partnerships among ASEAN countries, just like in the case of
benefit from innovations created in other countries, and allows it to Japan which assisted the country’s scientists and engineers in building
catch up and even leap--frog obsolete technologies. Technology its first micro--satellite.
adoption, the official said, allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit
Another hope lies in the so--called Intelligent Operation Center
from innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch up
Platform. Established through a collaboration between the local
and even leap--frog obsolete technologies.
government of Davao City and IBM Philippines Inc., the center resulted
Hopes in Philippine Science and Technology in the creation of a dashboard that allows authorized government
agencies, such as police, fire and anti--terrorism task force, to use
Despite the many inadequacies, from funding to human capital,
analytics software for monitoring events and operations in real time.
there are some science and technology--intensive research and
capacity--building projects which resulted in products which are Current Initiatives in Science and Technology in the Country
currently being used successfully and benefits the society.
DOST, in cooperation with HEIs and research institutions,
One of these is the micro--satellite. In April 2016, the country established advanced facilities that seek to spur R&D activities and
launched into space its first micro--satellite called Diwata--1. It was provide MSMEs access to testing services needed to increase their
designed, developed and assembled by Filipino researchers and productivity and competitive advantage.
engineers under the guidance of Japanese experts. The Diwata (deity
One is the Advanced Device and Materials Testing
in English) satellite provides real--time, high--resolution and multi--color
Laboratories. The center houses advanced equipment for failure
infrared images for various applications, including meteorological
analysis and materials characterization to address advanced analytical
imaging, crop and ocean productivity measurement and high-
needs for quality control, materials identification and R&D. Closely
-resolution imaging of natural and man--made features. It enables a
related to this facility is the Electronics Products Development Center,
more precise estimate of the country’s agricultural production, provides
used to design, develop and test hardware and software for electronic
images of watersheds and floodplains for a better understanding of
products.
water available for irrigation, power and domestic consumption. The
satellite also provides accurate information on any disturbance and There are also high--performance computing facilities that
degradation of forest and upland areas. perform tests and run computationally intensive applications for
numerical weather prediction, climate modeling, as well as analytics
The country also has the Nationwide Operational Assessment
and data modeling and archiving.
of Hazards (NOAH), which uses the Lidar (light detection and ranging)
technology. Project NOAH was initiated in June 2012 to help manage The Philippines could also boast of its Genome Center, a core
risks associated with natural hazards and disasters. The project facility that combines basic and applied research for the development
developed hydromet sensors and high--resolution geo--hazard maps,
of health diagnostics, therapeutics, DNA forensics and preventive in biology are examples of scientific “open resources" that scientists
products, and improved crop varieties. have adopted and which now form part of the scientific paradigm.
The country also has drug--discovery facilities, which address Paradigms are historically and culturally bound. For example,
the requirements for producing high--quality and globally acceptable a modern Chinese medical researcher with a background in eastern
drug candidates. She said the Philippines also has nanotechnology medicine, will operate within a different paradigm than a western doctor
centers, which provide technical services and enabling environment for from the 1800s.
interdisciplinary and collaborative R&D in various nanotechnology
A paradigm dictates:
applications.
There are also radiation processing facilities that are used to  what is observed and measured
degrade, graft, or crosslink polymers, monomers, or chemical  the questions we ask about those observations
compounds for industrial, agricultural, environmental and medical  how the questions are formulated how the results are
applications. The Philippines could also boast of its Die and Mold interpreted how research is carried out
Solutions Center, which enhances the competitiveness of the local tool  what equipment is appropriate
and die sector through the localization of currently imported dies and Many students who opt to study science do so with the belief that
molds. they are undertaking the most rational path to learning about objective
These are reflections that we are advancing, albeit slowly, to a reality. But science, much like any other discipline, is subject to
culture that embraces STI as a sure path to growth. ideological idiosyncrasies, preconceptions and hidden assumptions.

D. Paradigm Shift In fact, Kuhn strongly suggested that research in a deeply

entrenched paradigm invariably ends up reinforcing that paradigm,
What is a paradigm? since anything that contradicts it is ignored or else pressed through the
A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the preset methods until it conforms to already established dogma.
commonly accepted views about a subject, conventions about what The body of pre--existing evidence in a field conditions and shapes
direction research should take and how it should be performed. the collection and interpretation of all subsequent evidence. The
The philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm certainty that the current paradigm is reality itself is precisely what
includes “the practices that define a scientific discipline at a certain makes it so difficult to accept alternatives.
point in time." Paradigms contain all the distinct, established patterns, What is a Paradigm Shift?
theories, common methods and standards that allow us to recognize
an experimental result as belonging to a field or not. "The successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution
is the usual developmental pattern of mature science" -- Kuhn, The
Science proceeds by accumulating support for hypotheses Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
which in time become models and theories. But those models and
theories themselves exist within a larger theoretical framework. The
vocabulary and concepts in Newton’s three laws or the central dogma
Figure 1 Paradigm shift. Source: [Link] Figure 2 Paradigm Shift
Source: [Link]

The shift from one paradigm to another occurs when enough

anomalies to the current paradigm build up, causing scientists to
question the foundational principles upon which their worldview rests. An Example of a Paradigm Shift
During “normal science,” when the current paradigm is in place, these Many physicists in the 19th century were convinced that the
anomalies are discounted as acceptable levels of error. However, Newtonian paradigm that had reigned for 200 years was the pinnacle
during “revolutionary science” or a paradigm shift, these anomalies of discovery and that scientific progress was more or less a question of
become the center of attention as scientists attempt to construct a new refinement. When Einstein published his theories on General Relativity,
world view that incorporates and explains them. This period of intense it was not just another idea that could fit comfortably into the existing
focus on explaining anomalies and developing a new paradigm is paradigm. Instead, Newtonian Physics itself was relegated to being a
considered “revolutionary science,” and it is sparked by a “crisis” where special subclass of the greater paradigm ushered in by General
the old paradigm fails explain key anomalies or outliers. Once a new Relativity. Newton’s three laws are still faithfully taught in schools,
paradigm is developed, however, there is a return to “normal science” however we now operate within a paradigm that puts those laws into a
under the new worldview. much broader context.
Interestingly, Kuhn’s theory itself was something of a game
changer at the time, since scientists were not accustomed to thinking
of what they were doing in such metaphysical terms. Kuhn’s theories
are today understood to be part of a greater paradigm shift in the social
sciences, and have also been modified since their original publication.
Kuhn later conceded that the process of scientific advancement
might be more gradual. For example, Relativity did not completely
prove Newton wrong, but merely reframed his theory. Even the compared to now, Aristotle's theories made sense when taken in a
Copernican revolution was a little more gradual in replacing Ptolemy's logical order.
beliefs.
However, there were several factors that worked both to
The concept of paradigm is closely related to the Platonic and overthrow Aristotle's theories and to preserve it. First of all, Aristotle's
Aristotelian views of knowledge. Aristotle believed that knowledge theories relied very little on experiment, which left them vulnerable to
could only be based upon what is already known, the basis of the anyone who chose to perform such experiments. But attacking one part
scientific method. Plato believed that knowledge should be judged by of Aristotle's system involved attacking the whole thing, which made it
what something could become, the end result, or final purpose. Plato's a daunting task for even the greatest thinkers of the day. Secondly, the
philosophy is more like the intuitive leaps that cause scientific Church had grafted Aristotle's theories onto its theology, thus making
revolution;; Aristotle's the patient gathering of data. any attack on Aristotle an attack on the tradition and the Church itself.
Chapter 2 Finally, there were the Renaissance scholars who were
uncovering other Greek authors who contradicted Aristotle. This was
Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society
unsettling, since these scholars had a reverence for all ancient
What is an Intellectual Revolution? knowledge as being nearly infallible. However, finding contradicting
authorities forced the Renaissance scholars to try to figure out which
An intellectual revolution is a period where paradigm shifts ones were right. When their findings showed that neither theory was
occurred and where scientific beliefs that have been widely embraced right, they had to think for themselves and find a new theory that
and accepted by the people were challenged and opposed. Historically, worked. This encouraged skepticism, freethinking, and
this intellectual revolution can be summed up as the “replacement of experimentation, all of which are essential parts of modern science.
Aristotelian ethics and Christian morality by a new type of decision
making which may be termed instrumental reasoning or cost--benefit Pattern of development
analysis” (Wootton as cited by McCarthy, 2019).
The combination of these factors generated a cycle that
The Birth of Modern Science undermined Aristotle, but also slowed down the creation of a new set
of theories. New observations would be made that seemed to contradict
Western science, like so many other aspects of Western Aristotle's theories. This would lead to new explanations, but always
Civilization, was born with the ancient Greeks. They were the first to framed in the context of the old beliefs, thus patching up the Aristotelian
explain the world in terms of natural laws rather than myths about gods system. However, more observations would take place, leading to more
and heroes. They also passed on the idea of the value of math and patching of the old system, and so on. The first person who started this
experiment in science, although they usually thought only in terms of slow process of dismantling Aristotle's cosmology was Copernicus. His
one to the exclusion of the other. findings would reinforce the process of finding new explanations, which
The most influential figure in Western science until the 1600's, would lead to the work of Kepler and Galileo. The work of these three
was the philosopher, Aristotle, who created a body of scientific theory men would lead to many new questions and theories about the universe
that towered like a colossus over Western Civilization for some 2000 until Isaac Newton would take the new data and synthesize it into a new
years. Given the limitations under which the Greeks were working set of theories that more accurately explained the universe
A. Copernican Revolution compiling more data that tarnished the perfection of the Ptolemaic
universe and forced men to re--evaluate their beliefs.
Nicolas Copernicus was a Polish scholar working at the
University of Padua in northern Italy. The problem he wrestled with was Johannes Kepler
the paths of planetary orbits. Through the centuries close observations
At this time, Tycho Brahe, using only the naked eye, tracked the
had shown that the heavens do not always appear to move in perfect,
entire orbits of various stars and planets. Previously, astronomers
uninterrupted circles. Rather, they sometimes seem to move
would only track part of an orbit at a time and assume that orbit was in
backwards in what are known as retrogradations. In order to account
a perfect circle. Brahe kept extensive records of his observations, but
for these irregularities, astronomers did not do away with Aristotle's
did not really know what to do with them. That task was left to his
theory of perfectly circular orbits around the earth. Instead, they
successor, Johannes Kepler.
expanded upon it, adding smaller circular orbits (epicycles) that spun
off the main orbits. These more or less accounted for the Kepler was a brilliant mathematician who had a mystical vision
retrogradations seen in orbits. Each time a new irregularity was of the mathematical perfection of the universe that owed a great deal
observed, a new epicycle was added. By the 1500's, the model of the to the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras. Despite these
universe had some 80 epicycles attached to ten crystalline spheres preoccupations, Kepler was open minded enough to realize that
(one for the moon, sun, each of the five known planets, the totality of Brahe's data showed the planetary orbits were not circular. Finally, his
the stars, a sphere to move the other spheres, and heaven). The calculations showed that those orbits were elliptical.
second century Greek astronomer, Ptolemy was the main authority who
put order to and passed this cumbersome system of epicycles to Galileo
posterity. As important as Kepler's conclusions was his method of arriving
Copernicus' solution was basically geometric. By placing the at it. He was the first to successfully use math to define the workings of
sun at the center of the universe and having the earth orbit it, he the cosmos. Although such a conclusion as elliptical orbits inevitably
reduced the unwieldy number of epicycles from 80 to 34. His book, met with fierce opposition, the combination of Brahe's observations and
Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Worlds, published in 1543, Kepler's math helped break the perfection of the Aristotelian universe.
laid the foundations for a revolution in how Europeans would view the However, it was the work of an Italian astronomer, Galileo Galilei (1564-
world and its place in the universe. However, Copernicus' intention was -1642), armed with a new invention, the telescope, which would further
not to create a radically new theory, but to get back to even older ideas shatter the old theory and lead the way to a new one.
by such Greeks as Using his telescope, Galileo saw the sun's perfection marred by
Plato and Pythagoras who believed in a heliocentric (sun sunspots and the moon's perfection marred by craters. He also saw
centered) universe. Once again, ancient authorities were set against four moons orbiting Jupiter. In his book, The Starry Messenger (1611),
one another, leaving it for others to develop their own theories. he reported these disturbing findings and spread the news across
Europe. Most people could not understand Kepler's math, but anyone
It took some 150 years after Copernicus' death in 1543 to could look through a telescope and see for himself the moon's craters
achieve a new model of the universe that worked. The first step was and Jupiter's moons.
The Church tried to preserve the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic The implications of Newton's theory of gravity can easily escape
view of the universe by clamping down on Galileo and his book and us, since we now take it for granted that physical laws apply the same
made him promise not to preach his views. However, in 1632, Galileo throughout the universe. To the mentality of the 1600’s, which saw a
published his next book, Dialogue on the Great World Systems, which clear distinction between the laws governing the terrestrial and celestial
technically did not preach the Copernican theory (which Galileo elements, it was a staggering revelation. His three laws of motion were
believed in), but was only a dialogue presenting both views "equally". simple, could be applied everywhere, and could be used with calculus
Galileo got his point across by having the advocate of the Church and to solve any problems of motion that came up.
Aristotelian view named Simplicius (Simpleton). He was quickly faced
The universe that emerged was radically different from that of
with the Inquisition and the threat of torture. Being an old man of 70, he
Aristotle. Thanks to Newton, it was within our grasp to understand,
recanted his views. However, it was too late. Word was out, and the
predict, and increasingly manipulate the laws of the universe in ways
heliocentric heresy was gaining new followers daily.
no one had been able to do before. Newton's work also completed the
Galileo's work was the first comprehensive attack on the fusion of math promoted by Renaissance humanists, Aristotelian logic
Aristotelian/Ptolemaic cosmic model. He treated celestial objects as pushed by medieval university professors, and experiment to test a
being subject to the same laws as terrestrial objects. However, Galileo hypothesis pioneered by such men as Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo
was still enthralled with perfect circular motion and, as a result, did not into what we call the scientific method. This fusion had gradually been
come up with the synthesis of all these new bits of information into a taking place since the Renaissance, but the invention of calculus made
new comprehensive model of the universe. This was left to the last, and math a much more dynamic tool in predicting and manipulating the laws
probably greatest, giant of the age, Isaac Newton. of nature.
Isaac Newton The printing of Newton's book, Principia Mathematica, in 1687
is often seen as the start of the Enlightenment (1687--1789). It was a
The story of Newton being hit on the head by an apple may very
significant turning point in history, for, armed with the tools of Newton's
well be true. However, the significance of this popular tale is usually
laws and calculus, scientists had an unprecedented faith in their ability
lost. People had seen apples fall out of trees for thousands of years,
to understand, predict, and manipulate the laws of nature for their own
but Newton realized, in a way no one else had realized, that the same
purposes. This sense of power popularized science for other
force pulling the apples to earth was keeping the moon in its orbit. In
intellectuals and rulers in Europe, turning it into virtual religion for some
order to prove this mathematically, Newton had to invent a whole new
in the Enlightenment. Even the geometrically trimmed shrubbery of
branch of math, calculus, for figuring out rates of motion and change.
Versailles offers testimony to that faith in our power over nature. Not
The genius of Newton in physics, as well as William Harvey in medicine
until this century has that faith been seriously undermined or put into a
and Mendeleev in chemistry, was not so much in his new discoveries,
more realistic perspective.
as in his ability to take the isolated bits and pieces of the puzzle
collected by his predecessors and fit them together. In retrospect, his
synthesis seems so simple, but it took tremendous imagination and
creativity to break the bonds of the old way of thinking and see a
radically different picture.
B. The Darwinian Revolution The origin of organisms and their marvelous adaptations were,
however, either left unexplained or attributed to the design of an
The publication in 1859 of The Origin of Species by Charles
omniscient Creator. God had created the birds and bees, the fish and
Darwin ushered in a new era in the intellectual history of humanity.
corals, the trees in the forest, and best of all, man. God had given us
Darwin is deservedly given credit for the theory of biological evolution:
eyes so that we might see, and He had provided fish with gills to
he accumulated evidence demonstrating that organisms evolve and
breathe in water. Philosophers and theologians argued that the
discovered the process, natural selection, by which they evolve. But the
functional design of organisms manifests the existence of an all--wise
importance of Darwin's achievement is that it completed the
Creator. Wherever there is design, there is a designer;; the existence
Copernican revolution initiated three centuries earlier, and thereby
of a watch evinces the existence of a watchmaker.
radically changed our conception of the universe and the place of
humanity in it. The English theologian William Paley in his Natural Theology
(1802) elaborated the argument--from--design as forceful
The discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton in
demonstration of the existence of the Creator. The functional design of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had gradually ushered in the
the human eye, argued Paley, provided conclusive evidence of an all-
notion that the workings of the universe could be explained by human
-wise Creator. It would be absurd to suppose, he wrote, that the human
reason. It was shown that the earth is not the center of the universe,
eye by mere chance "should have consisted, first, of a series of
but a small planet rotating around an average star;; that the universe is
transparent lenses ... secondly of a black cloth or canvas spread out
immense in space and in time;; and that the motions of the planets
behind these lenses so as to receive the image formed by pencils of
around the sun can be explained by the same simple laws that account
light transmitted through them, and placed at the precise geometrical
for the motion of physical objects on our planet. These and other
distance at which, and at which alone, a distinct image could be formed
discoveries greatly expanded human knowledge, but the intellectual
... thirdly of a large nerve communicating between this membrane and
revolution these scientists brought about was more fundamental: a
the brain." The Bridgewater Treatises, published between 1833 and
commitment to the postulate that the universe obeys immanent laws
1840, were written by eminent scientists and philosophers to set forth
that account for natural phenomena. The workings of the universe were
"the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God as manifested in the
brought into the realm of science: explanation through natural laws.
Creation." The structure and mechanisms of man's hand were, for
Physical phenomena could be accounted for whenever the causes
example, cited as incontrovertible evidence that the hand had been
were adequately known.
designed by the same omniscient Power that had created the world.
Darwin completed the Copernican revolution by drawing out for
The advances of physical science had thus driven humanity's
biology the notion of nature as a lawful system of matter in motion. The
conception of the universe to a split--personality state of affairs, which
adaptations and diversity of organisms, the origin of novel and highly
persisted well into the mid-- nineteenth century. Scientific explanations,
organized forms, even the origin of humanity itself could now be
derived from natural laws, dominated the world of nonliving matter, on
explained by an orderly process of change governed by natural laws.
the earth as well as in the heavens. Supernatural explanations,
depending on the unfathomable deeds of the Creator, accounted for
the origin and configuration of living creatures—the most diversified,
complex, and interesting realities of the world. It was Darwin's genius as a neurologist was Jean--Martin Charcot, the famous French
to resolve this conceptual schizophrenia (Ayala, no date). psychiatrist. Charcot claimed that hysteria had primarily organic
causes, and that it had a regular, comprehensible pattern of symptoms.
C. Freudian Revolution
Freud agreed with Charcot on the latter point, but he disagreed entirely
Sigmund Freud was born in 1856, before the advent of on the former. In essence, Freud claimed that neurotic people had
telephones, radios, automobiles, airplanes, and a host of other material working hardware, but faulty software. Earlier psychiatrists like Charcot,
and cultural changes that had taken place by the time of his death in in contrast, had claimed that the problems were entirely in the
1939. Freud saw the entirety of the first World War–a war that hardware. As psychoanalysis became increasingly popular,
destroyed the empire whose capital city was his home for more than psychology and psychiatry turned away from the search for organic
seventy years–and the beginning of the next. He began his career as causes and toward the search for inner psychic conflicts and early
an ambitious but isolated neurologist;; by the end of it, he described childhood traumas. As a consequence, the line between sane and
himself, not inaccurately, as someone who had had as great an impact insane was blurred: everyone, according to Freud, had an Oedipal
on humanity's conception of itself as had Copernicus and Darwin. crisis, and everyone could potentially become mentally ill.

Freud's most obvious impact was to change the way society Psychoanalysis has had an enormous impact on the practice of
thought about and dealt with mental illness. Before psychoanalysis, psychiatry, particularly within the United States, but today it is regarded
which Freud invented, mental illness was almost universally considered by most sources– medical, academic, governmental, and others–as
'organic';; that is, it was thought to come from some kind of deterioration almost entirely incorrect in its conception of the mind. This judgment is
or disease of the brain. Research on treating mental illness was based on the crucial test of psychoanalysis: whether or not it really
primarily concerned–at least theoretically–with discovering exactly helps patients with behavioral or psychological problems. The
which kinds of changes in the brain led to insanity. Many diseases did consensus is that is does not. Psychoanalysis in its many varieties
not manifest obvious signs of physical difference between healthy and appears to have little or no efficacy in treating mental illness. In
diseased brains, but it was assumed that this was simply because the contrast, psychopharmacology and cognitive-- behavioral therapies
techniques for finding the differences were not yet sufficient. (therapies that simply try to change what the patient thinks and does
rather than analyzing the causes of the behavior), while far from perfect,
The conviction that physical diseases of the brain caused do appear to help.
mental illness meant that psychological causes–the kinds that Freud
would insist on studying– were ignored. It also meant that people drew If this is true–and we have a great deal of evidence that it is–
a sharp dividing line between the "insane" and the "sane." Insane why is Freud still so important? Why do we generally speak of him as
people were those with physical diseases of the brain. Sane people a great figure in Western thought, instead of as a strange and
were those without diseased brains. misguided figure of turn--of--the-- century Europe?

Freud changed all of this. Despite his background in There are at least two reasons. The first is purely practical:
physicalism (learned during his stay in Ernst Brücke's laboratory), his psychoanalysis has enormous historical significance. Mental illness
theories explicitly rejected the purely organic explanations of his affects an large proportion of the population, either directly or indirectly,
predecessors. One of Freud's biggest influences during his early days so any curative scheme as widely accepted as was Freud's is important
to our history in general. The second, more important, reason is that The Aztec followed the same road. They kept their own script
Freud gave people a new way of thinking about why they acted the way and languages but assimilated all they could learn from Maya society.
they did. He created a whole new way of interpreting behaviors: one Their manuscripts describe how the Maya performed their astronomical
could now claim that a person had motives, desires, and beliefs–all observations.
buried in the unconscious–which they knew nothing about but which
Several outstanding achievements can be reported in the area
nonetheless directly controlled and motivated their conscious thought
of technology and invention. The manufacture of rubber was one of the
and behavior. This hypothesis, derived from but independent of Freud's
earliest inventions, documented by the use of a rubber ball in the ball
psychiatric work, was the truly radical part of his system of thought.
game tlachtli, a game played by Meso--American civilizations from
D. Scientific Revolution in Mesoamerica earliest times. In architecture the Maya were the first to use pitched
ceilings in their buildings after the invention of the corbelled vault. Aztec
Meso--America is the region from Mexico to Guatemala, Belize
city builders also understood the need for public sanitation;; public
and parts of Honduras and El Salvador. There were no major ancient
latrines were found along all highways, and to prevent pollution of Lake
civilization that developed in North America. The Mesoamerican
Texcoco canoes transported the sewage from Tenochtitlán to the
civilization were isolated from the accumulated scientific knowledge of
mainland every morning. (von Hagen, 1957)
Africa, Asia and Europe. They were confronted with much harder
conditions than the ancient civilizations of the Indus valley, American people were gifted horticulturalists and cultivated crop
Mesopotamia, and Egypt which developed in parallel with each other plants from the earliest times. Among the plants that originated in Meso-
and established contacts between each other at a very early stage. This -America are corn (maize), papaya, avocado and cocoa. Maize is the
exchange of knowledge between these ancient civilizations was critical only cultivated plant that was developed so early in human history that
in the development of their scientific knowledge. Because of this its wild ancestor is no longer known. It can, however, still be crossed
isolation, Mesoamerican civilization developed on their own and with two other plants found only on the Yucatan Peninsula.
became much more self--reliant.
Finally, several sculptures found at Meso--American sites in
The most advanced Mesoamerican civilization was the Maya 1975, 1979 and 1983 and dating back to 2000 -- 1500 BC have clear
civilization that was well on its way to develop true science. They knew magnetic properties. In some of these sculptures the north and south
how to make paper and had pictorial script called Maya hieroglyphs that poles are in most conspicuous positions, for example at the snout and
allowed them to record all knowledge on long strips of paper folded at the back of the head of a frog or turtle. Another magnetic object found
harmonica--style into books. One of the three books recovered called in 1966 was shaped as if it was to be used to indicate direction. These
The Dresden Codex contains predictions of solar eclipses for centuries finds strongly suggest that the early Meso--American civilizations knew
and a table of predicted positions of Venus. Unlike the European about and used magnetism. (Malmström, 1976, 1979)
scientists who used astronomical instruments like telescopes, the Maya
E. Asian Scientific Revolution
made predictions by aligning stars with two objects that were separated
by a large distance, a technique that achieved great accuracy of Aside from China, there were other Asian countries that
angular measurement. As a result, the Maya developed the most contributed to the development of science and technology in the world,
accurate calendar ever designed. although it varied depending on country and time, specially in the
present times. Currently, Japan is probably the most notable country in greatly accelerated by that of astrology, which took the lead among the
Asia in terms of scientific and technological achievement, particularly in quasi--sciences involved in divination. The Egyptians remained far
terms of its electronics and automobile products. Other countries are behind the Babylonians in developing astronomy, while Babylonian
also notable in other scientific fields such as chemical and physical medicine, because of its chiefly magical character, was less advanced
achievements. than that of Egypt. In engineering and architecture Egyptians took an
early lead, owing largely to the stress they laid on the construction of
The general conception is that many of the cutting--edge
such elaborate monuments as vast pyramids and temples of granite
technological developments, and to a lesser extent scientific
and sandstone. On the other hand, the Babylonians led in the
advancements, emanate from Asia. For instance, Japan, Taiwan,
development of such practical arts as irrigation (Albright, 2014).
South Korea, and China together produce a staggering 90% of the
world’s digital gadgets. Aside from the region’s hardware dominance, Both sciences and pseudosciences spread from Egypt and
nations across Asia are becoming increasingly important to the global Mesopotamia to Phoenicia and Anatolia. The Phoenicians in particular
supply of digital content and services, something which will only transmitted much of this knowledge to the various lands of the
increase as the continent develops over the coming decades. Mediterranean, especially to the Greeks. The direction taken by these
influences can be followed from Egypt to Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus,
South Korea’s cultural popularity around the world has caused
thanks to a combination of excavated art forms that prove the direction
a number of startup’s to emerge working within the digital and
of movement, as well as to Greek tradition, which lays great stress on
technology sectors, including website [Link].
what the early Greek philosophers learned from Egypt. Mesopotamian
Taiwan is following a similar path to Japan meanwhile, moving influence can be traced especially through the partial borrowing of
away from hardware production, instead turning to software and Babylonian science and divination by the Hittites and later by the
content development. transmission of information through Phoenicia. The Egyptians and
Mesopotamians wrote no theoretical treatises;; information had to be
Together, the points raised throughout this article proves Asia is truly a transmitted piecemeal through personal contacts.
crucible of innovative technological development;; a continent that will
play an incredibly important role in the evolution of our digital age. Of all the accomplishments of the ancient Middle East, the
invention of the alphabet is probably the greatest. While pre--alphabetic
F. Scientific Revolution in Middle East systems of writing in the Old World became steadily more phonetic,
During the 3,000 years of urbanized life in Mesopotamia and they were still exceedingly cumbersome, and the syllabic systems that
Egypt tremendous strides were made in various branches of science gradually replaced them remained complex and difficult. In the early
and technology. The greatest advances were made in Mesopotamia— Hyksos period (17th century BC) the Northwestern Semites living in
very possibly because of its constant shift of population and openness Egypt adapted hieroglyphic characters—in at least two slightly differing
to foreign influence, in contrast to the relative isolation of Egypt and the forms of letters—to their own purposes. Thus was developed the
consequent stability of its population. The Egyptians excelled in such earliest known purely consonantal alphabet, imitated in northern Syria,
applied sciences as medicine, engineering, and surveying;; in with the addition of two letters to designate vowels used with the glottal
Mesopotamia greater progress was made in astronomy and catch.
mathematics. The development of astronomy seems to have been
This alphabet spread rapidly and was in quite common use Africa’s areas of scientific investigation include the fields of
among the Northwestern Semites (Canaanites, Hebrews, Aramaeans, astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Laird Scranton, making use of
and especially the Phoenicians) soon after its invention. By the 9th the extensive collections of Marcel Griaule, has deepened our
century BC the Phoenicians were using it in the western Mediterranean, understanding of Malian cosmological myths and their perceptions of
and the Greeks and Phrygians adopted it in the 8th. The alphabet the structure of matter and the physical world. Dogon knowledge
contributed vastly to the Greek cultural and literary revolution in the systems have also been explored in terms of their perceptions on
immediately following period. From the Greeks it was transmitted to astronomy. Dogon propositions about Sirius B have been discussed by
other Western peoples. Since language must always remain the chief Charles Finch in The Star of Deep Beginnings. The solar calendar that
mode of communication for people, its union with hearing and vision in we use today evolved from the Egyptian calendar of twelve months,
a uniquely simple phonetic structure has probably revolutionized calibrated according to the day on which the star Sirius rose on the
civilization more than any other invention in history. horizon with the Sun. Scranton suggests major interconnections
between the thought of the ancient Egyptians and that of the Malians
G. Scientific Revolution in Africa
of West Africa.
The history of the sciences in Africa is rich and diverse. The
In the field of Mathematics, Nubian builders calculated the
applied sciences of agronomy, metallurgy, engineering and textile
volumes of masonry and building materials, as well as the slopes of
production, as well as medicine, dominated the field of activity across
pyramids, for construction purposes. Bianchi points to a Nubian
Africa. So advanced was the culture of farming within West Africa, that
engraving at Meroe, in ancient Sudan, dated to the first century B.C.E.,
‘New World‘ agricultural growth was spawned by the use of captives
which reflects “a sophisticated understanding of mathematics.”
from these African societies that had already made enormous strides
Included in the engraving were several lines, inclined at a 72--degree
in the field of agronomy. In her work Black Rice, Judith Carnoy
angle, running diagonally from the base of a pyramid. Bianchi suggests
demonstrates the legacy of enslaved Africans to the Americas in the
that the Nubian King Amanikhabale of the first century BCE was the
sphere of rice cultivation. We know also that a variety of African plants
owner of that pyramid. Interestingly, the Nubians of Meroe, who
were adopted in Asia, including coffee, the oil palm, fonio or acha
constructed more pyramids than the Egyptians, built steep, flat--topped
(digitaria exilis), African rice (oryza glabberima), and sorghum
pyramids.
(sorghum bicolor). Plants, whether in terms of legumes, grain,
vegetables, tubers, or, wild or cultivated fruits, also had medicinal In the field of medicine, common patterns and trends emerged
implications for Africans and were used as anesthetics or pain killers, across the continent. These included scientifically proven methods, as
analgesics for the control of fever, antidotes to counter poisons, and well as techniques and strategies which were culturally specific and
anthelmints aimed at deworming. They were used also in psychologically significant. Among the common principles and
cardiovascular, gastro--intestinal, and dermatological contexts. Some procedures were hydrotherapy, heat therapy, spinal manipulation,
of these such as hoodia gordonii and combrettum caffrum are being quarantine, bone--setting and surgery. Incantations and other
integrated within contemporary pharmaceutical systems (Emeagwali, psychotherapeutic devices sometimes accompanied other techniques.
n.d.). The knowledge of specific medicinal plants was quite extensive in some
kingdoms, empires, and city states such as Aksum, and Borgu (in
Hausaland). The latter continues to be well known for orthopedics
(bone--setting), as is the case of Funtua in Northern Nigeria. Many pyramids of various dimensions. In the Sahelian region, adobe, or dried
traditional techniques are still utilized in some areas. Others have clay, was preferred in the context of moulded contours, at times
undergone change over time, have been revived in more recent integrated with overall moulded sculpture. Permanent scaffolding made
periods, or have fallen into oblivion. of protruding planks characterized the Malian region. The principle of
evaporative cooling was integrated into building design. Mats were
Various types of metal products have been used over time by
used as part of the decor and also to be saturated repeatedly in order
Africans, ranging from gold, tin, silver, bronze, brass, and iron/steel.
to cool the room. Derelict ruins from walled cities—such as Kano,
The Sudanic empires of West Africa emerged in the context of various
Zazzau, and other city--states of Hausaland in the central Sudanic
commercial routes and activities involving the gold trade. In the North
region of West Africa—complement structures such as the rock--hewn
and East, Ethiopia and Sudan were the major suppliers of gold, with
and moulded churches of Lalibela in Ethiopia or the Zimbabwe
Egypt a major importer. In Southern Africa, the kingdom of
enclosures. The structures of ancient Nubia, as well as those of Egypt,
Monomotapa (Munhumutapa) reigned supreme as a major gold
are parallel structures in the northeast.
producer. In the various spheres of metal production, specific
techniques and scientific principles included: excavation and ore H. Information Revolution
identification;; separation of ore from non--ore bearing rock;; smelting
Information revolution is a period of change that describes
by the use of bellows and heated furnaces;; and smithing and further
current economic, social and technological trends beyond the Industrial
refinement.
Revolution. The information revolution was fueled by advances in
The use of multishaft and open--shaft systems facilitated semiconductor technology, particularly the metal--oxide-
circulation of air in intense heating processes, while the bellows -semiconductor field--effect transistor (MOSFET) and the integrated
principle produced strong currents of air in a chamber expanded to circuit (IC) chip, leading to the Information Age in the early 21st century
draw in or expel air through a valve. The various metal products served (Lukasiak, 2010;; Orton, 2009).
a wide range of purposes, including: armor (as in some northern
Information revolution might prove as significant to the lives of
Nigerian city--states), jewelry (of gold, silver, iron, copper and brass),
people. Computer technology is at the root of this change, and
cooking utensils, cloth dyeing, sculpture, and agricultural tools. The
continuing advancements in that technology seem to ensure that this
technical know--how and expertise of blacksmiths helped to enhance
revolution would touch the lives of people. Computers are unique
their status, although they were also often associated with supernatural
machines;; they help to extend the brain power. Computerized robots
and psychic powers, as well.
have been replacing blue-­collar workers;; they might soon be replacing
In various parts of ancient, medieval, and contemporary Africa, white collar workers as well. Computers are merely devices that follow
building constructions of various dimensions, shapes, and types sets of instructions called computer programs, or software, that have
emerged, reflecting various concepts, techniques, raw material been written by people called computer programmers. Computers offer
preferences, and decorative principles. Builders integrated the many benefits, but there are also many dangers. They could help others
concepts of the arch, the dome, and columns and aisles in their invade one's privacy or wage war. They might turn one into button
constructions. The underground vaults and passages, as well as the pusher and cause massive unemployment. User-- friendly systems can
rock--hewn churches, of Axum are matched in Nubia and Egypt with be easily used by untrained people. The key development that made
personal computers possible was the invention of the microprocessor The uniqueness of this engineering marvel is a combination of
chip at Intel in 1971. information science, nonlinear optics, electrical engineering, material
science, engineering practices, project management, marine expertise,
The information revolution led us to the age of the internet,
and high reliability standard. Undersea fiber communication systems
where optical communication networks play a key role in delivering
will continue to serve society.
massive amounts of data. The world has experienced phenomenal
network growth during the last decade, and further growth is imminent. Impact of Information Revolution
The internet will continue to expand due to user population growth and
The truly revolutionary impact of the Information Revolution is
internet penetration: previously inaccessible geographical regions in
just beginning to be felt. But it is not "information" that fuels this impact.
Africa and Asia will come online. Network growth will only be
It is not "artificial intelligence." It is not the effect of computers and data
accelerated by improvements in integrated circuits. Transistor size has
processing on decision-- making, policymaking, or strategy. It is
been halved every two years since the middle of the last century. The
something that practically no one foresaw or, indeed, even talked about
new internet--based global economy requires a worldwide network with
ten or fifteen years ago: e--commerce—that is, the explosive
high capacity and availability, which is currently limited by submarine
emergence of the Internet as a major, perhaps eventually the major,
optical communication cables.
worldwide distribution channel for goods, for services, and, surprisingly,
New ideas keep coming from the information transport for managerial and professional jobs. This is profoundly changing
community. Since the first edition of Undersea Fiber Communication economies, markets, and industry structures;; products and services
Systems in 2002, the optical fiber communication industry moved into and their flow;; consumer segmentation, consumer values, and
the “coherent” era. We transport an order of magnitude more bits than consumer behavior;; jobs and labor markets. But the impact may be
just five years ago. We encode information into phase, polarization, and even greater on societies and politics and, above all, on the way we
amplitude of electromagnetic waves. Michael Faraday would be proud, see the world and ourselves in it.
knowing that we send over 10,000,000,000,000 bits every second
At the same time, new and unexpected industries will no doubt
across the Atlantic Ocean in a single strand of fiber. We would leave in
emerge, and fast. One is already here: biotechnology. And another: fish
awe Sir William Thomson (known as Lord Kelvin), who was the
farming. Within the next fifty years fish farming may change us from
scientific leader of an 1858 endeavor that built the first submarine cable
hunters and gatherers on the seas into "marine pastoralists"—just as a
with a transmission speed of one word per minute. Sir Thomson and
similar innovation some 10,000 years ago changed our ancestors from
Cyrus Field, an American businessman and telecommunications
hunters and gatherers on the land into agriculturists and pastoralists.
pioneer, would be surprised to find out how many tools developed
during their first transatlantic expedition are still in use today. At first It is likely that other new technologies will appear suddenly,
glance, the modern cable looks similar to the 1858 cable, which was leading to major new industries. What they may be is impossible even
copper based with a gutta--percha (trans--poly isoprene) isolator. In to guess at. But it is highly probable—indeed, nearly certain—that they
modern day cables, gutta-- percha has been replaced with will emerge, and fairly soon. And it is nearly certain that few of them—
polyethylene. We still use copper to power submarine repeaters, and and few industries based on them—will come out of computer and
have added optical fibers during the last decade of the last century. information technology. Like biotechnology and fish farming, each will
emerge from its own unique and unexpected technology.
Of course, these are only predictions. But they are made on the Chapter 3:
assumption that the Information Revolution will evolve as several
Science, Technology and Nation Building
earlier technology--based "revolutions" have evolved over the past 500
years, since Gutenberg's printing revolution, around 1455. In particular, A. The Philippine Government Science and Technology
the assumption is that the Information Revolution will be like the Agenda
Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. And that is indeed exactly how the Information Revolution Scientists and technologists are the backbone of an
has been during its first fifty years. industrialized nation that propels socioeconomic gain and national
progress. They are the key players and lifeblood of research and
innovation and plays an important role in the industry and
manufacturing sector. As such, it can be said that scientists and
technologists are essential players in nation building.
In the Philippines, the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) is tasked to oversee and manage national technology
development and acquisition, undertake technological and scientific
research and promote public consciousness of science and technology.
DOST is responsible for formulating and adopting a comprehensive
National Science and Technology plan for the Philippines and
subsequently, to monitor and coordinate its funding and
implementation. It undertakes policy research, technology assessment,
feasibility and technical studies, and maintains a national information
system and databank on science and technology.
In 2017, DOST launched the Science for the People thru
Administrative Order No. 003 s. 2017. This is in response to the
government’s call to address inequity in developments within and
among countries and is aligned with the national goals and plans. It
aims to make science and technology more relevant to the conditions,
needs and opportunities for contributing to regional development while
keeping abreast with the trends and development in the country and in
the world. Likewise, the program intends to maximize the use of
science, enhance innovation and the creative capacity of the Filipinos
towards the achievement of inclusive and sustainable growth.
Stipulated in the strategic plan are the seven outcomes that the Agenda 1 highlights the latest advancements in research and
agency strives to achieve. These are as follows: development geared towards the shared goal of improved nutrition and
health for all. Focused on health technology development, drug
1. Innovation and stimulus
discovery and development remains to be the high--impact and big
2. Technology and adoption promoted and accelerated
ticket program supported by the Department in the area of health.
3. Critical mass of globally competitive STI human
Central to this R&D program is the study of endemic resources,
resources developed
partnered with documentation of traditional knowledge and practices in
4. Productivity and efficiency of communities and the
health, that could eventually lead to decreased cost of medicines and
production sector, particularly MSMEs improved
health interventions for diseases that affect the quality of lives of many
5. Resiliency to disaster risks and climate change ensured
Filipinos.
6. Inequality in STI capacities and opportunities reduced
7. Effective STI governance achieved Agenda 2 presents how R&D can be utilized to make key
traditional industries steadfast and competitive through technological
The strategies to attain these outcomes are embodied in the DOST
innovations that can address gaps in productivity and increase
Eleven Point Agenda as follows:
production yield. Enhancing the capacity of marginalized sub--sectors
1. Pursue R&D to address pressing national problems. and people groups to use better and new technologies can expand their
2. Conduct R&D to enhance productivity and improve access to participate in economic activities and progress. The primary
management of resources. industries that will benefit from the featured major R&D programs
3. Engage in R&D to generate and apply new knowledge include the agriculture, specifically coconut and rice production, non-
and technologies across sectors. -wood forest products, i.e., bamboo processing and utilization, and
4. Strengthen and utilize regional R&D capabilities. natural textile among others.
5. Maximize utilization of R&D results through technology Agenda 3 engages R&D in emerging scientific and
transfer and commercialization.
technological platforms which lay the inroads to the development of
6. Develop STI human resources and build a strong STI
new products, services, and industries. Promising new technologies
culture.
may potentially disrupt and change the way things are done.
7. Upgrade STI facilities and capacities to advance R&D
Recognizing this, the Department anticipates impact of new
activities and expand S&T services.
technologies in existing industries in the country by supporting local
8. Expand STI assistance to communities and the
capability programs in the areas of artificial intelligence for new industry
production sector, particularly MSMEs.
development and supporting research in nanotechnology for new
9. Provide STI--based solutions for disaster risks and
materials development.
climate change adaptation and mitigation.
10. Strengthen industry--academe--governments and Agenda 4 focuses in strengthening institutional capacity to
international STI collaboration. undertake research and development and contribute to regional
development. Utilizing local researchers equalize opportunities in
11. Enhance effectiveness of STI governance.
generating new knowledge and technologies suited for the specific
need of the region. The Department partners with Higher Education Agenda 10 focuses on the linkages and networks being
Institutions in the regions in establishing niche R&D centers which may pursued by the Department in terms of S&T collaboration. In 2017, the
also serve as hubs for developing R&D capability of adjacent localities. Department took part in 24 bilateral engagements and participated in a
number of activities which involved 14 international organizations.
Agenda 5 includes mechanisms to encourage technology
transfer and avenues where R&D results are promoted in the bid to Agenda 11 (Enhance effectiveness of STI governance)
maximize its utilization. The Department provided support in bringing provides the policy framework that governs the implementation of the
R&D results to its final stage of development up to commercialization. programs, projects and activities of the Department in contribution to
national development and progress. Taking off from the National 0+10
Agenda 6 aims to build a critical mass of competitive
Socioeconomic Agenda and Philippine Development Plan, the
researchers, scientists, and engineers (RSEs) and promoting a culture
Department crafted the Science for the People 11--point Agenda,
of STI. Towards this goal, the Department continues to provide
Harmonized R&D Agenda, and Regional Offices Strategy Map.
scholarship programs to scale up the number of RSEs.
In Focus: Batangas State University KIST Park
Agenda 7 features various S&T facilities that offer technical
services for carrying out research and development, as well as Batangas State University made history as it officially launched
addressing the needs of the industry in terms of quality assurance, the country’s first Knowledge, Innovation and Science Technology
adherence to standards, product development, and innovation. The (KIST) Park on July 20, 2020. This milestone placed Batangas State
electronics, semi--conductor, automotive parts, gear assembly University at the forefront of national development. BatStateU KIST
manufacturing, agriculture produce, and food manufacturing industries Park was designated as a Special Economic Zone under Presidential
can benefit from the various S&T facilities and technical services. Proclamation No. 947, s. 2020. The theme of the launching event was
“Towards a New Frontier of Knowledge--building and Innovation in
Agenda 8 focuses on S&T assistance provided to upgrade the
Science and Technology.”
technological capabilities and improve the productivity and efficiency of
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). The Department has BatStateU headed by Dr. Tirso A. Ronquillo became a key
continued to provide technological interventions such as process and partner of the government in fostering industry--academe linkages,
system improvement, technical consultancy, packaging and labelling, knowledge and technology transfer, and promoting the
training, testing and calibration, and product development to empower commercialization of innovations. The KIST Park will serve as a
MSMEs to innovate, move up the technology scale and become more catalyst for industrial productivity and increased economic growth in
competitive. CaLaBaRZon. This manifestation of the strong collaboration between
government, industry and academe is central to inclusive innovation
Agenda 9 highlights the role of the Department in building a
strategy.
disaster--resilient community through the provision of accurate and
timely information. Specifically, progress was made by establishing and BatStateU KIST Park is now open and spearheads a long--term
upgrading observation and monitoring systems, efforts in hazard and vision for “state universities and colleges in the country to expand their
risk assessment, and researches for disaster risk management, as well programs for industry, academe, market synergy, technopreneurship,
as climate change adaptation and mitigation. [innovation--based] business incubation and acceleration, and
knowledge co-­creation in science and technology.” activities. Currently, there are 18 existing NICERs across 14 regions for
([Link] a total funding of P641M.
Question: Which of the 11--point Agenda relates to the launching and The R&D Leadership Program complements the establishment
operation of BatStateU KIST Park? Expound your answer. of R&D Centers thru the NICER Program. RDLead provides the
mechanism to bring in experts and highly skilled professionals with
B. Major Development Programs and Personalities in Science
strong leadership, management and innovative policy--making
and Technology in the Philippines
proficiencies to be in charge of strengthening the research capabilities
Major Development Programs in Science and Technology of the HEIs, National Government Agencies (NGAs) and Research
Development Institutions (RDIs) in the regions. Together, the RDLead
The Science for Change Program (S4CP) was created by the and NICER Programs will capacitate HEIs to help improve and hasten
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) to accelerate STI in the use of research results that will contribute to the socio--economic
the country in order to keep up with the developments in our time development of the country and help address pressing challenges. The
wherein technology and innovation are game changers. Through the NRCP is the implementing agency for this program.
Science for Change Program (S4CP), the DOST can significantly
accelerate STI in the country and create a massive The Collaborative Research and Development to Leverage
Philippine Economy (CRADLE) Program is specifically designed to
S4CP focuses on Accelerated R&D Program for Capacity foster collaboration between academe and local companies to improve
Building of R&D Institutions and Industrial Competitiveness which is competitiveness and catalyze innovation. It aims to improve the
composed of four (4) programs namely: (1) Niche Centers in the country’s innovation ecosystem by facilitating the smooth transition of
Regions for R&D (NICER) Program, (2) R&D Leadership (RDLead) new technologies from universities and research and development
Program, (3) Collaborative R&D to Leverage PH Economy (CRADLE) institutes (RDI) to industries -- from lab to market. The framework of
for RDIs and Industry Program, (4) Business Innovation through S&T CRADLE is a trihelix partnership between the government, the industry
(BIST) for Industry Program. and the academe wherein the government finances the collaboration of
The NICER Program capacitates Higher Education Institutions the private company and the partner university or RDI. The Program
(HEIs) in the regions to make significant improvement in regional aims to address a problem of a Filipino company using R&D to develop
research by integrating its development needs with the existing R&D innovative solutions. To date, the DOST has already provided almost
capabilities and resources. It provides institutional grants for HEIs in the Php 125 M of funding to 29 academe--industry collaborations all over
regions for R&D capacity building to improve their S&T infrastructure. the country.
The NICER Program was established in consultation with the academe The Business Innovation through S&T (BIST) for Industry
and industry;; and endorsed by the Regional Development Council Program aims to level-- up the innovation capacity of the Philippine
(RDC). Hence, a NICER is a unique center for collaborative R&D to Industrial Sector through R&D by helping private companies and
address specific S&T needs of local communities and industries, industries acquire novel and strategic technologies, such as state-- of-
thereby accelerating regional development. It caters to the specific -the--art equipment and machinery, technology licenses and patent
needs of the Regions, which include upgrading, development, and rights among others. The program will cover up to 70% of the total
acquisition of R&D equipment to undertake collaborative R&D
eligible cost of the needed technology at zero percent interest. To date,
the BIST Program has approved one project from an herbal company,
Herbanext Laboratories Inc., providing a total financial assistance of
Php11.7M.
A Steering committee for CRADLE and BIST Programs was
created through the DOST Special Order No. 0276 which was
approved on 02 April 2018. The Steering Committee is headed by Dr.
Rowena Cristina L. Guevara, Undersecretary for R&D, and the [Link]
members include the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), -scientists--aisa--mijeno/
Federation of Philippine Industries (FPI), Philippine Chamber of
Commerce and Industry (PCCI), Philippine Council for Agriculture, The SALt Lamp is an environment--friendly and sustainable
Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development alternative light source that runs on saltwater, making it suitable to
(PCAARRD), Philippine Council for Health Research and Development those who live in coastal areas. It can also function well in remote
(PCHRD) and Philippine Council for Industry, Energy and Emerging barrios. With just two table spoons of salt and one glass of tap water,
Technology Research and Development (PCIEERD). this ecologically designed lamp can run for eight hours.

The committee performs the following functions: (1) The idea behind the SALt lamp is the chemical conversion of
Review/formulate policies relating to the implementation of CRADLE energy. It utilizes the scientific process behind the Galvanic cell, but
and BIST Program;; (2) Provide advice and guidance in the instead of electrolytes, the SALt lamp uses saline solution, making it
management and administration of the projects;; and (3) Other harmless and non--toxic. Compared with kerosene lamp, the SALt lamp
functions necessary for the successful implementation of CRADLE and is also a lot safer since it does not have components and compounds
BIST Programs. Since the implementation of the S4CP in 2017, the that may spark fire. Moreover, it does not emit toxic gases and leaves
DOST has spent a total of Php 407,585,946.60 to the four programs. minimal carbon footprint. Because of its inspiring vision and ground-
-breaking innovation, the SALt lamp has received various awards and
Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines Aisa recognition from organizations in the Philippines, Singapore, Japan,
Mijeno and South Korea. SALt have won several awards including KOTRA Top
To light up the rest of the Philippines sustainably was the vision 5 Best Global Startup at Startup Nations Summit 2014, People's Choice
of Filipina scientist Aisa Mijeno when she made the Sustainable at Startup Nations Summit 2014 and recognized by the ASEAN
Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp. The product concept was formed after Corporate Sustainability Summit and Awards 2015 giving them the
living with the Butbut tribe for weeks relying only on kerosene lamps SME Sustainability Commitment Category.
and moonlight to do evening chores. Her mission and advocacy is to One of Mijano’s career highlights was when she was invited as
address the light inequality gap and end the use of combustion based an APEC CEO Summit panel member together with ex--President
light sources (kerosene lamps and candles) for the 16 Million Filipinos Barack Obama and Alibaba CEO Jack Ma. Looking forward, she
and 1.4 Billion people across the world. wishes to distribute more lanterns to communities across the
Philippines and possibly throughout South East Asia.
Ramon C. Barba Fe V. del Mundo

He is a Filipino scientist, inventor and horticulturist who is

She is known as the Mother of Philippine Pediatrics, a very
known for his successful experiment on the inducement of flowering of
great scientist and a symbol of female empowerment in medicine, both
mango trees by spraying them with ethrel and potassium nitrate. He
in the Philippines and abroad. The first Asian woman admitted into
developed a process that caused the flowering and fruiting of mango
Harvard, she pursued graduate degrees in America after receiving her
trees three times a year, instead on once a year, so dramatically
medical degree from the University of the Philippines. Del Mundo
improving yields. Since his discovery, the mango industry in the
pioneered numerous inventions throughout her more than 70--year
Philippines expanded. Apart from the mango producers themselves,
medical career. She revolutionized Philippine medicine, making major
other business sectors such as the producers of the pest control
breakthroughs in immunization and in the treatment of jaundice, and
chemicals, harvesters, sellers, and all the other smaller groups of
providing healthcare to thousands of poor families. She is credited with
workers related to mango industry have benefitted from his invention.
studies that led to the invention of the incubator and a jaundice relieving
This technology has also been successfully applied on other fruit trees
device. Her methods, like the BRAT diet for curing diarrhea, have
including cashew.
spread throughout the world and saved millions. Del Mundo’s field of
Barba also developed a tissue culture procedure for the banana natural science and the field of public health was something she was
plant and sugar cane which enabled production of large quantities of actively involved in. When she was not busy treating and taking care of
planting materials that were robust and disease--free. With his research children, she did some pioneering work on infectious diseases in
team, Barba devised micro propagation protocols for more than 40 Philippine communities and authored the Textbook of Pediatrics, as
important species of fruit crops, ornamental plants, plantation crops, well as hundreds of articles and medical reports on diseases such as
aquarium plants, and forest trees. In 2013, Ramon C. Barba was dengue, polio and measles.
conferred the rank and title of National Scientist in the Philippines for
During her lifetime, del Mundo won numerous awards and
his distinguished achievements in the field of plant physiology.
recognition for her outstanding work. Among these was the Ramon
Magsaysay Award for Public Service, which she received in 1977. She
became the Philippines’ first female National Scientist in 1980, in different Japanese concentration camps during World War II. It
recognition of her work in Pediatrics. The rank of National Scientist is became known to them as the “magic food.”
awarded to science practitioners with “distinguished individual or
She is also credited with the making of the banana ketchup;;
collaborative achievement in science and technology.” In 2010, del
wines from native fruits, like casuy and guava;; vinegar from
Mundo was awarded the Order of Lakandula, rank of Bayani, as a
pineapples;; banana starch;; soyamilk;; banana flour;; cassava flour;;
Filipina who lived a life “worthy of emulation.” Posthumously, she was
jelly from guava, santol, mango, and other fruits, as well as the
conferred the Grand Collar of the Order of the Golden Heart Award in
invention of rice cookies, known as ricebran or darak, which is effective
2011, by President Benigno Aquino III.
in the treatment of patients with beri--beri. Aside from making food
Maria Y. Orosa preparations, Miss Orosa taught Filipinos how to preserve such native
delicacies as the adobo, dinuguan, kilawen and escabeche. Together
with her associates in the Bureau of Plant Industry, she invented
“Oroval” and “Clarosa.”
In 1923, she helped organize the food preservation division
under the Bureau of Science. On June 3, 1927, she became the acting
division head. Orosa also tried her hand in improving household wares.
She invented the “Orosa Palayok Oven” for cooking various dishes. In
1928, the government, recognizing her dynamism and strong
leadership, sent her to various countries as a state scholar to specialize
in food processing and canning. To perpetuate her memory, the
government has named after her a street stretching from T.M. Kalaw to
Padre Faura in Ermita, Manila, as well as a building in the Bureau of
Plants and Industry. She was one of the 19 scientists who were
conferred awards on the occasion of the 65th anniversary of the
Advances in modern Filipino food technology owe a great deal Institute of Science and Technology. On November 29, 1983, the
to the creative researches and salutary inventiveness of a woman National Historical Institute installed a marker in her honor at the
chemist and pharmacist from Batangas – Maria Y. Orosa. The now-- Bureau of Plant Industry in San Andres, Manila.
commercially available thirst quencher, the calamansi juice, is just one
of the popular native food products in whose preparation and
preservation she had a hand. She produced the “calamansi nip,” the
desiccated and powdered form of the fruit which could be made into
juice. The most notable of her food inventions, is “Soyalac,” a powdered
preparation of soya--beans, which helped save the lives of thousands
of Filipinos, Americans, and other nationals who ever held prisoners in
Angel Alcala C. Science Education in the Philippines
The role and goal of science in education should always be the
same. Since science is considered both knowledge and method,
operating independent of time and place, the benefits of science
anywhere can only be the same. The value of science lies not only in
the knowledge that it imparts and bequeaths to the learner but also in
its methods and techniques that inculcate in the learner’s scientific
habits, skills, and attitudes. Science, even as it is considered a body of
knowledge, it is also taken as methodology. It has given a tangible
method and system to what would otherwise be by chance and
accident. From the utilization of scientific methods and techniques, one
He is a Filipino scientist whose biological contributions to the is able to very possibly explain the past and predict what the future
environment and ecosystems have made him a hero for natural holds.
sciences. During his 30 years of experience as a biologist, Alcala made
major contributions to marine biology research efforts in the Philippines The general benefits of science have greatly challenged
and authored over 160 scientific papers as well as books. Alcala was education of the Philippines. While the country might have been a
the first Filipino scientist to engage in comprehensive studies beneficiary of the methods of science even before the program of
concerning Philippine reptiles and amphibians and minor studies on formal education, it was during the American period that brought about
mammals and birds. From the 400 already known species of reptiles a most significant and essential change in the nature of education.
and amphibians, 50 more species were identified due to his efforts. There has been a corresponding increase in knowledge and
Because of his work, conservation programs in the Philippines are now understanding of natural and social phenomena covered by all the
well established. disciplines of science available now. It is this education that has been
largely credited for the development of science in the Philippines.
Alcala also made a highly valuable and groundbreaking
contribution to marine ecosystems when he established the first Early Efforts to Improve Science Education
artificial reef around the coastline of the Philippines, greatly boosting As early as the decade of the 1950s, scientists were concerned
the ecosystem's health and viability. with the state of science education in the schools. Leading scientists
In 1994, he was given the Field Museum Founders’ Council made Philippine authorities aware that the teaching of science from
Award of Merit for contributions to environmental biology. He is a grade school level to college levels in both public and private schools
recipient of the Magsaysay Award for Public Service. In September was very inadequate. The inadequacies and weaknesses of science
2011 he received the Gregorio Y. Zara Award for Basic Science from teaching were recognized as those relating to undertrained teachers,
the Philippine Association for the Advancement of Science Inc. In 2014, the inadequate science curriculum in schools and colleges, the
he was proclaimed National Scientist by President Benigno S. Aquino minimum allotted to science, the lack of books, equipment and teaching
III through Presidential Decree 782 on June 6, 2014. aids. In 1957, the Philippine government made the teaching of science
compulsory in all elementary and secondary schools. A National
Committee for Science Education was set up in 1958 to The Science Education Project
formulate objectives for the teaching of science education at all levels
These were the total efforts of SEP TO improve science
and to recommend steps that would upgrade the teaching of science.
education in the Philippines. First, the dissemination of improved
The committee identified the areas to which improvement efforts were
curricula, teaching techniques and approaches in science and
needed such as integration of science with classroom instruction,
mathematics on basic levels of education through the introduction of
acquisition of more science equipment and tools, coordination of efforts
new curriculum and the application of new teaching techniques and
with other agencies, negotiations for a science institute for teachers,
approaches by the returned Master of Arts in Teaching trainees and the
national science talent search and fellowships, higher salaries of
teachers that they teach. On the other hand, these institutions
science and mathematics teachers and promotion of science teachers
disseminated many of the curriculum materials by the UP Science
competence.
Education Center. Second, quality science and math education
The BSCS Adaptation Project programs in the recipient--sponsor institutions through new and/or
improved course offerings and a generally improved teacher education
In1959, biological sciences curriculum study (BSCS) project
program.
was launched by American Institute of Biological Science, university of
Colorado in order to improve biology education in secondary schools. CHAPTER 4
A steering committee of biological scientists, teachers and educators
The Human Person Flourishing in terms of Science and
was constituted. The project was financed by National Science
Technology
Foundation, USA.
A. Technology as a Way of Revealing
The BSCS project was started to design high school biology
course with the objectives to: provide recent and latest knowledge in A German philosopher Martin Heidegger wrote an essay entitled
biological sciences;; develop understanding of the conceptual structure “The Question Concerning Technology” which addresses modern
of biological sciences;; develop skills and processes of biology among technology and its essence as an instrumental way of revealing the
the students;; create an opportunity to use inquiry approach in teaching world. He goes beyond the traditional view of technology as machines
and learning of biology;; prepare rich supplementary or support and technical procedures. Moreover, he tries to think through the
materials to enrich learning experiences in biological sciences and essence of technology as a way in which humans encounter entities
present current status of biological sciences such as nature, self, and, indeed, everything. That is to say, that
modern technology is conceived as means to achieve ends. As
The organization of the BSCS project necessitated because of
instrumental, the essence of technology concerns causality. A deeper
the inadequacies and defects felt in the ongoing or conventional
look into causality reveals that the end is the beginning;; a cause is that
biological sciences teaching. Defects were observed in conventional
to which something is indebted and the purpose for which an instrument
biological science teaching such as inclusion of dead or useless
is designed is the primary cause of its coming into being.
contents in syllabus, little practical work, no correlation of biological
sciences and physical science, lack of integrated approach and no Heidegger’s understanding of technology was based on its
proper consideration of psychological aspects of teaching learning. essence. First, the essence of technology is not something we make;;
it is a mode of being, or of revealing. This means that technological
things have their own novel kind of presence, endurance, and example of this form of revealing. The revelation has its own autonomy
connections among parts and wholes. They have their own way of and, at best, man can only witness. This is a natural way of revealing.
presenting themselves and the world in which they operate. The
The mode of revealing in modern technology brought about new
essence of technology is, for Heidegger, not the best or most
world ordering. This kind of ordering is best described as “artificial” in
characteristic instance of technology, nor is it a nebulous generality, a
contrast to “natural ordering. It sees nature as an object of manipulation
form or idea. Rather, to consider technology essentially is to see it as
and not anymore as an autonomous reality demanding respect and
an event to which we belong: the structuring, ordering, and
admiration. The network of things is now reduced into the network of
“requisitioning” of everything around us, and of ourselves. The second
manipulation. The second characteristic of modern technology as a
point is that technology even holds sway over beings that we do not
revealing process is that the challenging that brings forth the energy of
normally think of as technological, such as gods and history. Third, the
nature is an “expediting”. In the modern use of word, expediting means
essence of technology as Heidegger discusses it is primarily a matter
to hasten the movement of something. However, in its original sense,
of modern and industrial technology. He is less concerned with the
expediting is also a process of revealing inasmuch as it “unlocks” and
ancient and old tools and techniques that antedate modernity;; the
“exposes” something. But what is exposed is still directed towards
essence of technology is revealed in factories and industrial processes,
something else, i.e. toward the maximum yield at the minimum
not in hammers and plows. And fourth, for Heidegger, technology is not
expense. In short, things that are revealed in an expedited manner are
simply the practical application of natural science. Instead, modern
brought forth as resources that must be used efficiently. In mining for
natural science can understand nature in the characteristically scientific
example, man digs coal not simply to know what coals are. Yes, man
manner only because nature has already, in advance, come to light as
“exposes” these coals but not simply to know them. They uncover them
a set of calculable, orderable forces — that is to say, technologically.
because he wants to use them. Coals are mined from track loads of
According to him there are two characteristics of modern land so as to use their energy. This is the characteristic of the things
technology as a revealing process. First, the mode of revealing of revealed in modern technology. They are there “for” something.
modern technology is a challenging. Things are revealed or brought
Heidegger uses a technical word to name the things that are
forth by challenging or demanding them. It is putting to nature the
revealed in modern technology as “standing in reserve”. Things as
unreasonable demand that it supply energy that can be extracted and
standing in reserve are not “objects”. Objects on the other hand, are
stored. The mining technology today is a good example for this mode
things that “stand against us” as things with autonomy. They are
of revealing things. Tracks of land reveal as something challenged
revealed mainly in human thinking and do not allow further
because man sees them as objects where coal and ore can be
manipulations. Things as standing in reserve, on the other hand, are
demanded. Man sees them as source of energy. These energies can
called to come forth in challenging and expediting. They are reduced
be stored so that man can summon them at his bidding. Shortly, nature
into the object less ness of modern technology. Nothing anymore
reveals itself in modern technology as things of manipulation, as things
“stands against us” as objects of autonomy and wonder. Everything is
that yield energy whenever man demands them to do so. “Challenging”
regressed into an interlocking of things that yield what man wants
as a mode of revealing nature could be sharply contrasted “Physis”
whenever he demands them to do so. Even nature is now revealed as
which is the arising of something from itself, a bringing--forth or poieses.
standing in reserve and not anymore objects of autonomy.
A flower blossoming or fading in the changes of the season is an
Unlike the modern technologies, the old technology still disrupts its natural flow. Nature is beyond our control. Its truth is beyond
respects nature as an object of autonomy. The modern and the old our grips. For all we know, it is the one that controls us. If we ever try
technologies are of different modes of revealing, the former artificial to dominate it, nature will surely revolt against us in a very humbling
and the latter natural. Take for example, the contrast between how the manner.
modern technology of the hydropower plant and the old technology of
B. Human Flourishing
a wooden bridge reveal the presence of a river. However, the
hydropower plant reveals the river that supplies it energy simply as Human flourishing is said to be the best translation for the Greek
another thing standing in reserve. It is a source of energy which word Eudaimonia, which for both Plato and Aristotle, means not only
completes the interlocking of things in the system of hydropower good fortune and material prosperity but a situation achieved through
generation. The river is not anymore seen as an object with autonomy virtue, knowledge and excellence. Learning to be human is central to
but an object on call to be used. Conversely, the technology of building Confucian humanism and its “creative transformation” of the self
a wooden bridge reveals the river not as a key link in completing the through an “ever--expanding network of relationships encompassing
[Link] rather respects it as a part of nature, a “landscape” using the family, community, nation, world and beyond. It is thus inseparable
Heidegger’s own term, that is somewhat permanent and stand against from self--awareness and self--cultivation, and this “self” far from being
us as another entity. We move “around” it so to say and we only see an isolated individual, is experientially and practically a center of
what we can do to overcome its dominating presence, in other words, relationships.
we do not manipulate it, but rather, we act according to its rules.
The affirmation that human flourishing implies development of
For Heidegger enframing is the “essence” of modern the individual in his intellectual, affective, moral and spiritual
technology. Enframing simply means putting into the frame of modern dimensions obviously needs elaboration. Plato in the Republic,
technology everything in nature. This “frame” of modern technology is contends that the soul, or mind, has three motivating parts: rational,
the network or interlocking things standing in reserve. It is the world spirited or emotional and appetitive. Each of these have their own
centered on man’s caprices and demands. It is a world of manipulation desired ends, and Eudomenia or human flourishing requires an
and demystification. In here nothing is mysterious anymore. This is ordering of this tripartite structure of the soul: the rational and spirited
what Heidegger was afraid of, that the process of truth will revert back parts. Virtue ensues. In the same vein, Aristotle, in the Nicomachean
into the realm of erring. It must be remembered that for truth to be, it Ethics, states that Eudaimonia is constituted not by honor, or wealth
must retain its sense of mystery. Truth is for the most part untruth. To power, but by rational activity in accordance with excellence in the
disregard this essentially limited process of revelation is also to virtues of character including courage, honesty, pride, friendliness and
disregard the entirety of its essence. We cannot have absolute wittiness, the intellectual virtues notably rationality and judgment, as
knowledge of reality, more so, we cannot have full dominion over it. As well as mutually beneficial friendships and scientific knowledge,
they say, we are only “guardians” of creation. To disregard this nature particularly of things that are fundamental and unchanging.
of reality is also putting ourselves into the brink of danger.
According to Aristotle, all humans seek to flourish. It’s the
Because of man’s arrogance, nature is in the verge of proper and desired end of all of our actions. Flourishing, however, is a
destruction. He thinks he knows how nature works and tends to hasten functional definition. To understand something’s function, you have to
or “expedite” its processes. He demands too much from it and in turn understand its nature. In Aristotle’s schema, there are four aspects of
human nature: physical, emotional, social and rational. As physical to determine which concrete instantiations of human values and virtues
beings, we require nourishment, exercise, rest and all the other things will comprise his well--being. The idea of human flourishing is inclusive
that it takes to keep our bodies functioning properly. As emotional and can encompass a wide variety of constitutive ends such as
beings, we have wants, desires, urges and reactions. We perceive knowledge, the development of character traits, productive work,
something in the world that we want and we have the power of volition religious pursuits, community building, love, charitable activities,
to get it; likewise, we have the power to avoid the things we don’t want. allegiance to persons and causes, self--efficacy, material well--being,
For humans, these wants can get pretty complex, but at rock bottom pleasurable sensations, etc.
we all have emotional needs and wants that spring from rather basic
To flourish, a man must pursue goals that are both rational for
sources. As social beings, we must live and function in particular
him individually and also as a human being. Whereas the former will
societies. Our social nature stacks on top of our emotional nature, such
vary depending upon one’s particular circumstances, the latter are
that we have wants and needs that we would not have were we not
common to man’s distinctive nature – man has the unique capacity to
social creatures. As rational beings, we are creative, expressive,
live rationally. The use of reason is a necessary, but not a sufficient,
knowledge--seeking and able to obey reason. We might not always
condition for human flourishing. Living rationally ( i.e., consciously )
obey reason and we may sometimes not want to exercise our minds,
means dealing with the world conceptually. Living consciously implies
but a large part of our existence relate to our being rational animals. An
respect for the facts of reality. The principle of living consciously is not
individual cannot truly flourish if he is not flourishing in one of the four
affected by the degree of one’s intelligence not the extent of one’s
aspects of human nature.
knowledge;; rather, it is the acceptance of use of one’s reason in the
Human flourishing also known as personal flourishing involves recognition and perception of reality and in his choice of values and
the rational use of one’s individual potentialities, including talents, actions to the best of his ability, whatever that ability may be. To pursue
abilities and virtues in the pursuit of his freely and rationally chosen rational goals through rational means is the only way to cope
values and goals. An action is considered to be proper if it leads to the successfully with reality and achieve one’s goals. Although rationality
flourishing of the person performing the action. Human flourishing is, at is not always rewarded, the fact remains that it is through the use of
the same time, a moral accomplishment and a fulfillment of human one’s mind that a man not only discovers the values required for
capacities, and it is one through being the other. Self--actualization is personal flourishing, he attains them. Values can be achieved in reality
moral growth and vice--versa. if a man recognizes and adheres to the reality of his unique personal
endowments and contingent circumstances. Human flourishing is
Not an abstraction, human flourishing is real and highly
positively related to a rational man’s attempts to externalize his values
personal by nature, consists in the fulfillment of both a man’s human
and actualize his internal views of how things ought to be in the outside
nature and unique potentialities, and is concerned with choices and
world. Practical reason can be used to choose, create, and integrate all
actions that necessarily deal with the particular and the contingent. One
the values and virtues that comprise personal flourishing.
man’s self –realization is not the same as another’s. What is called for
in terms of concrete actions such as choice of career, education, CHAPTER 5
friends, home and others, varies from person to person. Human
The Good Life
flourishing becomes an actuality when one uses his practical reason to
consider his unique needs, circumstances and capabilities, and so on,
A. What is a Good Life? punished. Many religions also conceive of the good life in moral terms
as a life lived according to God’s laws. A person who lives this way—
This is one of the oldest philosophical questions. It has been
obeying the commandments and performing the proper rituals—is
posed in different ways—How should one live? What does it mean to
pious. And in most religions, such piety will be rewarded. Obviously,
“live well”?—but these are really just the same question. After all,
many people do not receive their reward in this life. But devout believers
everyone wants to live well, and no one wants “the bad life.” But the
are confident that their piety will not be in vain. Christian martyrs went
question isn’t as simple as it sounds. Philosophers specialize in
singing to their deaths confident that they would soon be in heaven.
unpacking hidden complexities, and the concept of the good life is one
Hindus expect that the law of karma will ensure that their good deeds
of those that needs quite a bit of unpacking.
and intentions will be rewarded, while evil actions and desires will be
One basic way we use the word “good” is to express moral punished, either in this life or in future lives.
approval. So when we say someone is living well or that they have lived
The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus was one of the first to
a good life, we may simply mean that they are a good person, someone
declare, bluntly, that what makes life worth living is that we can
who is courageous, honest, trustworthy, kind, selfless, generous,
experience pleasure. Pleasure is enjoyable, it’s fun,
helpful, loyal, principled, and so on. They possess and practice many
it’s...well...pleasant! The view that pleasure is the good, or, to put I
of the most important virtues. And they don’t spend all their time merely
another way, that pleasure is what makes life worth living, is known as
pursuing their own pleasure;; they devote a certain amount of time to
hedonism. The word “hedonist,” when applied to a person, has slightly
activities that benefit others, perhaps through their engagement with
negative connotations. It suggests that they are devoted to what some
family and friends, or through their work, or through various voluntary
have called the “lower” pleasures such as sex, food, drink, and sensual
activities. This moral conception of the good life has had plenty of
indulgence in general.
champions. Socrates and Plato both gave absolute priority to being a
virtuous person over all other supposedly good things such as Epicurus was thought by some of his contemporaries to be
pleasure, wealth, or power. advocating and practicing this sort of lifestyle, and even today an
“epicure” is someone who is especially appreciative of food and drink.
In Plato’s dialogue Gorgias, Socrates takes this position to an
But this is a misrepresentation of Epicureanism. Epicurus certainly
extreme. He argues that it is much better to suffer wrong than to do it;;
praised all kinds of pleasures. The good life has to be virtuous. Although
that a good man who has his eyes gouged out and is tortured to death
Epicurus disagreed with Plato about the value of pleasure, he fully
is more fortunate than a corrupt person who has used wealth and power
agreed with him on this point.
dishonorably. In his masterpiece, the Republic, Plato develops this
argument in greater detail. The morally good person, he claims, enjoys Today, this hedonistic conception of the good life is arguably
a sort of inner harmony, whereas the wicked person, no matter how rich dominant in Western culture. Even in everyday speech, if we say
and powerful he may be or how many pleasure he enjoys, is someone is “living the good life,” we probably mean that they enjoying
disharmonious, fundamentally at odds with himself and the world. lots of recreational pleasures: good food, good wine, skiing, scuba
diving, lounging by the pool in the sun with a cocktail and a beautiful
It is worth noting, though, that in both the Gorgias and the
partner.
Republic, Plato bolsters his argument with a speculative account of an
afterlife in which virtuous people are rewarded and wicked people are
What is key to this hedonistic conception of the good life is that 2. Worry only about the things that are in your control, the things that
it emphasizes subjective experiences. On this view, to describe a can be influenced and changed by your actions, not about the things
person as “happy” means that they “feel good,” and a happy life is one that are beyond your capacity to direct or alter.
that contains many “feel good” experiences.
3. Treasure Friendship, the reciprocal attachment that fills the need for
If Socrates emphasizes virtue and Epicurus emphasizes affiliation. Friendship cannot be acquired in the market place, but must
pleasure, another great Greek thinker, Aristotle, views the good life in be nurtured and treasured in relations imbued with trust and amity.
a more comprehensive way. According to Aristotle, we all want to be
4. Experience True Pleasure. Avoid shallow and transient pleasures.
happy. We value many things because they are a means to other
Keep your life simple. Seek calming pleasures that contribute to peace
things. For instance, we value money because it enables us to buy
of mind. True pleasure is disciplined and restrained.
things we want;; we value leisure because it gives us time to pursue
our interests. But happiness is something we value not as a means to 5. Master Yourself. Resist any external force that might delimit thought
some other end but for its own sake. It has intrinsic value rather than and action;; stop deceiving yourself, believing only what is personally
instrumental value. useful and convenient; complete liberty necessitates a struggle within,
a battle to subdue negative psychological and spiritual forces that
So for Aristotle, the good life is a happy life. But what does that
preclude a healthy existence;; self-mastery requires ruthless candor.
mean? Today, many people automatically think of happiness in
subjectivist terms: To them, a person is happy if they are enjoying a 6. Avoid Excess. Live life in harmony and balance. Avoid excesses.
positive state of mind, and their life is happy if this is true for them most Even good things, pursued or attained without moderation, can become
of the time. a source of misery and suffering.
Aristotle agrees with Socrates that to live the good life one must 7. Be a Responsible Human Being. Approach yourself with honesty and
be a morally good person. He also agrees with Epicurus that a happy thoroughness; maintain a kind of spiritual hygiene; stop the blame-
life will involve many and varied pleasurable experiences. We can’t -shifting for your errors and shortcomings.
really say someone is living the good life if they are often miserable or
constantly suffering. 8. Don’t Be a Prosperous Fool. Prosperity by itself is not a cure--all
against an ill-- led life and may be a source of dangerous foolishness.
Michael Soupios and Panos Mourdoukoutas wrote a book Money is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the good life, for
entitled The Ten Golden Rules on Living a Good Life where they happiness and wisdom.
extracted “ancient wisdom from the Greek philosophers on living the
good life” and mapped it into modern times. Here is a summary of what 9. Don’t Do Evil to Others. Evildoing is a dangerous habit, a kind of
they wrote, extracted from a Forbes article written by Dr. reflex too quickly resorted to and too easily justified that has a lasting
Mourdoukoutas: and damaging effect upon the quest for the good life. Harming others
claims two victims—the receiver of the harm, and the victimizer, the
1. Examine life, engage life with a vengeance;; always search for new one who does harm.
pleasures and new destinies to reach with your mind.
10. Kindness towards others tends to be rewarded. Kindness to others
is a good habit that supports and reinforces the quest for the good life.
Helping others bestows a sense of satisfaction that has two B. What is a Public Good?
beneficiaries—the beneficiary, the receiver of the help, and the
Rolando Gripaldo, a Filipino philosopher, argues that the
benefactor, the one who provides the help.
concept of the public good carries largely the politico--ethical sense,
A. What is Human Existence? which subsumes the politico-- ethical senses. The public good is public
in the sense that the beneficiaries are the general public. The
The meaning of existence is derived from philosophical and
government or state pursues it with a service orientation while private
religious contemplation and scientific inquiries about, social ties,
corporations pursue it with a profit orientation. He also cites mixed
consciousness and happiness. Many other issues are also involved,
public goods which are pursued by private organizations with a service
such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and
motivation. Government corporations are basically motivated by
evil, free will, the existence of one and multiple Gods, conceptions of
service through having profit is not precluded. He also talks about public
God, the soul and the afterlife.
bads, such as corruption, pollution and crimes.
Philosophers have tried to find the secret of existence, the
A public good is that which benefits by its use, the communal or
meaning of it all. Aristotle teaches that each man's life has a purpose
national public. This can be perceived in two levels. The first level
and that the function of one's life is to attain that purpose. He explains
comes from the people themselves. They perceive the public good to
that the purpose of life is earthly happiness or flourishing that can be
be beneficial to most if not to all of them. This utilitarian consideration
achieved via reason and the acquisition of virtue. Articulating an explicit
is important in that, on the other hand, it serves as the ethical standard
and clear understanding of the end toward which a person's life aims,
by which the public--through a civil society--unify themselves in
Aristotle states that each human being should use his abilities to their
consideration of their individual and social benefits. As individuals, they
fullest potential and should obtain happiness and enjoyment through
may of course think in terms of their own selfish benefits from a public
the exercise of their realized capacities. He contends that human
good, but there is also a recognition that unless they work together for
achievements are animated by purpose and autonomy and that people
their common welfare, the public good aspired for may not materialistic.
should take pride in being excellent at what they do. According to
They as individuals may suffer as beneficiaries from its nonrealization.
Aristotle, human beings have a natural desire and capacity to know and
In this regard, then elements of unity (bonding together for individual
understand the truth, to pursue moral excellence, and to instantiate
interests) and subsidiarity (working together for the common good) are
their ideals in the world through action.
significant aspects of a national public good from the communal or
Plato’s reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the national people’s point of view. The second level comes from the local
existence of universalis. His Theory of Forms proposes that universals or national government, which believes or assumes with the utilitarian
do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the perspective that a particular project or service is desired by the
dialogue of Republic, the character of Socrates describes the Form of populace as necessary for their common welfare. As such, the local or
the Good. His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of national government views it as a public good. Examples of these
happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life. In Platonism, assumed necessary public services or public goods are national
the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which defense, education, public health, public ports/airports and highways,
is the Idea of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility social services, postal services, and the like.
and value.
CHAPTER 6 the forge. It is recorded that Hephaestus had built robots out of gold
which were “his helpers, including a complete set of life--size golden
When Technology and Humanity Cross
handmaidens who helped around the house”. Another example of
A. The Ethical Dilemmas of Robotics robots in Greek mythology comes from the stories of Pygmalion, who
is said to have crafted a statue of Galatea that would come to life.
The rapid advancements in technology that the world has witnessed
over the past century have made a reality of many of mankind’s wildest Beyond the ancient myths which speak of humanoid robots, one of
dreams. From being able to cross the earth, air, and sea at extreme the milestones in the design and development of such robots came with
speeds to being able to send and receive information instantly via the the discovery of Leonardo Da Vinci's journals which contained detailed
Internet, the technological advancements in recent years have become plans for the construction of a humanoid robot. Inspired by the ancient
cornerstones of modern society. One dream that is still yet to be myths, the robot was designed in the form of an armored knight and
perfectly fulfilled by advancements in technology is the development of was to possess the ability to sit up, wave its arms, move its head, and
human--like and self--aware robots, often referred to as androids. While open its mouth. The journals in which the plans were found date back
robotic technology has come a long way since its initial attempts, the to 1495. It is unknown if this robot was ever built by Da Vinci, but merely
robot which is largely indistinguishable from a human is still far from a conceiving it was a milestone in the timeline of robotic history. The
reality. However, as technology continues to develop and evolve Modern State of Robots From Da Vinci to the current day the
exponentially, many people believe it is only a matter of time. If and development of humanoid robots has continued to approach the goal
when truly "living" robots were to come about, one can foresee a slew of a robot that is indistinguishable from a human. However, despite the
of ethical dilemmas developing. massive recent advancements in technology and even the exponential
growth of computing power of the past decades, this dream is still far
A complete consensus on the definition of the word “robot” has yet from a reality.
to be reached. However, it is commonly accepted that robots contain
some combination of the following attributes such as mobility, intelligent In a comprehensive article in the New York Times, Robin
behavior, sense and manipulation of environment. The term “robot” Marantz Henig discusses her experiences with what are often labeled
truly extends to more than just androids. The commonly accepted first “social robots.” These robots are by no means what the servant robots
use of the word was in 1920 in the form of a play written by Karel Capek. of Greek mythology have led many people to hope for;; rather they are
The play was entitled R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) and involves infant versions, at best, of the long--hoped--for androids. Henig said
the development of artificial people. These people are referred to as these machines are not the docile companions of the collective dreams,
robots and while they are given the ability to think, they are designed to robots designed to flawlessly serve dinners, fold clothes and do the dull
be happy as servants. The use of the word “robot” in Capek's play or dangerous jobs that human do not want to do. Nor are they the
comes from the Slavic languages‟ word for “work,” which is robota. villains of the collective nightmares, poised for robotic rebellion against
humans whose machine creations have become smarter than the
While the word “robot” was not used until 1920, the idea of humans themselves. They are, instead, hunks of metal tethered to
mechanical humans has been around as far back as Greek mythology. computers, which need their human designers to get them going and
One example that closely relates to the servant robots seen in Capek's to smooth the hiccups along the way.
play is the servants of the Greek god Hephaestus, the god of fire and
Despite the disappointment that many people feel when they would differ little from materialism. The distinguishing characteristic of
are given the chance to interact with the latest robots, some major Aristotle is his inclusion of “form.” The term simply means whatever it
players in the robotic industry are quite optimistic. Rodney Brooks is an is that makes a human a human, a plant a plant, and an animal an
expert in robotics and artificial intelligence. In an article written in 2008, animal. Each of these have a specific “form” which is not the same as
Brooks explains that it is no longer a question of whether human--level its “matter,” but is a functioning unity which is essential to each living
artificial intelligence will be developed, but rather how and when. While organism in order for it to be just that, living. The word used to describe
it is true that androids are not the only robots which have a great impact the “form” of a living organism is “psyche” or “soul.”
on man’s lives, their development introduces a set of unique ethical
Unlike Aristotle's philosophical view, which was embraced by
issues which industrial robots do not evoke. Working under the
various religions, perhaps most notably by the Roman Catholic Church
assumption that it is only a matter of time until androids are an everyday
and more specifically by St. Thomas Aquinas, materialism often finds
reality, it is proper to begin thinking about what these ethical issues are
itself at odds with most religious views in the world. Catholicism being
and how they may be dealt with in the coming years. The overarching
a prime example of this, one will not find a favorable description of
question that results is what exactly these robots are. Are they simply
materialism when looking at the opening lines of its definition in the
piles of electronics running advanced algorithms, or are they a new
Catholic Encyclopedia. The encyclopedia's entry begins by defining
form of life? What Is Life? The question of what constitutes life is one
materialism as “a philosophical system which regards matter as the
on which the world may never come to a consensus.
only reality in the world, which undertakes to explain every event in the
From the ancient philosophers to the common man on the universe as resulting from the conditions and activity of matter, and
street, it seems that everyone has an opinion on what a living organism which thus denies the existence of God and the soul.” Why does it
consists of. One of the more prevailing views throughout history has matter that materialism is at odds with Catholicism and most other
been that of Aristotle. The basic tenets of Aristotle’s view are that an religions? More specifically, what does this have to do with robots and
organism has both “matter” and “form.” This differs from the androids? It is relevant because if materialism is correct, then humans
philosophical position known as materialism, which has become should have the power to develop new forms of life. If it is true that
popular in modern times and finds its roots among the ancient Indians. everything in the universe is simply material and the result of material
Materialism does not entertain any notion of organisms having a “form” interactions, then nothing should be stopping us from creating androids
or “soul”;; rather, organisms are made simply of various types of and recognizing them as just as valid a life form as humans.
“matter.” These two views are at odds with one another and the
The decision of what level of life robots are to be considered is
philosophical position society adopts will inevitably have a huge impact
an essential one. In 1942 Isaac 7 Asimov introduced to the world of
on how humans interact with robots. Aristotle The view articulated by
science fiction what are known as the Three Laws of Robotics, which
Aristotle and his modern--day followers describes life in terms of unity,
were published in his short story “Runaround.” The laws Asimov
a composite of both “matter” and “form.” One type of “matter” which
formulated are: First, a robot may not injure a human being or, through
Aristotle speaks of could be biological material such as what plants,
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. Second, a robot must
animals, and humans consist of. Another type of “matter” could also be
obey any orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders
the mechanical and electronic components which make up modern-
would conflict with the First Law. Third, a robot must protect its own
­day robots. Clearly it is not the “matter” alone which distinguishes
existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or
whether an object is a living organism, for if it were, Aristotle‟s view
Second Law. While these laws are part of science fiction history, the the social problems robots may bring with them, there also is an array
current state of robotic technology demands that they be considered in of legal issues, the primary one in the charter being what and how
a new light. As with many ideas once confined to the world of science information is collected and distributed by robots. To many it seems as
fiction, Asimov‟s laws are now able to make the transition into reality. though South Korea‟s Robot Ethics Charter is the beginning of a
At first glance these three laws seem to be an excellent way to ensure modern-­day implementation of Asimov‟s Three Laws of Robotics.
the safe development of this supposed new life form. However, However, many robot designers such as Mark Tilden think this is all a
Asimov‟s laws presuppose that human life is of greater value than that bit premature. Tilden claims that we are simply not at a point where
of the androids being developed. If we work under the assumption that robots can be given morals and compares it to “teaching an ant to
androids should be considered just below humans, Asimov‟s laws may yodel”. Tilden goes on to claim that when we do reach that point, the
hold true. But what if we hold to the conclusion materialism reaches, interactions will be less than pleasant, stating that “as many of Asimov's
that androids should be placed at or above the level of humans? If this stories show, the conundrums robots and humans would face would
is the case, Asimov‟s laws will not be able to be applied. The main result in more tragedy than utility”. Despite Tilden‟s and others‟
reason is that we could not see androids as equal forms of life and pessimistic view of what the future holds for the human--robot
implement Asimov‟s laws, which place androids in direct submission to relationship, technology will slow down for no one. It is only a matter of
humans. How can it be that an android should give its life for a human time before other countries will follow in South Korea’s footsteps and
if an android has a right to life equal to that of a human? Imagine an create their own code of ethics for robots and their interactions with
army made up of both androids and humans. Should the android humans.
always give its life to save a human‟s life? Would human soldiers be
B. Human, Morals and Machines
willing to die for an android? As much as people may believe in
materialism and come to conclusions that robots will one day be a life Technology has begun to change our species’long--standing
form equal to humans, I find it hard to believe that many people would experiences with nature. Now,we have technological nature—
actually die for a robot. Robot Code of Ethics While it remains true that technologies that in various ways mediate, augment, or simulate the
robotics technology is not at a place where ethical codes for robots are natural world. Entire television networks, such as the Discovery
necessary, it is not stopping some countries from being proactive and Channel and Animal Planet, provide us with mediated digital
taking the beginning steps in the development of a robot code of ethics. experiences of nature: the lion’s hunt, the Monarch’s migration, or a
climb high into the Himalayan peaks. Video games, like Zoo Tycoon,
South Korea is considered one of the most high--tech countries
engage children with animal life. Zoos themselves are bringing
in the world and they are leading the way in the development of such a
technologies, such as webcams into their exhibits so that we can, for
code. Known officially as the Robot
example, watch animals from the leisure of our home or a cafe.
Ethics Charter, it is being drawn up “to prevent human abuse of Inexpensive robot pets have been big sellers in the Wal--Marts and
robots—and vice versa”. The main focus of the charter is said to be on Targets of the world. Sony’s higher--end robot dog AIBO sold well. Real
the social problems the mass integration of robots into society is bound people now spend substantial time in virtual environments (e.g.,
to create. In particular it aims to define how people are to properly Second Life). In terms of the physical and psychological wellbeing of
interact with robots, in Stefan Lovgren‟s words, “human control over our species, does it matter that we are replacing actual nature with
robots and humans becoming addicted to robot interaction”. Beyond technological nature? To support our provisional answer that it does
matter, we draw on evolutionary and cross--cultural developmental are able to explain their moral decisions to us. They will need to be able
accounts of the human relation with the natural world and then consider to reach into their silicon souls and explain the reasoning that supports
some recent psychological research on the effects of technological their actions. We need them to be able to explain themselves in all
nature. aspects of their reasoning and actions. Their moral reasoning will be
subject to the same explanatory requirements that we would demand
Scientists are already beginning to think seriously about the new
of explaining any action they take.
ethical problems posed by current developments in robotics. Experts in
South Korea were drawing up an ethical code to prevent humans Today’s emerging technologies, like Artificial Intelligence (AI),
abusing robots, and vice versa. A group of leading roboticists called the augmented and virtual reality, home robots, and cloud computing, to
Chapter 2 81 European Robotics Network (Euron) has even started name only a few of the sophisticated technologies in development
lobbying governments for legislation. At the top of their list of concerns today, are capturing the imaginations of many. The advanced
is safety. Robots were once confined to specialist applications in capabilities of today’s emerging technologies are driving many
industry and the military, where users received extensive training on academics, entrepreneurs, and enterprises to envision futures in which
their use, but they are increasingly being used by ordinary people. their impacts on society will be nothing short of transformative. Whether
Robot vacuum cleaners and lawn mowers are already in many homes, these emerging technologies will realize these ambitious possibilities is
and robotic toys are increasingly popular with children. As these robots uncertain. What is certain is that they will intersect and interact with
become more intelligent, it will become harder to decide who is powerful demographic, economic, and cultural forces to upend the
responsible if they injure someone. Is the designer to blame, or the conditions of everyday life.
user, or the robot itself? The ethical or moral sense for machines canbe
The article “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” by Nicholas Carrs
built on a utilitarian base. There are special cases that will require
discusses the effects that the Internet may be having on our ability to
modifications of the core rules that are based on the circumstances of
focus, the difference in knowledge that we now have, and our reliance
their use. Doctors, for example, don not euthanize patients to spread
on the Internet. The points that are made throughout Carrs’ article are
the wealth of their organs, even if it means that there is a net positive
very thought--provoking, but his sources make them seem invaluable.
with regard to survivors. They have to conform to a separate code of
Carr discusses the effects that the Internet has on our minds. He feels
ethics designed around the needs of patients and their rights that
that the Internet is bad for the brain. Nicholas Carr writes that he spends
restricts their actions. The same holds for lawyers, religious leaders,
much of his leisure time from the Net. Carr feels like he cannot
and military personnel who establish special relationships with
concentrate on the long passages of reading because his brain is used
individuals who are protected by specific ethical codes. The simple
to the fast millisecond flow of the Net. “For more than a decade now,
utilitarian model will certainly have overlays depending on the role that
I’ve been spending a lot of time online, searching and surfing.” The
these robots play. They will act in accord with whatever moral or ethical
supporting idea is that his mind now “expects to take in information the
code we provide them and the value determinations that we set. They
way the Net distributes it---­in a swiftly moving streams of particles.” His
will run the numbers and do the right thing. In emergency situations,
brain wants to think as fast as the Internet goes. In summary, the article
our autonomous cars will sacrifice the few to protect the many. When
is split into two pieces. The first is Nicholas Carr’s longing for his brain
faced with dilemmas, they will seek the best outcomes independent of
to be one with the Internet, a man--made machine. The second part of
whether they themselves are comfortable with the actions. So, as with
all other aspects of machine intelligence, it is crucial that these systems
the article is Google’s standpoint on how our brains should be replaced control over certain private machines of his own, such as his car or his
by artificial intelligence. personal computer, but control over large systems of machines will be
in the hands of the tiny elite -- just as it is today, but with two differences.
C. Why the Future Does Not Need Us?
Because of improved techniques the elite will have a greater control
With the accelerating improvements of technology, computer over the masses and because human work will no longer be necessary,
scientists succeed in developing intelligent machines that can do all the masses will be superfluous, a useless burden on the system. If the
things better than human beings. In that case presumably all work will elite are ruthless, they may simply decide to exterminate the mass of
be done by vast, highly organized systems of machines, and no human humanity. If they are humane they may use propaganda or any other
effort will be necessary. Either of two cases might occur. The machines psychological or biological techniques to reduce the birth rate until the
might be permitted to make all of their own decisions without human mass of humanity becomes extinct, leaving the world to the elite. Or, if
oversight, or else human control over the machines might be retained. the elite consist of soft-- hearted liberals, they may decide to play the
role of good shepherds to the rest of the human race. They will see to
If the machines are permitted to make all their own decisions, it that everyone’s physical needs are satisfied, that all children are
we cannot make any conjectures about the results because it is raised under psychologically hygienic conditions, that everyone has a
impossible to guess how such machines might behave. We only point wholesome hobby to keep him busy, and that anyone who may become
out that the fate of the human race would be at the mercy of the dissatisfied undergoes “treatment” to cure his “problem.” Life will be so
machines. It might be argued that the human race would never be purposeless that people will have to be biologically or psychologically
foolish enough to hand over all the power to the machines. But human engineered either to remove their need for the power process or make
race would voluntarily turn power over to the machines or the machines them “sublimate” their drive for power into some harmless hobby.
would willfully seize power. Human race might easily permit itself to drift These engineered human beings may be happy in such a society, but
into a position of such dependence on the machines that it would have they will most certainly not be free. They will have been reduced to the
no practical choice but to accept all of the machines’ decisions. status of domestic animals.
As society and the problems that it faces become more and Theodore Kaczynskian American domestic terrorist,also known
more complex and machines become more and more intelligent, as the Unabomber, killed three people during a nationwide bombing
people will let machines make more of their decisions for them, simply campaign targeting those involved with modern technology and
because machine--made decisions will bring better results than man- wounded many others. One of his bombs gravely injured David
-made ones. Eventually a stage may be reached at which the decisions Gelernter, one of the most brilliant and visionary computer scientists.
necessary to keep the system running will be so complex that human His actions were murderous and criminally insane, but his vision
beings will be incapable of making them intelligently. At that stage the describes unintended consequences, a well--known problem with the
machines will be in effective control. People will not be able to just turn design and use of technology, and one that is clearly related to
the machines off because they will be so dependent on them that Murphy’s law–“Anything that can go wrong, will.” Our overuse of
turning them off would amount to suicide. antibiotics has led to what may be the biggest such problem so far: the
On the other hand, it is possible that human control over the emergence of antibiotic--resistant and much more dangerous bacteria.
machines may be retained. In that case the average man may have Similar things happened when attempts to eliminate malarial
mosquitoes using DDT caused them to acquire DDT resistance;; nanobots share a dangerous amplifying factor: They can self--replicate.
malarial parasites, likewise, acquired multi--drug--resistant genes. A bomb is blown up only once– but one bot can become many, and
quickly get out of control. For instance, the sending and receiving of
The cause of many such surprises seems clear: The systems
messages through computer networking creates the opportunity for
involved are complex, involving interaction among and feedback
out-- of--control replication. But while replication in a computer or a
between many parts. Any changes to such a system will cascade in
computer network can be a nuisance, at worst it disables a machine or
ways that are difficult to predict;; this is especially true when human
takes down a network or network service.
actions are involved. Biological species almost never survive
encounters with superior competitors. Ten million years ago, South and Uncontrolled self--replication in these newer technologies runs
North America were separated by a sunken Panama isthmus. South a much greater risk: a risk of substantial damage in the physical world.
America, like Australia today, was populated by marsupial mammals, Each of these technologies also offers untold promise: The vision of
including pouched equivalents of rats, deers, and tigers. When the near immortality that Kurzweil sees in his robot dreams drives us
isthmus connecting North and South America rose, it took only a few forward;; genetic engineering may soon provide treatments, if not
thousand years for the northern placental species, with slightly more outright cures, for most diseases;; and nanotechnology and
effective metabolisms and reproductive and nervous systems, to nanomedicine can address more ills. Together, they could significantly
displace and eliminate almost all the southern marsupials. extend our average life span and improve the quality of our lives. With
each of these technologies, a sequence of small, individually sensible
In a completely free marketplace, superior robots would surely
advances leads to an accumulation of great power and, concomitantly,
affect humans as North American placentals affected South American
great danger. What was different in the 20th century? Certainly, the
marsupials (and as humans have affected countless species). Robotic
technologies underlying the weapons of mass destruction (WMD)–
industries would compete vigorously among themselves for matter,
nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC)–were powerful, and the
energy, and space, incidentally driving their price beyond human reach.
weapons an enormous threat. But building nuclear weapons required,
Unable to afford the necessities of life, biological humans would be
at least for a time, access to both rare– indeed, effectively unavailable–
squeezed out of existence.
raw materials and highly protected information;; biological and chemical
A textbook on dystopia and Moravec discuss how our main job weapons programs also tended to require large--scale activities. The
in the 21st century will be “ensuring continued cooperation from the 21st--century technologies–genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics
robot industries” by passing laws decreeing that they be “nice,” and (GNR)–are so powerful that they can spawn whole new classes of
describing how seriously dangerous a human can be once transformed accidents and abuses. Most dangerously, for the first time, these
into an unbounded superintelligent robot. Moravec’s view is that the accidents and abuses are widely within the reach of individuals or small
robots will eventually succeed us that humans clearly face extinction. groups. They will not require large facilities or rare raw materials.
Knowledge alone will enable their use;; thus, we have the possibility
Accustomed to living with almost routine scientific not just of weapons of mass destruction but of knowledge--enabled
breakthroughs, we have yet to come to terms with the fact that the most mass destruction (KMD), this destructiveness hugely amplified by the
compelling 21st--century technologies–robotics, genetic engineering, power of self--replication. Failing to understand the consequences of
and nanotechnology–pose a threat different from the technologies that our inventions while we are in the rapture of discovery and innovation
have come before. Specifically, robots, engineered organisms, and seems to be a common fault of scientists and technologists;; we have
long been driven by the overarching desire to know that is the nature of democracy. Awareness of the dangers inherent in genetic engineering
science’s quest, not stopping to notice that the progress to newer and is beginning to grow, as reflected in the Lovins’ editorial. The general
more powerful technologies can take on a life of its own. Because of public is aware of, and uneasy about, genetically modified foods, and
the recent rapid and radical progress in molecular electronics–where seems to be rejecting the notion that such foods should be permitted to
individual atoms and molecules replace lithographically drawn be unlabeled. But genetic engineering technology is already very far
transistors–and related nanoscale technologies, we should be able to along. As the Lovins’ note, the USDA has already approved about 50
meet or exceed the Moore’s law rate of progress for another 30 years. genetically engineered crops for unlimited release;; more than half of
By 2030, we are likely to be able to build machines, in quantity, a million the world’s soybeans and a third of its corn now contain genes spliced
times as powerful as the personal computers of today. As this in from some other forms of life. Unfortunately, as with nuclear
enormous computing power is combined with the manipulative technology, it is far easier to create destructive uses for
advances of the physical sciences and the new, deep understandings nanotechnology than constructive ones. Nanotechnology has clear
in genetics, enormous transformative power is being unleashed. These military and terrorist uses, and you need not be suicidal to release a
combinations open up the opportunity to completely redesign the world, massively destructive nanotechnological device–such devices can be
for better or worse: The replicating and evolving processes that have built to be selectively destructive, affecting, for example, only a certain
been confined to the natural world are about to become realms of geographical area or a group of people who are genetically distinct. The
human endeavor. Given the incredible power of these new effort to build the first atomic bomb was led by the brilliant physicist J.
technologies, should we not be asking how we can best coexist with Robert Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer was not naturally interested in
them? And if our own extinction is a likely, or even possible, outcome politics but became painfully aware of what he perceived as the grave
of our technological development, should we not proceed with great threat to Western civilization from the Third Reich, a threat surely grave
caution? How soon could such an intelligent robot be built? The coming because of the possibility that Hitler might obtain nuclear weapons.
advances in computing power seem to make it possible by 2030. Once Energized by this concern, he brought his strong intellect, passion for
an intelligent robot exists, it is only a small step to a robot species–to physics, and charismatic leadership skills to Los Alamos and led a rapid
an intelligent robot that can make evolved copies of itself. Genetic and successful effort by an incredible collection of great minds to
engineering promises to revolutionize agriculture by increasing crop quickly invent the bomb. Physicists proceeded with the preparation of
yields while reducing the use of pesticides;; to create tens of thousands the first atomic test called Trinity despite a large number of possible
of novel species of bacteria, plants, viruses, and animals;; to replace dangers. They were initially worried, based on a calculation by Edward
reproduction, or supplement it, with cloning;; to create cures for many Teller, that an atomic explosion might set fire to the atmosphere. A
diseases, increasing our life span and our quality of life;; and much, revised calculation reduced the danger of destroying the world to a
much more. We now know with certainty that these profound changes three-- ina--million chance. Oppenheimer, though, was sufficiently
in the biological sciences are imminent and will challenge all our notions concerned about the result of Trinity that he arranged for a possible
of what life is. Technologies, such as human cloning, have in particular evacuation of the southwest part of the state of New Mexico. There was
raised our awareness of the profound ethical and moral issues we face. the clear danger of starting a nuclear arms race. Within a month of that
If, for example, we were to reengineer ourselves into several separate first, successful test, two atomic bombs destroyed Hiroshima and
and unequal species using the power of genetic engineering, then we Nagasaki. Some scientists had suggested that the bomb simply be
would threaten the notion of equality that is the very cornerstone of our demonstrated rather than dropped on Japanese cities–saying that this
would greatly improve the chances for arms control after the war–but years), but if we take Kurzweil and Moravec at their word, it might be
to no avail. With the tragedy of Pearl Harbor still fresh in Americans’ necessary by the middle of this century. What are the moral implications
minds, it would have been very difficult for President Truman to order a here? If we must move beyond Earth this quickly for the species to
demonstration of the weapons rather than use them as he did–the survive, who accepts the responsibility for the fate of those who are left
desire to quickly end the war and save the lives that would have been behind? And even if we scatter to the stars, is it not likely that we may
lost in any invasion of Japan was very strong. The overriding truth was take our problems with us or find, later, that they have followed us? The
probably very simple: As the physicist Freeman Dyson later said, “The fate of our species on earth and our fate in the galaxy seem inextricably
reason that it was dropped was just that nobody had the courage or the linked. Another idea is to erect a series of shields to defend against
foresight to say no.” It is important to realize how shocked the physicists each of the dangerous technologies. The Strategic Defense Initiative,
were in the aftermath of the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. proposed by the Reagan administration, was anattempt to design such
They described a series of waves of emotion: first, a sense of fulfillment a shield against the threat of a nuclear attack from the Soviet Union.
that the bomb worked, then horror at all the people that had been killed, But as Arthur C. Clarke, who was privy to discussions about the project,
and then a convincing feeling that on no account should another bomb observed: “Though it might be possible, at vast expense, to construct
be dropped. Another bomb was dropped, on Nagasaki, only three days local defense systems that would only let through a few percent of
after the bombing of Hiroshima. In November 1945, three months after ballistic missiles, the much--touted idea of a national umbrella was
the atomic bombings, Oppenheimer stood firmly behind the scientific nonsense.” Luis Alvarez, the greatest experimental physicist, remarked
attitude, saying, “It is not possible to be a scientist unless you believe that the advocates of such schemes were very bright guys with no
that the knowledge of the world, and the power which this gives, is a common sense. Similar difficulties apply to the construction of shields
thing which is of intrinsic value to humanity, and that you are using it to against robotics and genetic engineering. These technologies are too
help in the spread of knowledge and are willing to take the powerful to be shielded against in the time frame of interest;; even if it
consequences.” In our time, how much danger do we face not just from were possible to implement defensive shields, the side effects of their
nuclear weapons but from all of these technologies? How high are the development would be at least as dangerous as the technologies we
extinction risks? The philosopher John Leslie has studied this question are trying to protect against. These possibilities are all, thus, either
and concluded that the risk of human extinction is at least 30 percent undesirable or unachievable or both. The only realistic alternative to
while Ray Kurzweil believes we have a better than even chance of limit the development of the technologies that are too dangerous is by
making it through, with the caveat that he has always been accused of limiting our pursuit of certain kinds of knowledge. We have been
being an optimist. Not only are these estimates not encouraging, but seeking knowledge since ancient times. Aristotle opened his
they do not include the probability of many horrid outcomes that lie short Metaphysics with the simple statement: “All men by nature desire to
of extinction. Faced with such assessments, some serious people are know.” We have, as a bedrock value in our society, long agreed on the
already suggesting that we simply move beyond the Earth as quickly value of open access to information and recognize the problems that
as possible. We would colonize the galaxy using von Neumann probes, arise with attempts to restrict access to and development of knowledge.
which hop from star system to star system, replicating as they go. This In recent times, we have come to revere scientific knowledge. It was
step will almost certainly be necessary billion years from now (or sooner Nietzsche who warned us, at the end of the 19th century, not only that
if our solar system is disastrously impacted by the impending collision God is dead but that “faith in science, which after all exists undeniably,
of our galaxy with the Andromeda galaxy within the next three billion cannot owe its origin to a calculus of utility;; it must have originated in
spite of the fact that the disutility and dangerousness of the ‘will to truth,’ Almost no one could read or write the language they spoke.
of ‘truth at any price’ is proved to it constantly.” It is this further danger Those few who were literate usually went on to master Latin, the
that we now fully face the consequences of our truth--seeking. The truth universal language of scholarship, the law, and the Roman Catholic
that science seeks can certainly be considered a dangerous substitute Church. Books, all hand--copied, were rare, expensive, and almost
for God if it is likely to lead to our extinction. Our Western notion of always in Latin. They were so valuable that universities chained them
happiness seems to come from the Greeks, who defined it as “the to reading tables. Most people passed their lifetime without ever gazing
exercise of vital powers along lines of excellence in a life affording them at a book, a calendar, a map, or written work of any sort.
scope.” Clearly, we need to find meaningful challenges and sufficient
Memory and memorization ruled daily life and learning. Poets,
scope in our lives if we are to be happy in whatever is to come. We
actors and story tellers relied on rhyming lines to remember vast
must find alternative outlets for our creative forces, beyond the culture
amounts of material. Craftsmen memorized the secrets of their trades
of perpetual economic growth;; this growth has largely been a blessing
to pass on orally to apprentices. Mechanics kept their accounts in their
for several hundred years, but it has not brought us unalloyed
heads. Even scholars literate in Latin used memory devices to
happiness, and we must now choose between the pursuit of
remember what they had learned. One device involved visualizing a
unrestricted and undirected growth through science and technology
building with various rooms and architectural features, each
and the clear accompanying dangers.
representing different store of knowledge. A university scholar
Chapter 7 imagined walking through this virtual building along a certain pathway
to recall the contents of entire books for his lectures.
The Information Age
Scribes, often monks living in monasteries, each labored for up
The Information Age began around the 1970s and still going on
to a year to copy a single book, usually in Latin. The scribes copied
today. It is also known as the Computer Age, Digital Age, or New Media
books on processed calfskin called velum and later on paper.
Age. This era brought about a time period in which people could access
Specialists or the scribes themselves “illuminated’ (painted0 large
information and knowledge easily.
capital letters and the margins of many books with colorful designs were
Pre-Gutenberg Period very costly.

During the Middle Ages in Europe, most people lived in small, Before the discovery of printing press, books in Europe were
isolated villages. If people travelled at all, they typically ventured only a typically handwritten manuscripts while paper money, playing cards,
few miles from where they were born. For most people, the only source posters, and the like were block--printed from hand--carved wooden
of both religious and worldly information was the village Catholic priest blocks, inked and transferred to paper. This earlier method of
in the pulpit. News passed from one person to another, often in the form reproduction was expensive and time consuming.
of rumor.
Gutenberg Revolution
Written documents were rare and often doubted by the common
Johannes Gutenberg turned the printing world upside down and
people as forgeries. What counted in important matters was oral
brought on a new era of print with his revolutionary innovation of
testimony based on oaths taken in the name of God to tell the truth.
movable type in 1445. Movable type printing used metal stamps of
single letters that could be arranged into words, sentences and pages As it became easier to produce books and pamphlets,
of text. Using a large manually operated, the stamps would be arranged information started to spread. Previously, only religious leaders and
to read a page of text so that when covered with ink, it would print out royalty had access to books, and few people were literate. The printing
a page of text. Before Gutenberg, all texts had been printed with Renaissance opened the realm of learning and reading to the local
woodblocks or fixed text stamps, both of which were complex and time- populations as schools were built and books about education were
-consuming processes. Movable type kept the metal stamp letters written and print published. The printing press had dramatic effects on
separate, which allowed printers to reuse the letters quickly on European civilization and its more immediate effect was to spread
succeeding pages. As a result, more pages could be efficiently printed information quickly and accurately and this gradually helped to create
in a shorter amount of time with much less effort. From here, the a much wider literate reading public.
opportunity to share ideas and knowledge brought on a new era of
The arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the
change and enlightenment never seen before.
era of mass communication, which permanently altered the structure of
Gutenberg’s amazing invention made books the internet of the society. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information and
time. The printing press made it possible to produce books much more revolutionary ideas transcended borders, captured the masses in the
quickly and cheaper than ever before. By 1463, printed Bibles cost one- Reformation, and threatened the power of political and religious
-tenth of hand--copied Bibles. The demand for books exploded. By authorities;; the sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the
1500, Europe had more than 1,000 printers and 7,000 books in print. literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging
middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self--awareness of
Like the internet, books spread new ideas quickly and sped up
its people led to the rise of proto--nationalism, accelerated by the
the process of change. For example, as a young sailor in Genoa,
flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment of
Christopher Columbus read Marco Polo’s famous Travels, in which he
Latin’s status as lingua franca.
described his journeys to China. Columbus was thrilled by Polo’s
descriptions. Books also planted the seeds of democracy and human The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a
rights in the next generation of thinkers. Newspapers and pamphlets community of scientists who could easily communicate their
generated information and ideas even faster. discoveries through widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to
bring on the scientific revolution. Because of the printing press,
The impact of the printing press is, almost, impossible to really
authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly
quantify. On the surface it allowed for the much more rapid spread of
important who had said or written what, and what the precise
accurate information but, more elusively, it had an enormous impact on
formulation and time of information. Before, the author was less
the nations and population in Europe at large. Literacy began to rise as
important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly
well as the types of information people could be exposed to.
identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing
When Europe was recovering from the devastating impact of press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.
the Black Death, the impact of printing press decimated the population Printed Materials as Agents of Change
and had led to the decline in the rise of the church, the rise of the money
economy, and subsequent birth of the Renaissance. Gutenberg’s movable type printing press was a disruptive
innovation in more ways than one. In addition to making printed
materials more accessible, it allowed for the spread of knowledge both At present, people are beginning to look for secure and accurate
within elite communities, like the Catholic Church and the scientific and believable news portals but, the traditional trusted publishing
community, and also to the rest of the general population. It brought outlets have less public beliefs as many people believe governments
about new innovations and ideas that lead to changes in power and are manipulating them. The local press are in sharp circulation decline,
standards in both religious and scientific areas of European culture. and the online advertising businesses have moved to Google and
These included a shift in religious power from the church authority to Facebook and others. The result has caused newspaper closures and
the general population, standardization of scientific reporting, and an large--scale downsizings and redundancies. Many people now prefer
influx of new scientific discoveries. Although it may seem like the to believe people from their social environment, instead of turning to
printing press affected the European science and religious community “the media”. The collateral damage caused by the digitization is
differently, the changes between the two are actually intricately increasing amounts of information and currently this is not going to stop.
intertwined. Both scientific and religious works were subject to a
The emergence of the internet and the World Wide Web in the 1990s
language change from Latin to vernacular languages. All of these
was initially hailed by many as ushering in new democratic age, driven
changes were possible because of the printing press. Even more, it
by much greater access to information. In reality, while the internet had
allowed for greater accessibility and spread of all kinds of knowledge
a dramatic impact, the revolutionary shifts predicted did not occur. This
throughout a wider population never before seen, bringing about
is because, in its earliest days, the World Wide Web still conformed to
several new social dynamics that will lead to several social revolutions.
the Gutenberg principle. Building a website, accessing server space
Post-Gutenberg Period and publishing information required both money and technical expertise
and was therefore still the preserve of institutions rather than
The impact of the Gutenberg printing press was immeasurable.
individuals. The reality of much greater access to information was not
It caused nothing less than a dramatic social and cultural revolution.
matched by a greater ability to publish it.
The sudden widespread dissemination of printed works – books, tracts,
posters and papers – gave direct rise to the European Renaissance. Paradoxes of Technology
While Gutenberg’s famous Bible was printed in Latin, his  Empowerment vs Enslavement
invention of the movable type press meant that Protestant tracts and
the arguments between Martin Luther and the Catholic Church which New technologies allow us to be connected to and reachable by
led to the Reformation could be widely disseminated. everyone. However, as a result, our privacy is threatened and
technology starts controlling us. Whether we want or not, we feel
The Reformation that began in Germany in the early 16th socially obliged to take phone calls, answer emails, and send
century, led to the Bible being printed in the languages common to responses to messages on Facebook.
people. Gutenberg’s invention led inevitably to the Protestant
revolution, the Age of Enlightenment, the development of Modern  Independent vs Dependence
Science and Universal Education. In other words, everything that has New gadgets such as cell phones allow us to do many things on
led to human progress and the advancement of the modern world. our own. However, this situation creates dependency, as we can’t go
even one day without our phones and we feel helpless when the
Internet is down.
 Fulfills needs vs Creates needs This changed with two developments. First, the spread of
broadband internet access made it possible to easily both upload and
Technology resolves some problems but also introduces new download all forms of media: video, images and audio as well as just
ones, e.g. we need devices with longer battery life, we need antivirus text and transactions. Second, tools emerged which made it simple for
software to be safe, we need to learn new skills, etc. people to publish or spread information. Blogging was the first example,
 Competence vs Incompetence followed by social networking and distribution and sharing sites like
YouTube and Flickr.
We can get any information we want and reach anyone we want
with the help of new technologies. However, we lose our ability to There has been a third trend which is gathering significance,
remember phone numbers and our ability to articulate thoughts. based around attaching relevance and content to all of the otherwise
random pieces of information now being published. This concerns
 Engaging vs Disengaging practices such as tagging, rating and commenting, as well as services
such as social bookmarking and news--sharing sites which allow
When we are engaged in an activity that involves the use of new
individuals to store and share information. This trend is responsible for
technology, we need to disengage from whatever we are doing. We
creating forms of collective intelligence and what has been called
directly interact with our family and loved ones less frequently because
‘crowd wisdom’ and is probably the most important area to watch going
we tend to engage more in new portable technology tools.
forwards because of its ability to allow individuals to create the trust and
 Public vs Private connections necessary to transact and communicate amongst
themselves without any institutionalized intervention.
New technologies blur the line between what is public and what is
private. People may talk on the phone or message someone among a Chapter 8
circle of acquaintances, which may be disturbing.
Biodiversity and Healthy Society
 Illusion vs Disillusion What is Biodiversity?
We tend to think new communication technologies make our Biological diversity or biodiversity is the variety of life, and refers
lives better. However, the more we communicate, the more trivial our collectively to variation at all levels of biological organization. The term
conversations become. In other words, more communication does not biodiversity refers to the full abundance or variety of life – plant, animal
always equal better communication. and microbial. This variety of life occurs at all levels of ecological
Speed of access also limited the ability of the internet to be a channel organization, but biodiversity generally refers to genetic, species and
for all forms of media, restricting its use to text based and transactional ecosystem diversity. This is the diversity of life upon which the health
forms. As a result, much of the initial investment in the web went into of the environment depends. Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
servicing and creating institutional opportunities, with e--commerce are convenient terms but because the universe is a continuum, some
emerging as the major new web--based phenomena. practical difficulties exist in precisely defining each of them.
Biodiversity and Healthy Society Millions of people depend upon traditional medicines for their primary
health care.
Biodiversity is the foundation of human health. By securing the
life--sustaining goods and services which biodiversity provides to us, Biodiversity plays a role in the regulation and control of infectious
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity can provide diseases
significant benefits for human health. In contrast, the continuing loss of
Biodiversity loss and ecosystem change can increase the risk
biodiversity on a global scale represents a direct threat to our health
of emergence or spread of infectious diseases in animals, plants and
and well--being. Without a global environment that is healthy and
humans, including economically important livestock diseases, zoonotic
capable of supporting a diversity of life, no human population can exist.
outbreaks and global pandemics. In recent years outbreaks of SARS,
Biodiversity supports food security, dietary health, livelihood Ebola, Marburg, Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, avian influenza and
sustainability malaria have been attributed to human impacts on biodiversity, the
wildlife trade or unsustainable land use change. Without a greater
Genetic diversity in food systems provides the foundation of
understanding of disease ecology, there is also a risk that programmes
crop development and food security, and promotes resistance and
to tackle infectious diseases may impact negatively on biodiversity,
resilience to environmental stresses including pests and diseases of
through use of biocides and other chemicals and wildlife culls.
crops and livestock. Diets based on a diversity of food species promote
health, and can help to protect against disease by addressing the Biodiversity has social, cultural and spiritual importance within
problem of micronutrient and vitamin deficiencies. Loss of agricultural communities
biodiversity can therefore threaten health, livelihood sustainability and
Ecosystem change can result in disconnection of populations
our future security of food and nutrition.
from open spaces or the wider countryside, with negative implications
Biodiversity provides important resources for medical research for physical and mental well-­being and loss of “sense of place”. This
has been linked to an increased prevalence of ‘disease of affluence’
Studies of wildlife anatomy, physiology and biochemistry can
(diabetes, obesity, cardio--pulmonary illness) and psychological
lead to important developments in human medicine. Examples of
disorders in many communities. Conversely, access to ‘greenspace’
species of interest to medical science include bears (for insights into
(natural and artificial) are associated with better health outcomes,
osteoporosis, cardio--vascular disorders, renal disease and diabetes),
shorter hospital visits and reduced convalescence time for patients than
sharks (osmoregulation and immunology), cetaceans (respiration and
purely urban environments. An awareness of environmental values and
treatments for divers suffering from decompression sickness) and
respect for other species has been associated with reduced propensity
horse--shoe crabs (optometry/ophthalmology and molecular biology).
towards anti--social behavior in children and young adults.
Biodiversity provides important resources for traditional and
Threats to Biodiversity
modern medicine
Habitat loss
Biodiversity loss can impact on community traditions and
livelihoods centered on traditional medicinal practices that utilize wild Humans rely on technology to modify their environment and
animals and plants, particularly for indigenous and local communities. make it habitable. Other species cannot do this. Elimination of their
habitat—whether it is a forest, coral reef, grassland, or flowing river— present warming trend is caused by humans and some of the likely
will kill the individuals in the species. Remove the entire habitat and the effects include dramatic and dangerous climate changes in the coming
species will become extinct, unless they are among the few species decades.
that do well in human--built environments.
The warming trend will shift colder climates toward the north and
Overharvesting south poles, forcing species to move (if possible) with their adapted
climate norms. The shifting ranges will impose new competitive
Overhunting, overfishing and over--harvesting contribute
regimes on species as they find themselves in contact with other
greatly to the loss of biodiversity, killing off numerous species over the
species not present in their historic range. One such unexpected
past several hundred years. Poaching and other forms of hunting for
species contact is between polar bears and grizzly bears. Previously,
profit increase the risk of extinction;; the extinction of an apex predator
these two species had separate ranges. Now, their ranges are
— or, a predator at the top of a food chain — can result in catastrophic
overlapping and there are documented cases of these two species
consequences for ecosystems.
mating and producing viable offspring. Changing climates also throw
Invasive species off the delicate timing adaptations that species have to seasonal food
resources and breeding times. Scientists have already documented
Exotic species are species that have been intentionally or many contemporary mismatches to shifts in resource availability and
unintentionally introduced by humans into an ecosystem in which they timing.
did not evolve. Most exotic species introductions probably fail because
of the low number of individuals introduced or poor adaptation to the Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
ecosystem they enter. Some species, however, have characteristics
Biotechnology is a set of techniques that involves the use of
that can make them especially successful in a new ecosystem. These
biological processes and living organisms for industry, agricultural or
exotic species often undergo dramatic population increases in their new
other activities. Its purpose is to modify the natural and biological
habitat and reset the ecological conditions in the new environment,
processes of living organisms without necessarily altering the genes or
threatening the species that exist there. When this happens, the exotic
genetic construct of the living organisms. It has four major industrial
species also becomes an invasive species. Invasive species can
processes based on biological systems, namely cell and tissue culture,
threaten other species through competition for resources, predation, or
fermentation, enzyme technology, and genetic engineering – also
disease.
referred to as modern technology.
Climate change
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic
Climate change, and specifically the anthropogenic warming acid) technology differs from other forms of biotechnology as it allows
trend presently underway, is recognized as a major extinction threat, the isolation and transfer of genes coding specific characteristics
particularly when combined with other threats such as habitat loss. between living organisms to produce a new living organism that
Anthropogenic warming of the planet has been observed and is due to expresses the desired characteristics of both organisms. Genetically
past and continuing emission of greenhouse gases, primarily carbon modified organisms or GMOs is the common term used for genetically
dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere caused by the burning of engineered organisms.
fossil fuels and deforestation. Scientists overwhelmingly agree the
For thousands of years, humans have been using traditional created through genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is a process
modification methods like selective breeding and cross--breeding to that involves:
breed plants and animals with more desirable traits. Most of the foods
today were created through traditional breeding methods. But changing  Identifying the genetic information – or “gene” – that gives an
plants and animals through traditional breeding can take a long time, organism (plant, animal or microorganism) a desired trait.
and it is difficult to make very specific changes. After scientists  Copying the information from the organism that has the trait
developed genetic engineering, they were able to make similar  Inserting that information into the DNA of another organism
changes in a more specific way and in a shorter amount of time. Some Genetically Modified Organisms developed in the Philippines
([Link] and-
-history--gmos--and--other--food--modification--processes) Longer--lasting papayas

Intended Uses of GMOs Institute of Plant Breeding in

Biomedical Used as specific models for many different human UPLB developed delayed-
diseases, including multiple infectious diseases, -ripening papaya that is
such as HIV, immune system defects, blood and resistant to ring--spot virus
metabolic disorders, muscular dystrophy, cancer (PRSV). The initial project
immunotherapies among others.
assisted by the Australian
Farm/Food Engineering of animals used for food. Examples
include, chickens producing only female offspring for government developed a
Animals
egg laying, cows producing only male offspring for papaya variety with a 14-
better meat yield, pigs who can be fattened with less -day shelf life, or double the
food, cashmere goats for producing more meat from usual 6 days. The scientists achieved this by suppressing the
greater muscle mass and longer hair for wool yield;; generation of key enzyme in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway –ACC
and efforts to facilitate greater stocking density, such synthase – through genetic manipulation. ACC synthase triggers
as cattle without horns and animals with greater ethylene production, which causes ripening of fruits.
resistance to disease.
Agriculture Genetic engineering provides a quicker and more Protein enriched copra meal (PECM) as feed protein for tilapia,
precise way to achieve the same goal in one milkfish and shrimp aquaculture
generation. Genetically modified crops offer
improved yields, enhanced nutritional value, longer Primarily used as
shelf life, and resistance to drought, frost, or insect animal feed, copra meal is an
pests. Examples of GM crops include corn varieties important feed resource in the
containing a gene for a bacterial pesticide that kills Philippines. In 2014, the
larval pests, and soybeans with an inserted gene
that renders them resistant to weed--killers.
Philippines produced about
“GMO” (genetically modified organism) has become the common term 750,000 metric tons of copra
consumers and popular media use to describe foods that have been meal as coconut by--product.
About 60% of this was locally
utilized mainly as animal feed.
There are, however, several concerns on the use of soybean meals as Tomato Leaf Curve Virus (ToLCV)-- resistant Variety
feeding ingredient. This includes its fluctuating market price, its being
The Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB)
expensive import commodity, its erratic supply, and the fact that it even
of the University of the Philippines
competes for human food.
Los Banos (UPLB) has developed
To address the issue on high cost of soybean importation and tomato breeding line resistant to
to ensure the quality of animal feeds, the Philippine Council for tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) in the
Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and hope of reviving tomato’s robust
Development of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST-- production in the country.
PCARRD) supported research and development (R&D) programs on
The two--year project was completed by a team composed
feed resources under its Industry Strategic Science and Technology
mainly of local scientist at the IPB--UPLB with financial support from
(S&T) Program (ISP).
the Department of Agriculture Biotech Program. The research team
One of the program’s accomplishments is the use of formulated developed the candidate ToLCV--resistant lines from the local tomato
feeds for swine, poultry and aquatic animals with Protein Enriched varieties by interbreeding local varieties with ToLCV--resistant tomato
Copra Meal (PECM) that was developed by the National Institute of lines acquired from the Asian Vegetable Research and Development
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology of the University of the Center (AVRDC) – The World Vegetable Center.
Philippines Los Banos (UPLB--BIOTECH). Through solid--state
ToLCV--resistance in the donor parental lines, hybrids and the
fermentation technology, the PECM is enriched with microorganisms
derived lines from the initial hybrids was verified by exposing the plants
that increase the protein content of copra meal to about 36 to 44%
to the ToLCV--Laguna isolate and by marker--assisted selection
crude protein content, comparable to the 46% of soybean meal. A
(MAS). MAS can predict even at early seedling stage whether a plant
group of researchers from the Institute of Aquaculture, College of
will grow to express a trait of interest based on the mere presence or
Fisheries and Ocean Sciences of the University of the Philippines
absence of gene markers. Gene markers are short unique DNA
Visayas studied the possibility of substituting 50% soybean meal, as a
sequences located near the DNA sequence of the gene responsible for
major feed protein source, with PECM.
a desired physical characteristic/trait in each generation of plants
produced. In this case, markers for genes responsible for the resistance
to ToLCV confirmed successful transfer of the resistance gene in the
Protein enriched copra
genetic make--up of the developed tomato lines. Lines rated as highly
meal (PECM) used for tilapia,
resistant due to absence or very minimal observed symptoms of
milkfish, and shrimp aquaculture
infection and detected for presence of ToLCV resistance genes through
(photo courtesy of UP Visayas,
gene markers were considered candidate ToLCV resistant breeding
Miagao, Iloilo)
materials.
Tomato was the leading vegetable crop in the country in terms
Milkfish and tilapia when fed with commercial feed and PECM of area planted until 1990. The peak of decline in the area of production
(photo courtesy of UP Visayas, Miagao, Iloilo) in 1997 was primarily due to pests and diseases as well as unfavorable
climatic conditions especially during off--season months. Virus with higher ~-­carotene and lycopene;; legumes with
diseases, including ToLCV, are considered the most damaging to higher sulfur containing amino acids: sweet potato with
tomato production worldwide causing 50--100% yield loss. Use of higher protein content.
chemicals to stop the vector insect proved to be costly and does not 2. Engineering pest or disease resistance in important
warrant sustainable protection. Moreover, the strategy can be crops such as rice and corn, various vegetables. sweet
hazardous both to human health and environment. The use of resistant potato and others especially those important for
varieties offers the most effective and practical strategy to overcome developing countries.
the disease. While breeding initiatives to virus resistant varieties have 3. Edible vaccines - aimed at providing low cost
been going on, the lack of varieties with durable resistance against immunization strategy for developing countries;; banana
multiple virus diseases remains a concern to farmers. At present, there with antigen of causal organism of diarrhea is now at
are no commercial varieties grown in the Philippines with durable clinical trial stage. Vaccine corn for gastroenteritis in
resistance to major virus diseases such as ToLCV. Use of the hogs, hepatitis B in humans, etc.
promising resistant breeding materials may improve production yield 4. Antibodies engineered and produced in plant
and income of more than 18,000 tomato growers. -expressed antibodies in potato, tobacco and rapeseed
were stable and active;; need to increase expression
Bt corn
level.
Bt corn in the 5. Crops which can extract and detoxify pollutants from the
Philippines was engineered to environment such as heavy metals------this research is
be specifically resistant to the hampered by the lack of basic knowledge on the
Asian corn borer (ACB), molecular mechanism involved in the uptake and
Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee), storage of inorganics in plants.
the most devastating corn 6. Crops which produce less toxic residues such as corn
pests in the industry. It was with low phytate, 15 Phytate complexes phosphorus and
introduced as a “practical and thus the latter becomes unavailable and cannot
ecologically sustainable released by nonruminants. A large amount of phosphate
solution” for poor corn farmers, a major bullet to combat poverty and is excreted and contributes to water pollution.
improve livelihood. 7. Production of alternative polymers which can replace o
substitute plastics and other petrochemical products in
Adoption rate of biotech maize in 2015 is at 63 percent. In the plants and thus are renewable and biodegradable.
period 2003 to 2015, there were 13 years of consecutive growth in
hectarage of Bt corn, except for 2015 due to drought. Risk Related to the Use of Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs)
Potential benefits of GM crops
Genetic Contamination/Interbreeding. Introduced GMOs may
1. Better nutritional qualities------rice with provitamin A and interbreed with the wild-- type or sexually compatible relatives. The
iron;; corn with high lysine and tryptophan;; vegetables novel trait may disappear in wild types unless it confers a selective
advantage to the recipient. However, tolerance abilities of wild types Loss of Management Control Measures. Regulatory approvals
may also develop, thus altering the native species’ ecological for field trials of GMOs often require measures to limit and control the
relationship and behavior. release in space and time. With the spread of the introduced gene(s) to
another species by HGT, a new GMO is created. This new GMO may
Competition with Natural Species. Faster growth of GMOs can
give rise to adverse effects which are not controlled by management
enable them to have a competitive advantage over the native
measures imposed by the original license or permit.
organisms. This may allow them become invasive, to spread into new
habitats, and cause ecological and economic damage. Long--term Effects. Sometimes the impact of HGT may be more
severe in the long term. Even under relatively strong selection
Increased Selection Pressure on Target and Non--target
pressure, it may take thousands of generations for a recipient organism
Organisms. Pressure may increase on target and non--target species
to become the dominant form in the population. In addition, other
to adapt to the introduced changes as if to a geological change or a
factors such as timing of appropriate biotic or abiotic environmental
natural selection pressure causing them to evolve distinct resistant
conditions and additional changes in the recipient organism could delay
populations.
adverse effects. [Link]
Ecosystem Impacts. The effects of changes in a single species
Antibiotic Resistance and Horizontal Gene Transfer. Most of the
may extend well beyond to the ecosystem. Single impacts are always
first generation of GM crops have antibiotic resistance gene as
joined by the risk of ecosystem damage and destruction.
selectable marker. It has been hypothesized that such antibiotic
Impossibility of Follow--up. Once the GMOs have been resistance genes could lead to the innovation of oral doses of the
introduced into the environment and some problems arise, it is antibiotic, or that these genes could be transferred to pathogenic
impossible to eliminate them. Many of these risks are identical to those microorganism in the gut or the soil which will render them resistant to
incurred with regards to the introduction of naturally or conventionally such antibiotics.
bred species. But still this does not suggest that GMOs are safe or GMOs and Biodiversity
beneficial, nor that they should be less scrutinized.
The impact of GMOs on biodiversity is widely debated. Pro-
Horizontal Transfer of Recombinant Genes to other
-GMO researchers maintain that if crops are genetically modified for
Microorganisms. One risk of particular concern relating to GMOs is the
pest resistance, farmers can reduce their reliance on insecticides, so
risk of horizontal gene transfer (HGT). HGT is the acquisition of foreign
that local fauna, such as birds, rodents, and insects, can flourish in the
genes (via transformation, transduction, and conjugation) by organisms
area. Secondary pests that would have been eliminated through
in a variety of environmental situations. It occurs especially in response
widespread insecticide application are not suppressed by the scaled-
to changing environments and provides organisms, especially
-back insecticide use permitted GMOs. Because these secondary pests
prokaryotes, with access to genes other than those that can be
remain, other small predator – the birds and rodents that feed on the
inherited. HGT of an introduced gene from a GMO may confer a novel
secondary pests--remain viable. In addition, the development of
trait in another organism, which could be a source of potential harm to
drought--resistant or flood--resistant crops allows arid or flood--prone
the health of people or the environment.
land to be used for growing crops. This means that less high-
-biodiversity terrain needs to be converted for farming.
On the other side of the debate, GMO skeptics have argued that “nanotech”. It represents the scaling down of technology to a new scale,
up to 75% of plant genetic diversity has been lost since farmers generally agreed to be in the range of 1 to 100 nm.
switched to uniform GM crop varieties. In this view, less popular, non-
One of the main reasons for the explosion of interest in
-GM seed varieties are being neglected. Moreover, widely used GM
nanotechnology is the unique properties and behavior of matter at the
crop varieties can spread to neighboring fields and eventually mix in
nanoscale. When particles are synthesized at the nanoscale, their
with non-- GM crops. A farmer who wishes to continue using a non--GM
properties change. For one thing, nanoparticles have much more
seed variety, or who desires to maintain the organic status of his crops,
surface area compared to their weight than larger particles. This single
must adopt potentially expensive measures to protect his crops from
property means that much less material can be used for application,
contamination or cross--pollination with his neighbor’s GM crops. It has
allowing us to save natural resources, energy and money, provided that
also been argued that the over--popularity of certain GM crops may
it does not cost more to produce. Using less material in products can
lead to greater susceptibility to pests and disease. Pests may evolve to
offer both economic and environmental benefits.
target the monoculture of popular and overused crop varieties.
Moreover, it has been argued that the evolution of glyphosate--resistant Working with matter on such a small scale represents a
weeds has required farmers to make ever greater use of glyphosate, revolution in technology because, at this scale, materials reveal
the toxicity of which poses dangers for human health. uniquely novel physical, chemical, and biological (including
toxicological) properties when compared to their bulk counterpart. It is
It has been hypothesized that GM crops can harm insect
akin to discovering a world of new materials emerging out of existing
species that are not pests. Insects that feed on GM crops will carry GM
materials.
pollen, which may prove toxic in the long term and result in depletion or
even extinction of insect populations. The genetic integrity of any plant Applications of Nanotechnology in All Fields of Science
or insect that lives in close proximity to GM crops can be compromised
because gene transfer from one organism to another can occur, and The early 2000’s saw the beginning of commercial applications
such genes may pose unanticipated risks. GM traits have been found of nanotechnology, although these were limited to bulk applications of
transferred to insects, water life and soil. nanomaterial rather than the transformative applications envisioned by
the field. With thousands of researchers across the globe focusing on
Chapter 9 the applications of nanomaterials and the mushrooming of many
The Nano World industries, it is now difficult to say who did what first. The realization by
scientists and industrialists of the ability of the materials to dramatically
What is Nanotechnology? change their properties as nanoscale has opened up the possibility of
making new devices, instruments and consumer goods, etc, to function
Nano is a prefix used in the metric scale to represent one
in a much better way than was possible earlier. Rapid progress in the
billionth. A nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter. Nano comes from
synthesis and understanding of nanomaterials in just a few years has
the Greek word for dwarf, so in combination with technology, it
led to their entry into the world in a big way. Various fields in which
becomes dwarf technology. Technology applies science and materials
nanomaterials have already entered or about to enter can be
for human uses, and nanotechnology applies science and materials at
overviewed.
the nanoscale. People refer to nanotechnology as “tiny tech” or
Application of Nanotechnology in all fields of Science Automobiles
Electronics Nanosensors will help in assessing emissions from the vehicle
and help in controlling pollutants.
Single electron transistor (SET), spin valves and magnetic
tunnel junctions (MT)s are based on nanotechnology. Spin valve--type Car paints/coatings using nanoparticle are being used to
devices are already being used in personal computers to “read discs,” provide smooth, thin attractive coatings that are scratch resistant, can
which has enabled the increase of data storage capacity of hard discs. repel dirt and are anti--reflective. Biocide paints and anti--fogging
coatings are even being developed.
Flat--panel television or computer monitors are products of
nanotechnology. Even the coatings used on screens of TVs or monitors “Self-­cleaning” glass for windows is being fabricated by
can be made of nanoparticles, which have better properties in terms of dissolving a small amount of titania (TiO2) nanoparticles while
color quality and resolution than microparticle coatings. manufacturing it and melting it together with other ingredients like silica
(SiO2), CaO, Ba2O3, etc. Titania is able to dissociate organic dust in
Energy
the presence of UV light available in sunlight. Once dissociated, it may
Some metal hydride nanoparticles like nickel hydrides or high fall down or simply evaporate.
surface area, ultra-- lightweight materials like aerogels are found to be
To combat population caused by vehicles, use of efficient
better options than the conventional materials in improved batteries.
nanomaterial catalysts is one solution that can convert harmful
Carbon nanomaterial (CNM) has been used in improving the efficacy
emissions into less harmful gases.
of lithium secondary batteries, supercapacitors and in hydrogen
storage. To overcome the pollution problem, cars using hydrogen as fuel
are being marketed. Hydrogen gas is normally stored in a metal cylinder
Environment
under high pressure not only can add weight to the vehicle but is also
Efficient production of nanomaterials following the low dangerous. To overcome this problem, storing hydrogen in
temperature synthesis route would help to reduce industrial pollution. “nanocylinders” of carbon nanotubes is being tried.
Use of nanomaterials as hydrogen storage or efficient oil filters may
Agriculture and Food
reduce pollution from vehicles. Efficient nanomaterials are lightweight
and needed only in small quantities. This may help reduce the price of Application in combating plant diseases:
many products, making them commonly affordable.
 Controlled delivery of functional molecules
Some of the nanoparticle--based sensors are much more novel Nanoparticles used as Trojan horse for delivery of active
and sensitive compounds to those being used. Nanomaterials--based ingredients.
sensors would be smart sensors, i.e., they will be able to detect and  As a diagnostic tool for disease detection
rectify problems. Such sensors are being developed for water For detection purpose, both nanoparticles and quantum dots
purification systems, detection of toxic ions, metal ions, pesticides, etc., (QDs) have emerged as pivotal tools for detection of biological
and their remediation on a larger scale.
markers. Nanotechnology can play important role in treatment Nanoliposomes are used as vesicular delivery systems.
by diagnosing a disease at its very early stage. Liposomes are concentric bilayer vesicles. The first liposomal cosmetic
was the anti-­aging cream “Capture” manufactured by Dior.
Industries
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are nm--sized particles with a
Semiconductors and magnetic nanostructures have found
solid lipid matrix. SLNs are tested in perfume formulations. Chanel’s
maximum use in industries pertaining to semiconductor fabrication,
Allure perfume was incorporated into SLNs and nanoemulsions.
electronics and nanostructure--based electro-- optical devices. Based
on the nanomagnetic properties of nanostructure, photoinduced Dendrimers were used in a formula patented by L’Oreal that
magnetism, spintronics, nanomagnetic probes, electronic magneto- forms a thin film when deposited on a substrate. They are used in
-transport and micromagnetic modeling are being developed by various mascara and nail polish.
industries. Nanosensors and actuators for various applications are one
Domestic Appliances
of the major activities of nano--based industries. Another area being
concentrated on by industries is molecular electronics, such as for Nanoporous aerogel insulator is excellent for insulating walls.
liquid crystal displays. Flame--retardant furniture coatings are on the market which are
synthesized carbon nanofibers. Fishing rods are made stronger and
Industries are involved in developing and producing
lighter using silica nanoparticles to fill spaces between carbon fibers.
nanomaterials to obtain nano-- bioproducts for bone substitutes and
dentistry;; antimicrobial applications in various products;; food and Antimicrobial titanium oxide nanoparticles are used in various
cosmetic applications;; applications in textiles, paints, catalysis, applications as part of a film that uses energy in light to kill bacteria on
lubricants, fuel cells and batteries;; all of which are part of major surfaces by photocatalytic activity.
industrial production.
Diagnostics and Therapeutics
Textiles
Nanomedicine researchers are looking at ways that
Special threads and dyes used in the textile industry are nanotechnology can improve vaccines, including vaccine delivery
products of nanotechnology. These clothes do not require ironing or without the use of needles. Researchers also are working to create a
frequent cleaning. Use of silver (Ag) nanoparticles in washing machines universal vaccine scaffold for the annual flu vaccine that would cover
remove the germs from clothes while washing. Masks made of fabrics more strains and require fewer resources to develop each year.
coated with nanoparticles for protection against microbes are already
on the market. There are piezoelectric fibers that could allow clothing Commercial applications have adapted gold nanoparticles as
to generate electricity through normal conditions. Fabrics composed of probes for the detection of targeted sequences of nucleic acids, and
proteins are capable of stretching as much as 1500 percent from their gold nanoparticles are being clinically investigated as potential
original size and can be used form--fitting clothing. treatments for cancer and other diseases.

Cosmetics Nanotechnology is being studied for both the diagnosis and

treatment of atherosclerosis. In one technique, researchers created a
nanoparticle that mimics the body’s “good” cholesterol, known as HDL nearest river and streams, of course, these may affect drinking water
(high--density lipoprotein), which helps to shrink plaque. sources and oceans.
Environmental Aspects of Nanotechnology Triclosan, commonly found in antimicrobial soaps and cleaning
products, is among many consumer--used chemicals found in the river
Many applications of nanotechnology benefits the environment,
and drinking water sources. Some population of bacteria routinely
for example, treating drinking water, eliminating toxic chemicals,
exposed to substances designed to eradicate them (e.g. pesticides and
increasing water and energy efficiency, and harnessing cleaner energy
medical antibiotics) are now found in the environment and have
technologies. How can the applications of nanoscience affect the
become resistant to antibiotics used in agriculture and to treat human
environment? It is not clear today what the potential impacts are from
diseases. Antimicrobial resistance is a big problem because bacteria
nanoscale materials in the air, water and soil. For example, it is not
are no longer susceptible to the treatments developed to kill them, and
known to what extent nanomaterials might enter the food supply and
outbreaks can occur that cannot be managed.
become part of human diet, or whether and how they can affect forests,
coral reefs, or air quality Nanotechnology in the Philippines
Will there be a nano--environmental legacy? Are nanomaterials In 2011, the government announced a 10--year strategic
already entering the environment in ways that will allow them to persist plan/road map for the development of the R&D strategy of
and enter or upset the food chain? Will nanomaterials follow the path nanotechnology covering at least six industrial sectors – the
of other legacy pollutants, such as lead? How will this be determined if semiconductor, information technology, energy, agriculture, medicine,
data are not being collected? One could argue that the amounts will be and environmental protection. Nanotechnology has been identified as
small, and in the near future, it is true that there are few applications of one of the priority areas of research identified by the Department of
nanotechnology likely to allow free nanoparticles to enter the Science and Technology--Philippine Council for Advanced Science and
environment in significant amounts. However, as more and more Technology Research and Development (DOST--PCASTRD).
applications adopt nanotechnology, the production, uses, and releases PCASTRD’s mandate is to develop, integrate, and coordinate national
of nanoparticles will dramatically increase. research. Flagship projects include chemical sensors and biosensors
based on nanostructured solar energy devices. PCASTRD also
By way of example, in a hospital environment, it is very
provides funds for scholarships and research fellowships. PCASTRD
important to keep surfaces sanitary and free from contamination, and
has also proposed to include nanotechnology as part of all science and
many cleaning equipment or washing floors and surfaces to help
engineering degrees.
prevent the spread of germs. Using a product containing a
nanomaterial as a disinfectant might mean it would be sprayed, wiped, In the area of agriculture, funded nano projects include rapid
poured into buckets and on floors, and washed down drains. An and early pest and pathogen detection;; precision agriculture –
obvious question arises: Where could the nanomaterial end up? monitoring of agricultural growth parameters;; and post--harvest quality
Anytime, chemicals are washed away with water or flushed down the monitoring, nano--sized feedstock, nano--sized fertilizers/nutrients, and
drain, they are released into the environment. From drain pipes, the pesticides. Research into nanocomposite films and membranes aims
materials enter the groundwater and eventually can move to the to extend the shelf--life of fresh and processed produce, aid the
clarification of juices, and improve whey protein production. Projects
concerning nanotechnology for water purification and environmental warfare, controlled distribution of biological and nerve agents may
remediation are also being funded. Seedgrowth, a plant supplement become feasible.
consisting of nano--sized fruit extracts and microorganisms, was
Materials/Composites
developed in the Philippines and apparently reduces the need for
chemical fertilizers and increases crop yield. Scientists from DOST The general problem with composite materials is that they are
have also developed a low--cost water purification system in the form more difficult to recycle and consume more energy during recycling
of a ceramic filter coated with silver nanoparticles. There appears to be than pure materials.
no nano specific regulation in the Philippines.
Wide--scale introduction of composite materials can increase
Risks environmental problems.
Historical evidence supported by scientific findings show that all In the manufacturing area, many processes will need to be
new technologies come with risks to human health and the redesigned to embody new principles, particularly relating to
environment, and nanotechnology is no exception. The increasing containment of active or waste products.
number of engineered nanomaterials and nanoproducts gives rise to
increasing breadth and extent of the potential risks posed to human Nanotechnology and Education
health and the environment. For example, engineered nanomaterials Education and training in nanotechnology require special
are of similar size range as exhaustion particles from engines laboratory facilities that can be quite expensive. The cost of creating
combustion, and certain carbon nanotubes are in many ways similar to and maintaining nanotechnology facilities is a major challenge for
asbestos fibers, substances that are known to cause adverse effects to educational institutions. But by using innovative approaches such as
human health, namely, cancer and asbestosis. inter--university collaboration, academia--industry partnerships, and
Genetics/Medicine/Healthcare Web--based remote access to nanofabrication facilities, educational
institutions can overcome innovative nanotechnology researches.
Artifacts based on nanotechnology incorporate genetic material
or have genetic modification or repair as an objective. To address these demands of the global marketplace, a skilled
workforce is required that can move from industry to industry without
If the artifact incorporates some kind of computing and sensing retraining. The new workforce will consist of researchers, technicians,
element, say for the controlled delivery of a drug, additional risks arise and educators. To develop this workforce, new interdisciplinary
for the patient if these elements should malfunction. educational programs need to be developed and revised.
Invasion of privacy and of the human body through the planting Economic and political implications of potential technology
and implanting of computing--cum--communication devices without the
knowledge of those affected has been done. These issues include the economic value of a new materials
and new industries created through nanotechnology, as well as
The security and safety of a person is a problematic issue, since economic dislocations caused by shifts in investment and the decline
it will be difficult initially to detect the presence of nanosize artifacts that of industries and companies tied to displaced technologies. Other
are capable of breaching security and harming the individual. In implications might include increased lifespans made possible through
nano--based medicines or diagnostic techniques, leading to greater Chapter 10
numbers of active senior citizens seeking employment and active
Gene Therapy
participation in the political process.
Nanotechnology and Employment The genes in the body’s cells play an important role in your
health – indeed, a defective gene or genes can make someone sick.
The question of impacts on employment has not yet entered into Recognizing this, scientists have been working for decades on ways to
the research agenda on the social implications of nanotechnology. modify genes or replace faulty genes with healthy one to treat, cure or
Even though there are currently relatively few products, industries, and prevent a disease or medical condition.
workers involved in nanotechnology compared to other industries, it
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human
appears clear that this technology is high tech and highly sophisticated,
body is composed of trillions of them. Within our cells there are
which deepens the trend to reducing workforces and automating the
thousands of genes that provide the information for the production of
processes of production and services – a trend which began with the
specific proteins and enzymes that make muscles, bones, and blood,
microelectric revolution and resulted in a dramatic reduction of
which in turn support most of our body’s functions, such as digestion,
employment in many sectors of the economy.
making energy and growing.
Nanotechnology products that are already on the market allow
Sometimes the whole or part of a gene is defective or missing
us to identify three common characteristics: the products have multiple
from birth, or a gene can change or mutate during adult life. Any of
functions that previously required more than one product
these variations can disrupt how proteins are made, which can
(multifunctional), the products remain useful longer, and the products
contribute to health problems or diseases.
use fewer raw materials. Some products combine two or three of these
characteristics. Taken together, this means that manufacturing these In gene therapy, scientist can do one of several things
products will lead to decreased demand for workers. In addition, these depending on the problem that is present. They can replace a gene that
innovations reduce the demand for traditional products that compete causes a medical problem with one that doesn’t, add genes to help the
them. body to fight or treat disease, or turn off genes that are causing
Social, Ethical, Legal and Cultural Implications problems. In order to insert new genes directly into cells, scientists use
a vehicle called a “vector” which is genetically engineered to deliver the
The list of social, ethical, legal and cultural implications includes gene. Viruses, for example, have a natural ability to deliver genetic
such issues as privacy, avoiding a ‘nano-­divide’, unintended material into cells, and therefore, can be used as vectors. Before a virus
consequences, university/industry relationships and potential conflicts can be used to carry therapeutic genes into human cells, however, is
of interest, research ethics, and so on. It is widely acknowledged that, modified to remove its ability to cause an infectious disease. Gene
precisely because the applications of nanotechnology are not yet clear, therapy can be used to modify cells inside or outside the body. When
neither are the ethical issues clear. And yet, many argue, the nano it’s done inside the body, a doctor will inject the vector carrying the gene
community must begin to address these issues now, before they directly into the part of the body that has defective cells.
overwhelm nanotechnology and derail potential benefits.
In gene therapy that is used to modify cells outside the body,
blood, bone marrow, or another tissue can be taken from the patient,
and specific types of cells can be separated out in the lab. The vector 1. as a transplant, where the desired stem cells are harvested
containing the desired gene is introduced into these cells. The cells are either from the patient or a donor and refined or modified in
left to multiply in the laboratory and then injected back into the patient some way before being injected or grafted into the patient, or
where they continue to multiply and eventually produce the desired 2. as a target for a drug or other biologic where the drug or biologic
effect. is intended to activate a desired response from the stem cells
that already exist in the patient’s tissues or organs.
Approaches to Gene Therapy
Ethical Dilemma
1. Gene Modification
Researchers have used the following methods to modify The possibility of destructive embryo research, particularly
defective genes: embryonic stem cell research, presents us with a moral problem
• Replacement treatment: Replacing a natural gene because it appears to bring into tension two fundamental moral
with a non--natural gene through homologous principles that people esteem very highly: one principle enjoins the
recombination. prevention or alleviation of suffering, and other enjoins us to respect
• Modifier gene therapy: Restoring natural function to the value of human life. The harvesting and culturing of embryonic stem
a defective gene through selective reverse mutation. cells has considerable potential to bring about remarkable potential
• Adjustment of the expression of a specific gene. benefits in the way of alleviating debilitating medical conditions. It satisfies the
2. Gene transfer method first principle to a very great degree.
There are 3 physical, chemical, and biological methods On the other hand, there is a case to be made that the harvesting of
of gene transfer. human embryonic stem cells violates the second principle in that it results in
3. Gene transfer to specific cell line the destruction of human life with value (i.e. human embryos). Accordingly,
This line is divided into 2 general categories of somatic both principles apparently cannot simultaneously be respected in the case of
gene therapy, and sex cell gene therapy. embryonic stem cell research. The question then is which principle ought to be
4. The adoption of the most appropriate genetic engineering (gene given precedence in this conflict situation. If weight is given more to the first
injection) and permit destructive embryonic stem cell research because of its remarkable
Other forms of genetic engineering include gene benefits? Or should be given more to the second and prohibit destructive
embryonic research because it violates respect for the value of the embryo as
targeting and the elimination of specific genes through nuclease
the very beginnings of a possible human life? This, at bottom, is the ethical
engineering.
problem generated by destructive embryo research.
Stem Cell Therapy Chapter 11
A stem cell therapy is any treatment that uses stem cells as the Climate Change, Energy Crisis and Environmental Awareness
primary way of curing or reducing the severity of a disease or disorder.
There are two main ways stem cells can be used: What is climate change and what are the causes?

Climate change is a broad range of global phenomena created

predominantly by burning fossil fuels, which add heat--trapping gases to
Earth’s atmosphere. These phenomena include the increased temperature
trends described by global warming, but also encompass changes such as sea Impacts
level rise;; ice mass loss;; shifts in flower/plant blooming;; and extreme weather
events. Climate change could affect our society through impacts on a number
of different social, cultural, and natural resources. Some groups of people will
Causes likely face greater challenges than others. Climate change my especially
impact people who live in areas that are vulnerable to coastal storms, drought,
On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over and sea level rise or people who live in poverty, older adults, and immigrant
the last century the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the communities. Similarly, some types of professions and industries may face
concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This happens because considerable challenges from climate change. Professions that are closely
the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make linked to weather, such as outdoor tourism, commerce, and agriculture, will
CO2. To a lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other likely be especially affected.
human activities has increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.
Impacts on Vulnerability and Equity
Greenhouse gas emissions
1. Geographic Location
Evidence that CO2 emissions are the cause of global warming is very
robust. Scientists have known since the early 1800s that greenhouse gases in Population in coastal areas are more sensitive to storms, drought, air pollution
the atmosphere trap heat. Global CO2 emissions from human activity have and heat waves. Population in mountainous areas will likely face water
increased by over 400% since 1960. As a result, the concentration of CO2 in shortages and increased wildfires in the future. Arctic residents will likely
the air has reached more than 400 parts per million by volume (ppm), experience problems caused by thawing permafrost
compared to about 280 ppm in 1750 (around the start of the Industrial
Revolution). 2. Ability to cope

Earth’s natural climate cycle People who live in poverty may have a difficult time coping with changes.
These people have limited financial resources to cope with heat, relocate or
Over the last 800,000 years, there have been natural cycles in the evacuate, or respond to increases in the cost of food. Older adults may be
Earth’s climate, between ice ages and warmer interglacial periods. After the among the least able to cope with impacts of climate change. Elderly people
last ice age 20,000 years ago, average global temperature rose by about 3°C are particularly prone to heat stress. Young children are another sensitive age
to 8°C, over a period of about 10, 000 years. group, since their immune system and other bodily systems are still developing
and they rely on others to care for them in disaster situations.
Solar influences
3. Indigenous people
The sun is the primary source of Earth’s heat, so relatively small
changes in solar output can affect our climate. Satellite observations since the Climate change will make it harder for tribes to access safe and nutritious
late 1970s have shown a slight decrease in the sun’s total energy output. food, including traditional foods important to many tribes’ cultural practices.
However, instead of cooling, the Earth has warmed over this period. Many tribes already lack access to safe drinking water and wastewater
treatment in their communities. Climate change is expected to increase health
Also, warming from the sun would heat all of the atmosphere, including risks associated with water quality problems like contamination and may
the lowest few kilometers (the troposphere) and the layer above (the reduce availability of water, particularly during droughts. By affecting the
stratosphere). Observations show that the stratosphere is in fact cooling while environment and natural resources of tribal communities, climate change also
the troposphere warms. This is consistent with greenhouse gas heating and threatens the cultural identities of indigenous people. As plants and animals
not solar heating.
used in traditional practices or sacred ceremonies become less available, tribal Recognizing that the climate system is a shared resource which is greatly
culture and ways of life can be greatly affected. affected by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, the UNFCC has
set out an overall framework for intergovernmental efforts to consider what can
4. Urban People be done to reduce global warming and to cope with whatever temperature
City residents and urban infrastructure have distinct sensitivities to climate increases are inevitable. Its ultimate objective is to stabilize greenhouse
change impacts. For example, heat waves may be amplified in cities because concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous human
cities absorb more heat during the day than suburban and rural areas. Cities interference with the climate system.
are more densely populated than suburban or rural areas. As a result, Countries are actively discussing and negotiating ways to deal with the
increases in heat waves, drought, or violent storms in cities would affect a climate change problem within the UNFCCC using two central approaches.
larger number of people than in suburban or rural areas. Higher temperatures The first task is to address the root cause by reducing greenhouse gas
and more extreme events will likely affect the cost of energy, air and water emissions from human activity. The means to achieve this are very
quality, and human comfort and health in cities. City dwellers may also be contentious, as it will require radical changes in the way many societies are
particularly susceptible to vulnerabilities in aging infrastructure. This includes organized, especially in respect to fossil fuel use, industry operations, land
drainage and sewer systems, flood and storm protection assets, transportation use, and development. Within the climate change arena, the reduction of
systems, and power supply during periods of peak demand, which typically greenhouse gas is called mitigation.
occur during summer heat waves.
The second task in responding to climate change is to manage its impacts.
5. Impacts on Economic Activities and Services Future impacts on the environment and society are now inevitable, owing to
Communities that developed around the production of different agricultural the amount of greenhouse gases already in the atmosphere from past
crops, such as corn, wheat or cotton, depend on the climate to support their decades of industrial and other human activities, and to the added amounts
way of life. Climate change will likely cause the ideal climate for these crops to from continued emissions over the next few decades until such time as
shift. Certain agricultural products may decline dramatically. These crops mitigation policies and actions become effective. Taking steps to cope with the
would then have to be imported. changed climate conditions both in terms of reducing adverse impacts and
taking advantage of potential benefits is called adaptation.
Climate change will also likely affect tourism and recreational activities. A
warming climate and changes in precipitation patterns will likely decrease the
number of days when recreational snow activities such as skiing and
snowmobiling can take place. Increasing number of wildfires could affect
hiking and recreation in parks. Beaches could suffer erosion due to sea level
rise and storm surge. Changes in migration patterns of fish and animals would
affect fishing and hunting. Communities that support themselves through these
recreational activities would feel economic impact as tourism
patterns begin to change.

In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCC) was adopted as the basis for a global response to the problem. The
Philippines signed the UNFCCC on 12 June 1992 and ratified the international
treaty on 2 August 1994. Presently, the Convention enjoys near universal
membership with 194 Country Parties.