Content Science Tech Society Philsca

PRELIM

General Concepts and

STS Historical Developments
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Module 1
HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY; WHAT IS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

 Discuss the interactions between Science and Technology and society

throughout history.
 Understand how scientific and technological developments affect society and
environment.
 Describe the concept, theories and ideological shifts in history.
1.1. What is science?
Science, derived from Latin ‘scientia’ (“to know”) via Old French, is an accumulation
of knowledge by common sense and critical thinking. It is the systematic
study of natural and social phenomena by means of well-defined methods
with the purpose of disclosing universally valid, objective and verified
relationships. British scientist William Cecil Dampier-Whetham (1943)
defines science as “the ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and
the rational study of relationships between the concepts in which
these phenomena are expressed.” Science as an immensely vast field has
served societies across the world since time immemorial, and science indeed has
indispensable purposes and benefits to mankind. In the words of former Mexican
president Luis Echeverria, the contributions of scientists are essential to any country,
whatever its level of economic development. Everywhere, even in the most
underdeveloped nation, scientific process no longer serves man’s adaptation to nature
nor the elementary struggle for survival, but rather serves to harness natural resources
for the improvement of human life.
Scientific knowledge is hence guided by the principal constituents of:
 The desire to discover the functions of the natural world;
 The application of the functions of the natural world to human needs;
 The attempt to process all known facts from the natural world into meaningful
patterns of scientific laws and/or theories;
 The continual use of scientific methods in search of further knowledge; and
 The organization of all scientific knowledge discovered and produced by cultures
and generations across centuries for clearer understanding for all people.
Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

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1.2. Why science? Who does science?
Science today is a field providing direct and indirect source of employment to

millions of people all over the world. However, this has not been a common human
experience until modern history. Science prior to this merely became an ancillary affair
to other concerns of amateurs occupied in other fields. Many of them were clerics,
physicians, artists or alchemists, and if one belonged to societies with a robust scientific
community, they were typically persons of high social status who have the resources
and privilege to conduct systematic methods of scientific inquiry.
Science has become an emphasized component of public society since its ascent as a
main source of living whereby economic and political causes of certain governments
provide employment to many. Science has also promised to solve social problems such
as curing disease. This is no doubt science and medicine, inspiring the field of life
sciences, has always been intertwined for millennia. Another is the search for energy. As
the world rapidly industrialized since the 19th century onwards, thousands of geologists
and engineers have been employed with the onset and expansion of the fossil fuels
industry. And while world energy sources gradually shift to renewable energies and
ecological modernization, new scientific niches start to emerge (or eclipse preexisting
ones) to meet new demands and goals.
1.3. What is technology?
Technology, a combination of Greek ‘techne’ (“art” or “craft”) and

‘logos’ (“word” or “speech”), means “a discourse on fine and
applied arts.” It is commonly defined as the application of
scientific theory and knowledge to practical purposes and human
needs. It covers any tool or product, any process or approach, any equipment or
method which aim to enhance or extend human intellectual and physical capabilities. It
is the process of converting raw materials from the earth into products wanted and
needed by people. Such process covers agriculture, fisheries, mining, and forestry,
which are areas where primary or raw materials can be sourced for processing into finer
products. There is also manufacturing where intermediate materials or components are
further refined or assembled such as into consumer products mostly available in urban
areas. Technology is also embodied in construction, transportation, communications,
medicine, and education to name a few. These areas harness processed output or
knowledge to create more sophisticated products or ideas.

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1.4. Science and technology and society
The key for mankind to continuously progress into the future is the realization of
science and technology for and within society. Scientific and technological activities
contribute to society through the improvement or creation of new knowledge, the
utilization of these knowledge to boost the prosperity of human lives, and to solve
various existing and possible issues facing society. As societies of the 21 st century shift to
knowledge-based economies, the creation of new knowledge and the improvement of
existing ones has become increasingly a more important aspect of science and
technology. The role of science in this knowledge creation and expansion is indeed
important for the realization of science and technology for and within society.
The relationship between science and technology and society is akin to rain falling
on a mountain. Rain does not immediately wash away downhill. First, it is captured and
stored by forests and thickets, giving life to plants and other vegetation which serve
immense ecological functions. This can be compared to the accumulation of scientific
knowledge and the continuing search for truth. If the forests fail to capture sufficient
amount of rainfall, human settlements may quickly face drought, and thus threatens
their welfare. In the same way, realization of social progress through science and
technology requires sufficient accumulation of scientific knowledge. However, this is not
actualized in a matter of days, but rather requires steady, continuous build-up just like
science and the technologies science itself has yielded through thousands of years of
human history.
In some aspects, however, science and technology are not always mixed together.
Science originated from natural philosophies and was supported by people’s intellectual
curiosity, only to be refined as a systematic process and field later on. Meanwhile,
technology used to be in close relationship with convenience and prosperity of human
life; it was not originally guided by principles of the science that we know today. Of
course while technological progress of recent times was supported by various scientific
advances, this does not mean that scientific research was conducted for the purpose of
developing new technologies. Rather, scientific knowledge happened to be used
because they were available or accessible. There is no doubt that technology is older
than science since man had industries based on crafts and skills long before the
formulation of scientific principles. Some examples are the use of fire, crude stone or
bone tools, farming, art, clothing, and weaponry.

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After the Industrial Revolution of colonialist Europe, the separate paths taken by
science and technology began to move closer together. The concept of linking scientific
results to technology became prominent in 1905 when Albert Einstein, during his then
annus mirabilis or “year of (scientific) miracles,” published a rapid succession of
research papers on the theories of the photoelectric effect, the Brownian motion, and
special relativity, which overthrew then-prevailing views of physics. These
groundbreaking studies significantly shifted the way we see the universe even until
today, and these have catapulted Einstein into one of the most premier scientific figures
of the 20th century. Nowadays, there is a special, intimate connection between science
and technology with each one promoting and enriching the other. Science provides pool
of basic information which technology depends upon. For example, it was the
scientists(e.g. Euclid, Ibn Sahl, Snell, Newton) who formulated various concepts of
optics, but it is the technologist who produces lenses to verify such theories. Lens
technologies have since been developed to the point we today recognize their various
uses from eye glasses to traffic mirrors, and from cameras and projectors to telescopes.
Bewildering scientific and technological advances in the modern age have indeed
produced far-reaching effects on human society. In education for instance, the
possibility to mass produce a simple product such as chalk or pens—apparently common
learning materials—and to construct a simple blackboard made of wood, paint, and
necessary tools to put them together, are perfect examples of technology. This is
evident even in more advanced technologies ranging from physical devices such as
calculators and desktop computers to intangible ones such as mobile apps and the
internet. The development of these learning technologies have not only become
necessities due to the advancement of education as field, but they are likewise partial
reasons why education continues to advance. However, while these familiar objects are
in some cases common and accessible to many, more advanced technologies and many
technological developments are not. Within and across nations, there is what we call a
technological gap. There are situations where such gap could be brought by age or
cultural distance, but the major, crucial factors are economic and political conditions.
Truly, not many societies have taken advantage of technological progress as an

instrument of socioeconomic development. This has taken a toll on their stability and
growth. Underdeveloped and developing countries are generally characterized by lack
of effective science policies, which is compounded by technological neglect. The stark
reality is that modern science has little effect on less developed nations, while
developed nations easily harness it for unhindered development.

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Technology and economies as part of human civilization could no longer subsist

without energy. There are thus consequences brought by such developments fuelled
primarily by ecologically destructive practices characterized primarily by uncontrolled
resource exploitation, excessive carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels, and release
of other pollutants. Mainly from industrialized nations including India, China, and Russia,
these bring adverse effects to human conditions such as rising sea levels, stronger
tropical cyclones, frequent droughts, and compromised public health. Ironically,
developing countries such as the Philippines are vulnerable and are affected on a
greater scale than developed nations which produce these harmful byproducts.
Governments, institutions and communities now see that science and

technology, intertwined with economic development, can carry harmful effects to the
environment and people. This is why more responsible solutions for economic
development are being sought through the very scientific knowledge and technological
development we have amassed. Among these are global policies towards carbon
emissions in the energy and transportation sectors. Various industries are re-evaluating
their protocols and methods in production and wastes disposal. Renewable energies are
also rapidly growing and are expected to continue do to so. For instance, they have
contributed to 19% of the global energy consumption as of 2016 and has provided
around 7.7 million jobs back in 2015. Many countries have already set plans to phase
out coal and oil in the near future through solar, wind, geothermal and biowaste
energies, to name a few. Below are leading countries in terms of renewable energy
capacity in megawatts (MW). Visualize that 1 MW can power at least 150 homes to as
much as 500 to 700 homes depending on household needs.
The table that follows presents the major energy sources of some countries.

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Table 1.1: Energy Resources of Countries

Solar (2016) Wind (2017) Geothermal Hydro (2014) Tidal (2015)
(2015)
China (78,000 China USA (3,450 China (311 South Korea
MW) (188,000 MW) MW) (511 MW)
Japan (42,000 MW) Philippines USA (102 France (246
MW) USA (89,000 (1,870 MW) MW) MW)
Germany MW) Indonesia Brazil (89 UK (139 MW)
(41,000 MW) Germany (1,340 MW) MW) Canada (40
USA (40,000 (56,000 MW) Mexico Canada (76 MW)
MW) India (32,000 (1,017 MW) MW) Belgium (20
Italy (19,000 MW) New Zealand Russia (51 MW)
MW) Spain (23,000 (1,005 MW) MW)
MW)
Two of the world’s largest producers and consumers of energy in total are China and
the United States. Due to massive energy demands and heavy reliance on coal and oil,
only a fraction of their total consumption is covered by clean energy. China, while the
world’s largest producer and consumer of renewable energy, has already managed to
shift nearly 25% of its production from fossil fuels to renewable sources based on 2015
data. The United States meanwhile produced 14% of its energy from renewables in
2016. The Philippines, a net importer of fossil fuels like most countries, is also making
strides in contributing to a more ecologically responsible world. As of 2015, it is
estimated that 25% of its energy production came from clean energies with geothermal
as the primary source. This is said to grow with further construction of solar and wind
farms and geothermal plants all over the country through the help of the private sector.
Trends in the Philippines and China, for instance, provide a glimpse of how the
developing world will take the lead in clean energy investments.
1.5. Science and technology today

What are the impacts of science and technology particularly during our time and
age? Some of them that we frequently encounter, or new emerging ones are below:

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Table 1.2: Impacts of Science and Technology

Health
1. Immunization One of the most important contributions to public
health is the global vaccine movement. Vaccination,
for example, has nearly eradicated polio, a disease
which killed nearly half a million people every year
during its peak in 1940’s until the 1950’s. Other
diseases which were feared and have killed millions
before, but are now eradicated or on the way in being
so are smallpox, malaria, measles, rubella, and rabies.
2. Antibiotics Many died due to common, avoidable diseases such
as urinary tract infections, lung infections or throat
infections. This was before penicillin, the first true
antibiotic, was discovered through research.
3. Surgery Other than advancements in patient handling,
surgical procedures, and anesthesia, revolutionary
developments in surgical methods and approaches
are emerging. Among these are virtual reality surgical
training, nanorobotics, and 3D printing for organ
replacement.
4. Healthcare Mercury-based thermometers and
devices sphygmomanometers which can be cumbersome to
use could be a thing of the past soon. More heath
monitoring devices nowadays are becoming digital,
and commercially available. Some health sensors
nowadays can easily and accurately measure blood
pressure, glucose level, body temperature, heart rate,
body water content simply by skin contact.
5. Mental health Public health is progressing as psychological health is
gradually becoming acknowledged as an important
aspect of overall wellbeing alongside physical health.
While still lagging, there is growth in support and
action for government and private initiatives for
professional training, and psychological therapies and
medicine-based treatments for mental illnesses.
Agriculture
1. Food transport Since technology is supposed to be multipurpose, the
agriculture industries also benefit from developments

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in transportation infrastructure. Land, air and sea-

based facilities provide mobility for people and
vehicles alike to move goods and services. An
example in the Philippines would be the roll-on/roll-
off (RORO) ships crucial to the country’s maritime
geography.
2. Agricultural Developments in mechatronic, robotic and computing
machinery technologies make it possible for farmers to optimize
time, energy and resource. From simple tools such as
hoes, plows, and the carabao, there are now
machines such as the common tractor, combine
harvester, rice transplanter, and rice huller. More
advanced ones are becoming available such as
agricultural robots for planting and harvesting, drones
for cloud seeding and soil analysis, and satellites for
improved environmental and irrigation monitoring
and management.
3. Genetic Genetically-modified crops whose DNA have been
modification altered have helped in curbing global food insecurity.
Through genetic engineering, many staple foods
around the world have been improved in terms of
yield, nutritional content, quality, and pest and
disease resistance. Genetics has also helped scientists
to find ways to conserve plant species threatened by
extinction.
Communications and transportation
1. Telephony Among the breakthroughs of the first Industrial
Revolution would be the electronic systems in
telecommunications. Telephones have since replaced
telegrams, and might soon be superseded as well this
time by mobile phones and internet services. These
technologies have made human communication
much more efficient and faster with just a few clicks
and presses. More than voice, we can now easily
contact distant places through video.
2. Global Many people have now harnessed satellite
positioning technology through mobile phones with GPS features
system regardless if with or no internet connection. This

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provides accessible information regarding one’s

geographic position as can be seen through popular
mobile phone apps such as Google Maps, Waze, and
Grab. The GPS technology also assists internet-based
devices to tailor-fit content based on location.
3. Magnetic Also shortened as maglev, this technology dating back
levitation in the early 1900’s has been integrated to mass
transportation in the form of maglev trains. Maglev
trains are on average faster than conventional trains
as they use sets of magnets which repel to push the
train upwards, as in to float, and to move it along the
track. This lack of friction presenting a typical railway
creates great speed. Currently existing maglev lines
are in the UK, Germany, Japan, and South Korea.

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EXERCISE 01: WHAT IS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (S&T)

Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________
I. Identification: Identify what or who is being referred to in the following statements.

Write the answer on the blank provided.
1. It is the accumulation of knowledge by common sense and
critical thinking.
2. It is a discourse on fine and applied arts.
3. The year when the concept of linking scientific results to
technology became prominent.
4. He published a rapid succession of research papers on the
theories of the photoelectric effect.
5. The leading country in terms of geothermal consumption
6.
7. What are the different types of fossil fuels
8.
9. It is a kind of fossil fuel that the Philippines industries are
dependent to.
10. This technology have made human communication much
more efficient and faster with just a few clicks and presses.
II. Essay (5 points each)
A. What are the most important breakthroughs of the first industrial revolution in
terms of communication? Explain your answer.
B. In this chapter, describe one of the most important contributions to public

health. Explain your answer.

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Module 2 Part 1
THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY: PREHISTORIC, ANCIENT AND
the BRONZE AGES
 Discuss the prehistoric technology.

 Describe the notable developments and discoveries in the bronze and Iron
ages.
 Explain the Inca’s contributions in Mesoamerica.
2.1 Prehistoric Era
It was mentioned that technology and science were not always together. As we
begin with the prehistoric era or the Stone Age, it should be noted that we will only
focus on technologies since there was no formal science during this time.
Until approximately 10,000 years ago, man has lived almost entirely in small,
nomadic hunter-gatherer communities, surviving on crude skills for hunting and fishing.
This was a time when agriculture was still non-existent if not still on its way. Given the
lack of agriculture, societies were yet to become sedentary cultures, which also means
there is poor incentive for them to produce technologies more sophisticated than
hunting and building tools made of bone, wood or stone. Most of these communities
developed in tropical latitudes, especially in Africa, where the climate is most favorable
to man.
Near the end of the last ice age 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, some human
communities which were most favored by geographical and climatological conditions
began to make the transition from the primitive, nomadic lifestyles of the long
Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) into more settled cultures. This is when animal
husbandry and agriculture developed. This transition
during the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age), led
eventually to a marked increase in population due to
better, more stable diet, and relative safety of sedentary
settlement. Communities expanded, thus paving way for
the beginning of town life. These significant changes are
sometimes referred to as the Neolithic Revolution
because of the rapid increase in technological innovation,
and the sudden complexity in human sociopolitical
organizations.

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The material that gives Old and New Stone Ages their names and technological unity
is stone. Although before they mastered the use of stone, it may be assumed that
primitive peoples used other materials such as wood, bone, fur, leaves, and grasses
apart from bone antlers, presumably used in flint mining, and elsewhere, other bone
fragments, which none have survived. However, the widening mastery of the material
world in the Neolithic Revolution brought other substances such as clay, and thus the
production of bricks. Increasing skill in handling textile raw materials led to the creation
of the first manmade fabrics in place of animal skins. The use of fire was another basic
technique mastered at some unknown period in the Old Stone Age. This was probably
the time when it was discovered that the natural calamity of a forest fire could be
tamed and controlled. The realization that fire could be generated by persistent friction
between two dry wooden surfaces would have as well changed human societies forever.
2.2. Ancient Era

The ancient times are part of what historians commonly classify as the three-age
system. This comprises of three main periods of human history associated with
technology, namely the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Since we have
already covered the Stone Age, this section will be tackling the most notable
developments and discoveries in the Bronze and Iron Ages. These eras are where
complex ancient societies independently emerged within various locations around the
world known as Cradles of Civilization. Three were in the Eurasian continent, and two in
the Americas. These are:
Table 2.1: The Cradles of Civilization
Civilization Description
Fertile Crescent This area stretches from Mesopotamia (the region within
the Tigris-Euphrates river system, today part of Iraq and
Syria), to the Levant, and all the way to Ancient Egypt
along the Nile River.
Indus Valley Societies here sprang along the Indus River, today part of
Pakistan and some portions of India. This area is known
as the roots of Hinduism, and later of Buddhism and
Jainism.
Yellow River The Yellow River is the second longest in Asia. Chinese
civilization, considered to be the longest continuing
civilization in history, emerged here. This river valley, an

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important region of China, is one of the most rapidly-

urbanizing areas in the world today.
Central Andes This is located in the middle portion of the Andean

Mountain of South America. Among the most notable
societies that emerged here is the Incan Empire, which
spread across modern-day areas of Ecuador, Peru,
Bolivia, and Chile.
Mesoamerica This area is part of present-day Mexico, which then

spread to other areas of Central America where
Guatemala and Honduras are located. Among its most
known societies are the Mayans and the Aztec Empire.
2.3. Bronze Age
The Bronze Age was characterized by the development of tools enhanced by bronze-
based materials. This was the time when civilizations all over the world discovered the
process of mixing molten copper and tin to generate bronze, a metal alloy that is both
strong and malleable. Much of developments relied upon the development of bronze
work itself given that such technology aided in a lot of more complex and larger tasks
related to agriculture, engineering, and weaponry.
The timetable on the next page shows the estimated period when bronze metallurgy
emerged in different parts of the world based on archeological evidences.

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Table 2.2 Places of Progress during the Bronze Age
Location Time
Middle East Mesopotamia 3,500 BCE
Anatolia (Turkey) 3,300 BCE
Levant 3,300 BCE
Ancient Egypt 3,150 BCE
Europe Southern & Central Europe (Balkans,
4,650 BCE
Romania, Greece, Italy)
Caucasus 4,000-3,000 BCE
West Europe (Britain, Ireland) 2,100 BCE
Northern Europe 1,700 BCE
South Asia Indus Valley 3,300 BCE
Northeast Asia China 3,100-2,700 BCE
Korea 1,000-800 BCE
Japan 300 BCE
Southeast Asia Ban Chiang Culture (northern Thailand) 2,100-1,700 BCE
Sub-Saharan Nubia 2,600-2,300 BCE
Africa West Africa (Niger) 2,200 BCE
Central & East Africa (Rwanda,
700-300 BCE
Burundi, Tanzania)
Americas Andes (Peru) 900 BCE
Mesoamerica 600-1,200 CE

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EXERCISE 02 Part 1:
THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY: PREHISTORIC, ANCIENT AND BRONZE AGE
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________

1. The material that gives Old and New Stone Ages their names
and technological unity.
2. The continent where the climate is most favorable to man.
3. The unknown period that used fire
4. The three main periods of human history
5. associated with technology.
6.
7. It is a characterized by the development of tools enhanced by
bronze-based materials.
8. Three ancient societies known around the world as
cradles of civilization found in Eurasian continent
9.
10.

A. Describe the locations of the two Americas.
B. Describe the Aztec civilization’s contribution to science and technology.

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Module 2 Part 2
THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY: CRADLE OF EARLY SCIENCE
 Discuss the development of early science

 Describe the significant development and inventions in the ancient, middle
and modern Age
 Explain the Inca’s contributions in Mesoamerica.
Development of Science in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico
up to the border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is
rich in culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.
The maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for
approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They
incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other
religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation.
For example, the pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun
during the spring and fall equinoxes.
Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for
their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological
cycles in planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using
two complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very useful for their life

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especially in planning their activities in observing their religious rituals and cultural
celebrations.
The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and
building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics
system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different countries.
Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations

especially in the field of arts. The Mayans built rooms for weaving cloth and devised a
rainbow of glittery paints made from mineral called mica. They are also believed to be
one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear
received patent in 1844.
The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in
Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a
writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in
mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they
independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the
Romans did.
The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced
scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were
scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help then in everyday life:
1. Roads paved with stones

2. Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all
types of land;
4. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season;
5. The first suspension bridge;
6. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep record that only experts can interpret;
and
7. Inca textiles since cloth were one of the specially prized artistic achievements

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Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions
to science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are
the following:
1. Mandatory Education – The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their
children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender,
or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates – The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the
Mayan culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao highly and
made it as part of their tribute to their gods.
3. Chinampa – It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the
land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
4. Aztec Calendar – This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting
seasons.
5. Invention of the Canoe – A light narrow boat used for travelling in water
systems.

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Development of Science in Asia
Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient
civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of
all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilization have
stood out: India, China and the Middle East civilization. These civilizations were
incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during
their time.
India
India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional

medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practices as a form of
alternative medicines. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led to
develop medicine to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the Susruta Samhita,
describe different surgical and other medical procedures famous in Ancient India.
Ancient India is also notable in the fields of astronomy. They developed theories
on the configuration of the universes, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year
of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that their interest in
astronomy was also evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written
in the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this ancient text covered topics such as:
mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of
diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipse; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings
and settings; the moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other;
conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon.
Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. The earliest traces of
mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus Valley
Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to
standardized measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler,
the Mohenjodaro ruler.
Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out the Indian astronomer and
mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of
trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In 628
AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction,
and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along
with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world
(Clifford, 2008; Bose, 1998). Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also
considered as the founder of mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).

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China
China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many
areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and
music, among others. Chinese civilization have greatly influenced many of its neighbor
countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and
other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of

experiences and discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical
properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example is
the practice of acupuncture.
In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among
the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass,
papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that became known in the West only by
the end of the Middle Ages (Davies, 1995). They also invented other tools like iron
plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others. They developed a design of
different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1993), invented the first
seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971).
In the field of astronomy, the

Chinese also made significant records on
supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and
comets, which were carefully recorded and
preserved to understand better the
heavenly bodies and their effects to our
world (Mayall, 1939). They observed the
heavenly bodies to understand weather
changes and seasons that may affect their
daily activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The Chinese are also known in
seismology. This made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.
China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their

discoveries and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors prevented
these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science. According to
Needham (1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of
Chinese intellectual that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

22
Middle East Countries
The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread
of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the
Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common language of Arabic,
access to Greek text from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India were
contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslin and provided their scholar
knowledge to create innovation and develop new ideas, but contrary to the Greeks plain
– thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific theories set within
a generally empirical orientation. A Muslim scientist, the famed Ibnal – Haytham is also
regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission
theory of light.
In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al – Khwarizmi gave

his name to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al –
jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the
Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did
make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of the
decimal point notation.
Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation
of modern chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars considered Jäbir ibn
Hayÿan to be the “Father of Chemistry” (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).
In the field of the medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental
medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two
most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Common Medicine, were
used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17 th
century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of
infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig & Walter, 2000).
There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the
field of social sciences. The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11 th to 13th
century due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other
learning institutions were destroyed.

23
Development of Science in Africa
Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this
part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and
mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in
Africa are knowledge producers, too.
The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant
advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the
development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and
ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The rules of
geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel
architecture of Egypt. These early science activities in Egypt were developed to improve
the quality of life of the Egyptians especially in building their early homes and cities. The
great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from
the Nile River are some proofs of their advanced civilization.
Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval

forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and
applied important components such as examinations, diagnosis, treatment and
prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components displayed strong parallels to
the basic empirical method of studying science.
Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show
that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of
the three.
Metallurgy was also known in the African region during the ancient times. North
Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that
enables them to benefit from the development during the Bronze Age until the Iron
Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agricultures, and in the building
their magnificent architectures.
Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the
African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and
South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six – month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest
known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in the
four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They have
knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in Africa

24
during the medieval period was also

benefiting from the mathematical learning,
which is considered advanced during those
times, such as algebra, geometry, and
trigonometry.
The Lebombo bone, used in

mathematical calculations.
SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENT OF INVENTIONS DURING ANCIENT ERA

Egyptian Contributions Time
 Early Egyptians develop a time keeping device, the gnomom 3500 B.C.E.
 Introduced the 365-day calendar, short of 5 days 2700 B.C.E.
 Built the first pyramid, a tomb for the pharaoh King Djoser 2700 B.C.E.
 Used a real teeth held together with wire and attached to the 2500 B.C.E.
jaw through a hole drilled in an adjacent teeth
 Made wine from grapes 2500 B.C.E.
 Physicians and healers have used surgery since ancient times 2250 B.C.E.
 Used plows driven by oxen for agriculture 2000 B.C.E.
 Developed a method to make steel: Tempered steel is 1000 B.C.E.

stronger than other alloys and is used to make knives and
other weapons.

25
Middle Eastern Contributions Time
 Farmers in the Middle East and Egypt develop methods of 5000 B.C.E.
harnessing water from nearby rivers
 Mesopotamians developed the sailing ships which improved 4000 B.C.E.

the communication between societies and lead to the
exploration of distant lands
 Developed the cubit, a standard measure of length which 3000 B.C.E..

were equal to about 2/3 inches
 Babylonians expanded their system of weight and measures 2000 B.C.E.
 Mesopotamian were able to brew beer from barley 1950 B.C.E.
 Babylonian discovered the relationship between the sides of 1950 B.C.E.

right triangle
 Mathematicians in Mesopotamia developed the 1800 B.C.E.

multiplication table
 Babylonian mathematician solved the quadratic-triangle 1700 B.C.E.
 Jabir Ibn Hayyan known as “False Gerber” discovered sulfuric 1300 B.C.E.
acid
968-977 B.C.E.
 Abu Mansur Muwaffak describes drugs from many culture
 Jabir Ibn Hayyan describes the distillation of vinegar

750 B.C.E.
Chinese Contributions Time
 Early Chinese developed the plow which is used to turn soil in 4000 B.C.E.
the fields (wooden)
 Chinese adopt a calendar based upon the movement of the 2400 B.C.E.

26
Sun and the Moon
 Chinese craftsmen invented a plastic varnish called lacquer, 1300 B.C.E.

which is made from sap of the lacquer tree
 Gunpowder was developed in China 1044 B.C.E.
 Chinese scholars invented the rocket 1044 B.C.E.
 Babylonians and Chinese mathematicians use the abacus. It 1000 B.C.E.

was used until the 20th century
 The Chinese used plants to identify the minerals in soil 600 B.C.E.
 The Chinese developed the iron plow known as Kuan, which 600 B.C.E.
are pulled by oxen
 The Chinese invented the compass for navigation. Many

scholars believed that compasses were used for divination 400 B.C.E.
rather than navigation
 Lu Pan constructed kites in the shape of a bird and used them 400 B.C.E.
to send message between military units
 Mo-tzu used poison gas in warfare, and fumigation of houses 400 B.C.E.
either to prevent insect infestation or to clear the house off
of a particular disease
 Ch’ang Ch’u developed the use of natural gas as fuel 347 B.C.E.
 Chinese physicians discovered the pulse. The pulse indicates 300 B.C.E.
the flow of two important fluids through the body, the blood
or yin, and the energy or yang.
 The construction of The Great Wall of China begins. It

provided useful means of defense against enemy invaders. 214 B.C.E.
200 B.C.E.

27
 A Chinese physician discovered the circulation of blood.

140 B.C.E.
 The Chinese made paper. It has been used in many different
cultures.
 Ko Yu invented the wheelbarrow. It was used to facilitate the 100 B.C.E.

transportation of heavy objects everywhere, from farms to
battlefields.
 Yang Hsiung described the best drive. Many culture used the 15 B.C.E.
wheel for both manufacturing and transportation.
 Chinese farmers controlled pests with an insecticide. 2nd Century
 Chang Heng invent the seismograph 2nd Century
European Contributions Time
 The use of iron spread through Europe. 1000 B.C.E.
 Farmers begin to domesticate animals. 1000 B.C.E.
 Thales of Miletus stated that all matter is made primarily of 580 B.C.E.
water.
 Anaximenes of Miletus stated that all matter is made of air. 545 B.C.E.
 Pythagoras described the relationship between the sides of a 550 B.C.E.

right triangle.
 Empedocles described how elements undergo change. 450 B.C.E.
 Leucippus of Miletus described atoms. 450 B.C.E.
 Aristotle presented evidence that the earth is a sphere. He 350 B.C.E.

also described the elements.
350 B.C.E.

28
 Dicaearchus of Messina developed a map of the earth.

7 B.C.E.
 Strabo described the geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
 The Countess of Chinchon introduced a malaria treatment to 1638
Europe.
 Evangelisa Torricelli invented the barometer and described 1643

atmospheric pressure.
 Blaise Pascal invented the adding machine. 1645
 Giam Battista Riccioli named the craters on the Moon. 1651
 Francesco Maria Grimaldi described the diffraction of light. 1665
 Sir Isaac Newton explained why rainbows are multicolored. 1666
 Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated his calculating machine.

1673
 Christian Huygens build the first pendulum clock.
1656
 Robert Boyle laid the foundation of modern chemistry.
1661
 Robert Boyle stated his Gas Law.
1662
 Sir Isaac Newton state the First Law of Motion and the
1687
Second Law
 Sir Isaac Newton stated that for every action there is an equal
1687
and opposite reaction. He also described the universal
gravitation.
 Anders Celsius introduced a new temperature scale

1742
 Arnau de Villanova distilled wines 1300’s
 Prince Henry of Portugal established a school of navigation 1418

29
 Italian craftsmen build a mechanical clock 1300’s
 Galileo Galilei described falling bodies. He also invented the 1550

thermoscope.
 Lensmakers invented the first microscope. 1600’s
 Galileo Galilei stated the principles of inertia. 1632
 William Oughtred developed the slide rule. 1614
 John Napier published the tables of logarithms. 1698
 Hans Lippershey invented the telescope. 1483
 Leonardo da Vinci designed a parachute. 1519
 Ferdinand Magellan travelled around the Earth. 1760
1762
 Joseph Blade discovered latent heat.
 Sir Simon Pallas described the formation of mountains.

1787
 John Fitch invented the steamboat.

1788
 Joseph Louis Proust stated the law of definite proportions

“The elements combine in simple ratios to form compound.”
1788
 Edward Jenner developed a vaccine to prevent smallpox.

1800
 Sir William Hershel discovered infrared radiation.

1803
 John Dalton proposes modern atomic theory.

1805
 Sir William Hershel claims that the Sun is moving toward a

specific point in space. 1818

30
 Charles Babbage conceives of a modern computer. 1818
 Joseph Henry invented the electric matter. 1831
 Charles Darwin set sail on the HMS Beagle. 1831
 John William Draper took a photograph of the moon 1839
 Luigi Palmieri builds a seismograph. 1855
 William Ferrel explained wind current. 1856
 Louis Pasteur described fermentation. 1861
 Louis Pasteur developed pasteurization. 1860
 Alfred Nobel invented the dynamite. 1866
 A transatlantic cable connects Ireland to Canada. 1866
 Sir John Bennet Lewes and Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert identify a 1842
chemical fertilizer
 Christian Doppler explained the Doppler effect 1842
 Louis Pasteur used the Rabies vaccine on humans. 1885
1886
 Carl Benz patents the gas – powered automobiles.
1895
 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen announced the discovery of X –
Ray s
1899
 Karl Ferdinand Braun improved radio transmission.
1900
 Paul Villard discovered gamma rays.
1903

31
 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky described methods for exploring

space. 1905
 Nettie Stevens and Edmund Beeches Wilson showed

chromosomes and determined the sex of an individual. 1905
 Alfred Biret developed a means to measure intelligence. 1908
 Frank Taylor proposed that the continents can move. 1912
 Sir Frederick Hopkins discovered vitamins.

1915
 Chemical weapons are used during World War I.
1921
 Insulin is shown to control blood sugar.
1923
 Chemists explained acids and bases
Australian Contribution Time
 Christian Doppler explained the Doppler effect 1842
Russian Contribution Time
 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky described methods for exploring 1903

space.
 The Soviet Union launches Sputnik I 1957
 Soviet spacecraft reached the moon 1959
 Yury Gagarin is the first man to orbit the Earth 1961
 Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman to travel in 1963

space
 Alexci Leonov became the first man to “walk” in space. 1960

32
 The Soviet Union launched the first space station. 1971
 The Soviet Union launches the Mir Space Station. 1986
Indian Contributions Time
 Sir Chandrasekhara Veakata Rarma explains why the oceans 1922

are blue.
 Sushruta described surgical techniques like, amputating 700 B.C.E.

limbs, stitching cuts, extracting teeth, draining wounds and
removing cataracts.
 Indian mathematician introduced zero. 500 B.C.E.
American Contributions Time
 Apollo 8 orbits the moon. 1968
 Sir Peter Marsfield developed a method to obtain MRI 1970

images.
 Ted Hopp invented the microprocessor 1971
 Viking I lands on Mars 1976
 Voyager I and Voyager II flew to Jupiter and to Moon 1979
 Pioneer II observes Saturn 1979
 NASA launches the space shuttle Columbia 1981
 NASA launches satellite to study the Earth radiation budget. 1980
 American microbiologist found a drug that can treat AIDS. 1985
1986
 Voyager II flew to Uranus

33
1986
 Space Shuttle Challenger exploded after liftoff.
 John Huchra and Margaret Gells discovers the “Great Wall of 1989
Galaxies.”
1989
 Voyager II flew to Neptune
1990
 NASA placed the Hubble Telescope into orbit
1997
 Ian Wilmut cloned a sheep
1879
 Albert Abraham Michelson measures the speed of light
 Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone 1870
 Transatlantic cable connects Ireland to Canada 1866
 William Ferrel explained wind current 1856
1855
 Matthew Fortaine Maury described scientific observation of
the ocean
1903
 Orville and Wilbur Wright took the first airplane flight.
1919
 Three – dimensional mapping improved weather forecasting.

1919
 Elwood Hayness invented stainless steel.
1927
 Charles Lindbergh completed the first solo flight across the
Atlantic ocean.
1930
 Radio meteograph aid weather the strength and earthquakes

1935
 Grote Reber invented the radio telescope.

1937
 John van Neunmann described a stored program computer

34
concept 1945
 The first nuclear reactor sphere was made. 1945
 Nuclear weapons were used in Japan

1945
 John Mauchly and John Eckert introduced the first electronic
digital computer.
1952
 Alfred Hershley and Martha Ehase confirmed that DNA is the
genetic material.
Modern Information Age Time
 An earthquake in the Indian Ocean triggered a tsunami Dec. 26, 2004
 Huygens became the first spacecraft to land on the moon of Jan. 14, 2005
another planet.
 Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change entered into force Feb. 16, 2005
 Deep Impact studied the collision of a spacecraft with a July 3, 2005

comet
 Space Shuttle Discovery returned to space July 26, 2005

35
EXERCISE 02 Part 2:
THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY: CRADLE OF EARLY SCIENCE
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:____________

1. It is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many
ancient civilizations.
2. It is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient
India.
3. The civilization famous for compass, papermaking, gunpowder,
and printing tools.
4. He is known as the “Father of Optics.”
5. It is known to be the center of Alchemy.
6. It is prominent in the life of early people in the African
Continent.
7. He introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables,
and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
8. He is also known as the “Father of Chemistry.”
9. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was
the first physician to conduct clinical trials.
10. The Indian who suggested that gravity was a force of
attraction, and explained the use of zero as both placeholder
and a decimal digit.

A. What is the most notable contribution in science of Africa? Explain why.
____________
B. Did China’s scientific developments influenced many countries? How?

36
Module 3
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY: Charles Darwin,
Nicolas Copernicus and Sigmund Freud
 Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud
contributed to the spark of scientific revolution.
 Understand how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world
like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle East and Africa.
 Describe the concept, theories and ideological shifts in history.
3.1. Scientific Revolution
It was a series of event that marked the emergence of modern science during the
early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy,
sociology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and

understand everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the
natural and the physical world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many
questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide
alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used religion to
rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16 th century
up to the 18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the invention
of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various places of
learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of human interests. This
does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported from other areas of
the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science, technology, medicine, and
mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had their own
sophisticated traditions and activities related to these disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the
fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, from the disciplines mentioned. The
ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine
their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interests
to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.

37
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in
science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to
their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to
preserve their faith, religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders
did not accept many of the early works of scientists. These did not stop people
especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,

transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly
improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The
scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and
prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways,
scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.
3.2. Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas
To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is

important to examine the different individuals whose idea have shaken and contested
the dominant theories and ideas during this period – the truth of their time. Scientists in
all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore
the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to
know and to discover.
Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary
people doing extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their
times, some were sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church
during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they
never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.
In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, they were
many scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is important
to note that these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken the world.
3.2.1. Nicolaus Copernicus (Feb 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543) Renaissance
mathematician and astronomer. He was born in Torun Poland, was an astronomer,
mathematician, translator, artist and physicist among other things.
One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science and anything
extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His
ideas were an example of what is presently called as thought experiment. By the time he
finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as canon at Frombork
Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his

38
interest in astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome

published in 1496 by a German author, Johannes Müeller. This book contains Müeller’s
observations of the heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially that of
Ptolemy.
Copernicus’ idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not
long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas this few close friends in a
manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was no proof that
Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published
his ideas formally.
Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor moved around a
single center at unvarying rates. Copernicus placed the Sun to e the centrepiece of the
universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year.
The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus’ model of the
Earth orbiting the sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In
his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus
and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus closer to the Sun.; and (2) the orbits
of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther from the Sun.
From his model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit
once around the Sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with the
shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He
placed the planets in order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of the great
problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The stars
cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distant sphere.
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes sense
now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an
unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the Copernican
model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th century
3.2.2. Charles Darwin (Feb 12, 1809 – April 19, 1882) was an English naturalist,
geologist and biologist, best known to his contributions to the Science of Evolution.
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the
world’s creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who
came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his interest in
natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend
time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting specimens and he
poured over books in his father’s library. According to Johnson, Darwin went to the best

39
schools but was observed to be a mediocre student. He struggled in his studies in

medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed on him. Darwin’s life soon changed
when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage through the
HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.
Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to
be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many
significant materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His
book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and presented traits and
adaptation that differentiate societies. Like
many other scholars, Darwin accumulated
many pertinent materials and data that he
could ever possibly need to substantiate his
theory.
Darwin’s observational skills as a scientist

were extraordinary that moved beyond the
realms of plants and animals into the realms
of humans. He introduced the idea of all
organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This
replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings in
a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin’s theory of evolution
scientifically questioned this view.
Darwin’s accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields

to which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science.
More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to
challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those
days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based
science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a
science marked by observation and experiment.
3.2.3. Sigmund Freud, (May 6, 1856 – December 23, 1939) was an Austrian
neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating
psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also described
him as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his share to
raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.

40
However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the
scientific world through the development of an important observational method to
gather reliable data to study human’s inner life. This method is popularly known as the
method of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential
fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a
scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all
questions on his works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of
psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weine (2016) his method of

psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological
conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was
unorthodox – focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed
immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found
his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.
Freud was born in a much later

period from the scientific revolution
but his contribution to knowledge
can be seen in many aspects of the
human scene, including art,
literature, philosophy, politics, and
psychotherapy. Whether he is more
of a psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian
ideas and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine
human mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.

41
EXERCISE 03:
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION THAT DEFINED SOCIETY: Charles Darwin, Nicolas
Copernicus and Sigmund Freud
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________

1. It is known as period of enlightenment or golden ages of
science.
2. The invention in Europe between early 16th century up to the
18th century.
3. The title of the book that strongly influenced Copernicus in his
interest in astronomy
4. It banned the Copernican model for the rest of the 16 th
century.
5. He is famous for his theory of evolution.
6. The name of the book published in 1589, considered to be one
of the most important works in scientific literature.
7. The two fields in which Darwin’s discoveries made
major contributions.
8.
9. He is a famous figure in the field of psychology.
10. A method used to gather reliable data to study a human’s
inner life.
A. Do you think “thought experiment” is still useful in science in the present time?
B. Do you think the church should intervene in scientific activities?
___

42
Module 4 Part 1
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES: History, indigenous
works and modern works.

 Discuss the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Age in the Philippines.
 Describe the formal education in Science and Technology.
 Describe the American Colonization and World War II.
4.1. Stone Age in the Philippines
Even before the Spaniards colonized the Philippines, various people and societies
already practiced science. They invented tools and built structures, studied medicinal
uses of plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict seasons and weather, and used
indigenous science in agriculture. These are considered indigenous science which is one
of the foundations of modern science. The growth of science and its development as a
field in the Philippines is a hybrid of indigenous and foreign ideas. Spain and the United
States, being former colonizers, played an important role in building the foundation of
science in the country.
Archaeological findings indicate that modern men or Homo sapiens from the Asian
mainland first came over land and
across narrow channels to live in
Palawan and Batangas around
50,000 years ago. For about
40,000 years, they made simple
tools or weapons of stone flakes,
but eventually developed
techniques for sawing, drilling and
polishing hand stones. This very
long period, considered as the
Philippine Stone Age, was when
the Tabon Man (c. 67,000 BC) and
the Callao Man (c. 24,000-22,000 BCE) were supposed to have lived.
By 5,000-2,000 BC the Austronesians, ancestors of most present-day Filipinos,

arrived in the islands. It is still unsure as to their exact direction of movement to what is
today the Philippines, and but southern Mainland China is considered as their most

43
plausible point of origin. These ancestors not only brought most languages spoken by
Filipinos today; they were also said to have brought more sophisticated and organized
agricultural technologies and methods. This is where rice cultivation also flourished with
the 2,000 year-old Banaue Rice Terraces of the Ifugao people as a prominent evidence.
4.2. Bronze and Iron Ages in the Philippines
There is no distinct Bronze Age in the Philippines, and that copper was found to have
been used for adornments such as earrings whilst stone remained more common for
tools. As early as 3,000 BC people were producing a range of materials from adzes to
seashell ornaments to pottery of various designs. The manufacture of pottery
subsequently became well developed and flourished for about 2,000 years until it came
into competition with imported Chinese ceramics. Fermentation in food processing
could have been present earlier than this period. Various types of alcohol were
produced from coconuts (tuba, lambanog, bahalina) and rice (pangasi). This method
was later adopted to sugarcane (basi) when Arab traders presumably brought the crop
to Mindanao and then spread northwards.
(on the left is the lantaka, used as a cannon in the

Philippines.)Similarly assuming a specific Iron Age in the
Philippines is still a matter of debate. Usage and small-
scale production of iron, however, is estimated to have
occurred around 500 to 200 BCE as iron manufacturing
overlapped with the arrival of limited bronze
manufacturing. People during this age engaged in the
actual iron extraction, smelting and refining. Crude
metalwork processes were already adopted through
carburization or the hardening of metal through heat-
induced carbon absorption. Most materials found were
imported, which shows the existence of an extensive
trading network across Southeast Asia, China and the
Indian subcontinent as early as this period. By 1st century
CE, cotton cultivation, textiles, mining, and jewelry making were already practiced.
This period saw the appearance of various clay and copper-based materials
produced by the Sa Huynh Culture which existed around 1000 BCE to 200 CE. Found to
be concentrated in southern Vietnam, this society is presumed to have had presence
around Central Philippines, and possibly all the way to Mindanao. Some notable

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archeological findings from this time are the Sa Huyun-Kalanay Pottery Complex of
Masbate (c. 400 BCE-1500 CE), and the Manunggul Jar of Palawan (c. 890-710 BCE),
which is depicted in the old design of the ₱1,000 bill.
As descendants of seafaring people who subsequently settled near the sea, social
structures in ancient Philippines were also tied to seafaring. An example would be
ancient barangay societies, which would later expand as flourishing, powerful localities
trading with nearby states and territories up until the 16 th century. These social
organizations were derived from the concept of the balangay, ancient boats used by
their predecessors to travel across the Philippines and nearby islands. The oldest to be
discovered is called the Butuan Boat One presumed to be used around 300 CE.
The Austronesians were also the ancestors of Polynesians whose boat-building and
navigation prowess were unmatched anywhere in the world even by mercantile powers
of ancient Mediterranean. Only until the European Age of Exploration that such skills are
said to have been surpassed by the emergence of more modern naval technologies. In
ancient Philippines sophisticated boat-building techniques such that for the balangay
were passed onto generations. Other seafaring technologies were present. Small boats
which can still be found today are the paraw which is common in the Visayas, and the
vinta or lepa-lepa found across the Sulu Archipelago, the Zamboanga peninsula, and
some parts of Southern Mindanao.
There is also the karakoa, or large outrigger ships used for both trade and warfare
mostly in the Visayas. The lanong is a variant within the Sulu area. These larger vessels
were said to be attached with at least one bronze cannon called a lantaka. Today this
cannon technology has evolved into the typical bamboo cannons used as noisemakers
during fiestas and New Year’s Eve.
Given the presence of iron as a valuable resource, sociopolitical institutions should

have developed like anywhere else. And like any complex society, medicine was central
to preserving the health of people. At this point there existed knowledge and methods
dealing with medicinal and therapeutic properties of plants such as herbs. This early
form of medicine or pananambal is associated with ancient systems of Animist beliefs
characterized by the anito, which comprise of various nature spirits, diwatas, and
ancestors. In line with religion, early societies’ agricultural activities were presumed to
have been guided by a Hindu-Buddhist influenced lunar calendar.
Developments in language are also signs of both sociopolitical and technological

advancements. Among the oldest writing systems found in the Philippines is the

45
Baybayin, with variations from Pampanga down to the Visayas. This is presumed to have
evolved from the Kawi Script originally developed somewhere in Java, Indonesia, and
spread all over what are now Malaysia and the Philippines. Its most renowned evidence
in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, dated around 900 CE, which is
an Old Malay writing mixed with either Old Javanese or Old Tagalog. Kawi itself evolved
from an older writing system originating in Southern India. Many Baybayin writings did
not survive since most were carved on leaves and bamboo, except for a very few when
the Spaniards brought the printing press to the islands.
4.3. Spanish Colonization
The Filipino disinterest in science could be traced to the Spanish colonial period.
While the Spaniards practiced some aspects of science (e.g. agriculture, botany,
medicine, meteorology), Filipinos rarely had the opportunity to develop a serious
competence to these, due to racism and wealth inequality within the colonies.
Moreover, certain aspects of scholarship such as ethnography, humanities, and
theology, were comparatively developed yet science and technology were generally
neglected. This imbalance reflected their poor state of science in the motherland itself.
Toward the end of the Spanish period (1850-1896, a very small group of Filipinos—
particularly men who are wealthy and landed (ilustrados) or exceptionally talented—
were eventually allowed to engage in advanced studies in local schools or abroad.
Access to adequate training, though, was limited to the University of Santo Tomas, the
oldest university in Asia. Like their colonizers, these Filipinos generally preferred
humanistic training over and above technical expertise. This preference to understand
the human condition more than nature has continued to this day. Rizal, however,
criticized this lack of interest in natural science on the part of Spanish colonial officials
when he was a medical student at said university in the 1880’s.
Formal education in science and technology was introduced by the Spaniards

through scientific institutions. At the beginning, parish schools were opened to teach
religion, reading, writing, mathematics, and music. The people were taught sanitation
and improved methods of agriculture. Later, higher institutions of learning were
established among which were:
 Colegio de Cebu (1597), now the University of San Carlos
 Colegio de Nuestra Señora del Rosario (1611), now the University of Santo
Tomas
 Colegio de San Juan de Letran (1706)

46
 Ateneo Municipal de Manila (1859)

 Escuela Nautica (1820)
 Manila School of Agriculture (1887)
In these institutions, science subjects like astronomy, physics, chemistry, natural

history, and mathematics were taught as parts of the curriculum for college programs
being offered. An important institution established during this time was the
Observatorio Meteorológico or the Manila Observatory (1865) at the Ateneo Municipal
de Manila. It helped in studying typhoons and climatology within the colony and across
Asia. The Spanish government then made the observatory the official weather
forecasting and time keeping institution for the colony in 1884 and 1885, respectively.
This institute issued the first typhoon warnings in Philippine history, at the advantage of
merchant shipping.
In the latter part of the Spanish period, major health institutions were established.
Among these were the San Lazaro Hospital (1578), the oldest in East Asia, the Hospital
de Los Baños (1590), and the Hospital de Cebu (1850). The University of Santo Tomas
started offering programs in medicine and pharmacy in 1872. Later in 1877, the
Laboratorio Municipal, which was later to become the Bureau of Science, was
established to undertake the pathological studies of infectious diseases. There were also
private pharmaceutical firms engaged in this activity such as the Botica Boie, and the
Botica de Santa Cruz.
In terms of transportation, the most important development brought by the

Spaniards is the Philippine National Railway (PNR) through a royal order from Spain in
June 1875. The wood-burning steam locomotive ran through the first line from Tutuban
in Manila to Dagupan and San Fernando, La Union. Its first operation was in November
1892 and was concessioned by the British. But before the PNR, there was the tranvia
owned by the Compania de las Tranvias de Manila of 1888 consisting of German-made
light electric locomotives which ran from Manila to Malabon. This can be considered as
the distant predecessor of Metro Manila’s LRT and MRT.
In communications, the telegraph was introduced in the Philippines in 1876 with the
first line between Manila and Corregidor. The first foreign-owned overseas submarine
telegraph cable was put up in 1881. It linked Bolinao in Pangasinan and Hong Kong, then
a British crown colony. Manila was also linked to Iloilo, Cebu and Bacolod. At the height
of the Philippine Revolution, there were 65 telegraph stations operating in the islands
(49 in Luzon, 16 in the Visayas).

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4.4. American Colonization and World War II
The Americans have more influence in the development of science and technology
in the Philippines compared to the Spaniards. They established the public education
system, improved engineering works, and public health facilities. They established a
modern research university, the University of the Philippines, and created more public
hospitals more than the former colonizer. Transportation and communication systems
were improved, though still not accessible throughout the country.
The Americans did everything to Americanize the Philippines. They reorganized the
learning of science and introduced it in both private and public schools. In basic
education, science education focuses on nature studies and science and sanitation, until
it became a single, formal subject area. The teaching of science in higher education has
also greatly improved and modernized. Publication of scientific journals and
organization of scientific societies were brought. Among these local scientific
publications focused on agriculture and plant industries, water resources,
pharmaceuticals, and general natural and applied sciences. Some of the first scientific
societies in the Philippines were:
 Manila Medical Society (1901)
 Philippine Islands Medical Association (1908)
 Philippine Scientific Society (1923)
 Society for the Advancement of Research (1928)
 Philippine Society of Parasitologists (1930)
 Philippine Public Health Association (1932)
 Philippine Society of Civil Engineers (1933)
The Americans likewise continued science development from the Spanish regime.
Government departments, bureaus, and boards were established to help the new
colonial administration, and among these were the Bureau of Agriculture and the Board
of Health, which later became the Bureau of Health. American efforts at the beginning
were geared towards the promotion of public health. In 1901, the Philippine
Commission created the Bureau of Government Laboratories under the Department of
Interior. This bureau was established for the study of tropical diseases and laboratory
projects effectively replacing the Laboratorio Municipal.
New developments in transportation and communications were also brought during

the American period. Other than acquiring ownership of PNR and extending its railroad

48
lines, the Commonwealth government also built other steam locomotive railways in
other parts of the country. These are the Panay Railway, which ran from Iloilo City to
the town of Capiz (now Roxas City), and the Cebu Railway, which ran from Danao
through Cebu City until Argao. A shorter line was built in Negros, but this primarily
served sugar plantations and mills, not commuters. The first automobile in the
Philippines arrived in Manila in 1900. By 1916 the ordinary car became a common
feature of traffic. As per aviation, the first airplane to land in the Philippines is the
Avierto Gallarsa in 1924. However, locally-owned commercial air travel only became
possible by 1941. This was when Philippine Air Lines (now ‘Airlines’), the first Asian
commercial aviation company, was incorporated for domestic and international flights.
The Americans expanded the telegraph and telephone capacity, and became
available to the Filipino public with the establishment of the Bureau of Post. Before
World War II, they were able to operate 108 radio stations and 495 telegraph offices
interconnected by 14,607 kilometers of wires and 328 nautical miles of submarine
cables throughout the archipelago. In 1922, the first radio broadcasts took place in
Manila and Pasay. The radio stations were initially owned by Americans but were soon
purchased by Filipino businessmen who extended their media investments from
newspapers to radio, and later to television. The radio quickly became a staple so that
even before World War II, news programs were regularly broadcast. After the war, the
number of radio stations increased rapidly and broadcasts soon became available
throughout the country. The radio became the main source of entertainment and news
for millions of Filipinos until the 1970’s when it was supplemented by the television.
4.5. Issues in science and technology in the Philippines
Since the aftermath of World War II and independence, the Philippines had
struggled to maintain and expand its science and technology capacity. Institutions and
possibly many physical documents of scientific and technological knowledge were
turned to ashes; many lives were destroyed. While reparation funds from Japan were
meant for rebuilding, much were focused on basic infrastructure such as schools,
hospitals, and transportation systems. Resources are limited in improving science. The
Philippine government has explored the use of Overseas Development Allocations
(ODA) from different countries to help in improving its scientific productivity and
technological capability. Human resource development is at the heart of these efforts
focusing on producing more engineers, scientists, technologists, doctors, and other
professionals. However, these are not enough for the Philippines to provide quality

49
science education to the population, and much more catch up with developed nations in
terms of capacity and innovation.
The brief account of the acceptance of modern technology in the Philippines

indicates its ready absorption into national and local life. With the arrival of the
steamboat in 1849, the telegraph in 1876, the railway in 1888, the telephone in 1890,
the automobile in 1900, and the electric tranvia in 1905, the launching of modern
communications and transportation technologies in the country became apparent. Most
of these technologies were only recently invented in the West, but their effects were
quickly felt in the societies that accepted them. Japan was among the most quickly
transformed by these technologies, and were able to fully harness them amidst their
rapid industrialization after the World War II. At a much recent period, South Korea was
able to accomplish this through their phenomenal economic development in the 80’s up
to the 90’s. They made this possible by integrating internet technologies. These two
countries have not only taken advantage of scientific and technological developments,
but in some cases became leaders and pioneers themselves.
Unfortunately, the Philippines failed to take advantage of these opportunities as
most of their benefits were confined to the national capital region, and were unable to
stimulate the development of the overall economy. In effect, they often confirmed,
widened, or solidified social divisions between rich and poor, urban and rural. The
aforementioned technologies as they evolved in the contemporary period in the form of
smartphones and tablets, overseas travel, car ownership, or affording car services like
Grab, became hallmarks of privilege rather than necessities of modern living.

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Module 4 Part 2
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES: Indigenous works

 Discuss the concept of indigenous science.
 Discuss the contribution of indigenous science in the development of
science and technology in the Philippines.
4.6. Indigenous Knowledge System
Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experiences of young children as

they grow up. They live and grow in a society where the members of the community
prominently practice indigenous knowledge in their minds. The lessons they learned are
intimately interwoven with their culture and the environment. These lessons comprised
of good values and life stories of people on their daily life struggles. Their views about
nature and their reflections on their experiences in daily life are evident in their stories,
poems, and songs.
Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the
indigenous people are:
 Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing

animals’ behaviour and celestial bodies;
 Using herbal medicine;
 Preserving foods;
 Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural
properties;
 Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
 Using indigenous technology in daily lives;
 Building local irrigation systems;
 Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
 Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits;
 Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.

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4.7. Indigenous Science
Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by

different groups of people and early civilizations (Gribbin, 2001; Mkapa, 2004; Sibisi,
2004). It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, ad representations
that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with the natural milieu:
agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for
coping with changing environments (Pawilen, 2005). Ogawa (1995) claimed that it is
collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a given culture.
According to Cajete (2004), indigenous science includes everything, from

metaphysics to philosophy and various practical technologies practiced by indigenous
peoples both past and present. Iaccarino (2003) elaborated his ideas by explaining that
science is a part of culture, and how science is done largely depends on the cultural
practices of the people.
Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to
scientific attitudes as identified by Johnston (2009), namely: (1) motivating attitudes; (2)
cooperating attitudes; (3) practical attitudes; and (4) reflective attitudes. These cultural
beliefs therefore can be good foundation for developing positive values toward learning
and doing science and in bringing science in a personal level.
Pawilen (2005) explained that indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse
structures and contents through the interplay between the society and the
environment. According to Kuhn (1962), developmental stages of most sciences are
characterized by continual competition between a number of distinct views of nature,
each partially derived from, and all roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific
observation and method. Sibisi (2004) also pointed out that indigenous science provides
the basics of astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or metallurgy, which were
derived from traditional knowledge and practices.
Pawilen (2006) developed a simple framework for understanding indigenous

science. Accordingly indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge which
uses science process skills and guided by community values and culture.
1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing,
classifying, measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating, and
predicting.

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2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the

following:
 The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.
 The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as
people.
 All living and non-living things are interconnected and interdependent
with each other.
 Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other resources.
They have a responsibility to preserve it.
 Nature is a friend to human beings - it needs respect and proper care.
3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued
by people and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous
farming methods and folk astronomy.
Indigenous science is important in the development of science and technology in the

Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations, indigenous science gave birth to the
development of science and technology as a field and as a discipline. Indigenous science
helped the people in understanding the natural environment and in coping with
everyday life. UNESCO’s Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge
(1999) recognized indigenous science as a historical and valuable contribution to science
and technology.

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EXERCISE 04:
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES: History, indigenous works and
modern works.
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________

1. It refers to the prominent evidence that shows sophisticated
and organized agricultural technologies of the Filipino people.
2. It is a metal found to have been used as adornments such as
earrings, whilst stone remained more common for tools.
3. They were also the ancestors of Polynesians engaged in boat
building during the ancient Mediterranean period.
4. It is a ship used for both trade and warfare found mostly in the
Visayas.
5. It is the first school founded in the Philippines during the
Spanish period.
6. The first research university established in the Philippines
during the American occupation.
7. The oldest health institution in Southeast Asia.
8. It is a source of life and a precious gift from the creator
9. Give two examples of indigenous knowledge that are
10. practiced by indigenous people.

A. What is your understanding of indigenous science?
B. What is the role of indigenous science in the development of science and

technology in the Philippines

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Module 5 Part 1
SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
 Discuss the concept of science education.
 Discuss the role of science education in the Philippines.
 Identify science schools established to promote science education in the
Philippines.
5.1. The Concept of Science Education
Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science.

Teaching science involves developing ways on how to effectively teach science. This
means exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific
concepts and processes effectively. Learning science, on the other hand, includes both
pedagogy and the most interesting aspect, which is helping students understand and
love science.
Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and

using science literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.
Getting deeper into the discourse of science education, John Dewey (2001) stressed
the importance of utilizing the natural environment to teach students. Accordingly,
nature must indeed furnish its physical stimuli to provide wealth of meaning through
social activities and thinking. It is not surprising therefore that science education is
important. In fact, Marx (1994) opines that science is going to be one of the most
important school subjects in the future.
Science education is justified by the vast amount of scientific knowledge developed

in this area that prepares citizens in scientifically and technologically driven world.
Science education provides skills and knowledge that are necessary for a person to live
in what Knight (1986) describes as the age of science and to develop a citizenry that will
meet the goals of science in the society (Tilghman, 2005). Developing a science culture is
therefore an immense responsibility for schools.

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5.2. Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education
In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts, and
fact that are related to everyday life (Carale & Campo, 2003; Meador, 2005; Worth &
Grollman, 2003) including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking skills,
and life skills that are needed in coping up with daily life activities (Chaille & Britain,
2002). Science education also develops positive attitude such as: the love for
knowledge, passion for innovative things, curiosity, to study about nature, and creativity
(Lind, 1997). Science education will develop a strong foundation for studying science
and for considering science-related careers in the future. This is an investment for the
country to develop a scientifically cultured and literate citizenry.
In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’

understanding and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works. This is done
through offering basic science courses in the General Education curriculum. Science
education in the tertiary level also focuses on the preparation of science teachers,
scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science-related fields, such as
engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences. The state provides scholarships
to encourage more students to pursue science courses.
Science Schools in the Philippines
One outstanding program for science education by the government is the

establishment of science schools in various parts of the country. There are also several
government programs implemented by the Department of Education and few private
schools for science and education.
5.2.1. Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS)
This is a government program gifted for students in the Philippines. It is a service

institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to
offer free scholarship basis for secondary course with special emphasis on subjects
pertaining to the sciences, with the end-view of preparing its students for science career
(Republic Act No. 3661). The school maintains a dormitory for all its students.
Since its inception, the PSHSS continues to pursue its vision to develop Filipino
science scholars with scientific minds and passion for excellence. PSHSS students have
proven to be a beacon of excellence, courage, and hope for the country. They have
brought honor to the Philippines through their exemplary achievements in various
international competitions and research circles. When the students and technology at
various colleges and universities locally or abroad.

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5.2.2. Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project
The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project is in pursuance to DepEd

Order No. 73s. 2008, and DepEd Order No. 51 s. 2010.
The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and
technological knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to:
 Provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through a special

curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligence of the learners;
 Promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
 Foster the holistic development of the learners.
The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade I with a longer time compared to
other subjects: 70 minutes for Grades I to III and 80 minutes for Grades IV to VI. The
curriculum also utilizes different instructional approaches that address the learning
styles and needs of the learners like the use of investigatory projects.
5.2.3. Quezon City Regional Science High School
The school was established on September 17, 1967. Originally, it was named Quezon
City Science High School. It was turned into a regional science high school for the
National Capital Region in 1999. The school was a product of a dream to establish a
special a special science school for talented students in science and mathematics. The
focus of the curriculum is on science and technology. The school still teaches the basic
education courses prescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd) for secondary
education. However, there are additional subjects in sciences and technology that
students should take. The school envisions to serve as a venue in providing maximum
opportunities for science-gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity. The
school is well-supported by the local government unit and by the Parents and Teachers
Association (PTA). The school is under the Department of Education.
5.2.4. Manila Science High School
The school was established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High School
(MSHS). It is the first science high school in the Philippines. The organization and
curriculum of the schools puts more emphasis on science and mathematics. MSHS aims
to produce scientists with souls. In order to do this, humanities courses and other
electives are included in their curriculum. Students are also encouraged to participate in
various extracurricular activities. The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila
Science High School Admission Test (MSAT), for students who wish to enroll. The MSAT
has five parts: aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics, problem-solving test in

57
science, problem-solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English. The school

prides itself from producing outstanding alumni and for winning various national
competitions.
5.2.5. Central Visayan Institute Foundation
It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the
Dynamic Learning Program (DLP). The DLP is a synthesis of classical ad modern
pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest level of learning, creativity, and
productivity.
The school takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP)
established in 1992, which organizes small international workshops to foster the
informal but intense exchange of ideas and perspectives on outstanding problems in
physics and mathematics.
Science education deals with the teaching and learning of science and in helping the
public develop science literacy. This is important in the promotion and development of
science and technology in the country. Science education deals with the development of
people in science, which is the heart of science, technology, and society.
The lesson focused on discussing the concept of science education and introduced
science education in the Philippines from basic education to tertiary education. To
promote science education, science schools were established to develop gifted students
in science and mathematics, such as the Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS),
Manila Science High School, Quezon City Regional Science High School, and the Special
Science Elementary Schools Project. Science programs and projects were organized and
developed to nurture innovation in science in the country, and to encourage individuals
to pursue careers and research in science and technology.
5.3 Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science
School science is filled with names of foreign scientists: Einstein, Galileo Galilei,
Newton, Faraday, Darwin and many other Western scientist. We rarely hear of Filipino
scientists being discussed in science classes. Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10 outstand
Filipino scientists who have made significant contributions in Philippine science. These
scientists are also famous abroad especially in different disciplines: agriculture,
mathematics, physics, medicine, marine science, chemistry engineering, and biology.

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Biographies of Notable Scientists and Technologies
Panday Pira (1488-1576)– The first Filipino cannon-maker to emerge in the limelight of
history.
Leon Ma. Guerrero (1835-1935) – Hailed as the Father of Philippine

Pharmascophytolog, he ventured into the field of industrial pharmacy, manufacturing
such as products of pepsin, peptone, pancreatin, yaka-diastase, and synthetic oil of
lemon. Some examples of Don Leon’s contributions are the “Guerrero gunpowder” and
his study, “Medical Plants.”
Anacleto Del Rosario Y Sales(1860-1895) –He was able to perfect a formula fot the
purification of alcohol. He found a way by which nipa wine acquired a color, smell, taste
and strength similar to the Spanish wine. He was the first to prepare and use the active
principles of Chaulmoogra oil in the treatment of leprosy. Another of his greatest
laboratory achievement was the study of a Philippine flower, the Ilang-ilang, for which
Don Anacleto first laid the foundation for Philippine phytochemistry.
Agapito G. Flores – Worked on his project about artificial daylighting and came up with
the fluorescent lamp.
Gregorio Y. Zara (1902-1978) – He made more than 30 useful inventions. His three most
famous inventions are the Television – Telephone,
Alcohol-fueled Airplane Engine, and Solar Oven.
Dr. Juan Salcedo – He launched the biggest and most unbelievable project in the history
of Medicine in the Philippines, called “Enriched Rice”.
Dr. Fe Del Mundo– She started her masters in

pediatrics as a scholar at the Harvard Medical Post
Graduate School. She was assigned to help in the
building of a hospital for children in Manila. She
was credited for inventing the incubator for
premature babies.

59
Arturo P. Alcaraz– the “Father of Philippine geothermal energy”.
Ramon Cabanos Barba – awarded as National Scientist for his outstanding research on
tissue culture in Philippine mangoes.
Josefino Cacas Comiso – credited for his works on observing the characteristics of
Antarctica by using satellite images.
Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. – known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was
elected as officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering (IEEE).
Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable for her research on the sea snail venom.
Fabian Millar Dayrit – notable for his research on herbal medicine.
Rafael Dineros Guerrero III - for his research on tilapia culture.
Lilian Formalejo Patena – known for doing research on plant biotechnology
Gregory Ligot Tangonan – known for his research in the field of communications
technology
Caesar A. Saloma – an internationally renowned physicist
Edgardo Gomez – a famous scientist in marine science
William Padolina – a chemist and the president of National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) – Philippines
Angel Alcala – specialized in marine science
There are other scientists in the Philippines who were not identified in the list.
Yet, the Philippines still needs more scientists and engineers, and there is a need
to support scientific research in the country. The University of the Philippines-Los Baños
is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry, plant and animal science, and veterinary
science.

60
Module 5 Part 2
GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
 Identify the actual science and technology policies of the government in the
Philippines.
 Evaluate the government policies pertaining to science and technology in
terms of their contributions to nation building.
.
The National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) recommended policies and
programs that will improve competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region.
The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely:
1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance

 Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the
curriculum
 Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
 Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband
 Local food security.
2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and
Mathematics
 Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities.
 Outright grants for peer monitoring
 Review of R.A. 9184
 Harnessing science and technology as an independent mover of
development.
3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences

 Ensuring compliances of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-harmonized
standards by full implementation of the Food and Drug Administration
 Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of
pharmaceutical services and care
 Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence-based research as
pool of information
 Allocating 2 percent of the GDP to research
 Legislating a low supporting human genome projects.

61
4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry

 Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation and existing
laws
 Use of biosafety and standard models by ASEAN countries
 Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people’s
conservation.
 Formulation of common food and safety standards
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine government
through the DOST. Some of these projects are the following:
 Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology.
The government funds basic and applied researches. Funding of these research
and projects are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from different
countries.
 Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the
field of science and technology. Saloma (2015) pointed out that the country
needs to produce more doctoral graduates in the field of science and
technology, and produce more research in the fields, including engineering.
 Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System for
training young Filipinos in the field science and technology.
 Creating science and technology parks to encourage academic and industry
partnerships.
 Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home
and work in the Philippines or conduct research and projects in collaboration
with Philippine-based scientists.
 Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage
academe and industry partnerships.
 The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering
Complex within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed
to develop more science and technology and engineering manpower resources
needed by the country. They also aimed to produce more researches in these
fields.

62
The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008)

identified several capacity-building programs such as:
 Establishment of national centers of excellence

 Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and
Science Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science
and engineering
 Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the
country in different research and development areas
 Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise and
incubate technopreneurship ventures
 Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science
High School system
In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were

created to develop the scientific literacy of the country. Special science classes were
organized and special science elementary schools were established in different regions.
Aside from these, science and mathematics in basic education were continuously
improved. The current K to 12 education program included Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high
school program to encourage more students to enroll in science-related fields in college.
Lately, the Commission on Higher Education launched its Philippine-California

Advances Research Institute (PICARI) Project to allow several higher education
institutions in the Philippines and some UD-based laboratories, research institutes, and
universities to work on research and projects related to science, agriculture, engineering
health, and technology. This project is hoped to strengthen the STEM competitiveness
of the country.
There are many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to embark
various research and projects. The following are some of them:
1. Use of alternative and safe energy

2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Climate change and global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources
7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development

63
The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and
technology. These laws serve as a legal framework for science and technology in the
country, These laws vary according to different themes such as: conservation, health-
related, technology-building, and supporting basic research, among others. Some laws
and policies are in line with international treaties such as the United Nations (UN),
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other international agencies.
The
development of
policies in science
and technology is
shaped or
influenced by
several variables:
policies need to be
aligned with
national goals,
consider
international commitments based on legal frameworks, and respond to various social
needs, issues, and problems. Science and technology policies ensure that the whole
country and all people will people will experience the progress that science can bring.
Policies are guides to direct all efforts to a goal of developing a scientifically advanced
country.

64
EXERCISE 05:
SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES and GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________
1. It focuses on teaching, learning and understanding science.
2. It is a science education that deals with developing students’
understanding and appreciation of science ideas
3. This school was established on September 17, 1967.
4. He is a famous scientist in marine science.
5. It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based
innovation known as dynamic learn program.
6. It is the first science high school in the Philippines.
7.
8. Give four capacity-building ideas
9. identified by the PAASE.
10.

A. Identify science and technology policies that could be adapted or implemented
in the Philippines.
B. Identify several issues in the Philippines. What science and technology –related
policies could be developed and implemented to solve these issues?

65
Exercise 6: Prelim Review Exercises

Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________

1. The name of the book published in 1589, considered to be one

of the most important works in scientific literature.
2. The two fields in which Charles Darwin’s discoveries made
major contributions.
3.
4. He is a famous figure in the field of psychology.
5. A method used to gather reliable data to study a human’s
inner life.
6. It is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient
India.
7. The civilization famous for compass, papermaking, gunpowder,
and printing tools.
8. He introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables,
and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
9. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was
the first physician to conduct clinical trials.
10. The Indian who suggested that gravity was a force of
attraction, and explained the use of zero as both placeholder
and a decimal digit.
11. The material that gives Old and New Stone Ages their names
and technological unity.
12. It is a characterized by the development of tools enhanced by
bronze-based materials.
13. Three ancient societies known around the world as
cradles of civilization found in Eurasian continent.
14.
15.

66
GROUP ACTIVITY: The Mayan, Inca and Aztec Civilizations
Procedures:
1. The instructor will divide the class into groups.

2. By drawing of lots, each group will present a summary of the contributions of the
Mayan, Inca and Aztec civilizations to science and technology.
3. The groups will present using the role play mode.
4. The instructor and/or their classmates will grade the groups’ presentation. The
rubric on the next page may be used. (The instructor has the option to construct
and use his/her own rubric or grading system).

67
Group Activity Title or Topic: ____________________

Group Name or Group Number:______________________________
Year & Section:_________________________ Date Presented:_______________
Leader (L):_____________________ Assistant Leader(AL):___________________
Members:
Category 4 3 2 1
CONTRIBUTION All membersMany members Some members Few members
provided usefulprovided useful provided ideas or none
ideas during the
ideas during the during the provided ideas
preparation andpreparation and preparation and during the
discussion. Alldiscussion. discussion. preparation
members There were Group members and
contributed a lot
strong group satisfactorily did discussion.
of effort. members who what are Some refused
tried hard to required from to participate.
contribute to them.
the group.
QUALITY OF Provided work Provided high Provided work Poor quality of
WORK of the highest quality of work. that occasionally work.
quality. needs to be
checked to
ensure quality.
FOCUS ON THE The group was Most of the Some group Most
TASK very self- time, the group members must members have
directed. stayed focused be reminded to let others do
on the task. keep on-task. the work.
WORKING All members Most members Little No
WITH OTHERS supported and supported and cooperation cooperation
shared each shared each from members. from
others’ efforts. others’ efforts. Difficult tasks members.
Tasks were Tasks were were given to Tasks were
divided equally. divided equally. only few mostly done
members. by the L and
AL.
PRIDE Work reflects Work reflects a Work reflects Work reflects
the students’ strong effort some effort very little
best efforts. from the from the effort from the
students. students. students.
TOTAL SCORE

68
MIDTERM
STS and the Human Condition

69
Module 7
HUMAN FLOURISHING IN TERMS OF S&T: Technology as a way of
Revealing the Human Condition
 Analyze the human condition to reflect and express philosophical bases on
humans as part of a society.
 Criticize human progress (human flourishing) in the face of science and
technology so the student can define for his/herself the human condition.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (385 – 323 BC) coined the term “eudaimonia,”
which literally means “good spirited,” to describe the peak of happiness of humans.
Also referred to as “human flourishing,” in literature, it likens humans achieving the
peak of happiness to flowers in full bloom. Aristotle discussed in his Nicomachean
Ethics that human flourishing comes as a result of friendship, wealth and power, since
these bring happiness to people. The achievement of eudaimonia is the ultimate good.
In modern times, through technology, people have found ways to make their
work and lives easier, and more comfortable. The achievement of these has changed
the perception of human progress that was defined by Aristotle before.

70
The Human Condition before the Present Era
The need for survival drove early humans to discover, use and invent materials
from nature to ease their lives. Homo erectus used fire to cook by rubbing wood or
stone with each other to produce a spark, without realizing yet the laws of friction and
heat. During the Stone Age, homo sapiens further sharpened stones to make cutting
tools or knives, which we now refer to as a simple machine, the wedge.
In the Iron Age, people discovered metals and minerals, and began forging
metalwork. These led to the construction of utensils and weapons that are more
durable, malleable and lustrous. Over the centuries, our ancestors have realized their
nakedness, and started using animal fur and skins for clothing. Further, they
accessorized, using animal teeth (such as those from crocodiles or tigers) as necklaces
and parts of their headdress to establish their stature as good warriors or as noblemen
in the tribe. Having done and used these, were they also curious in finding explanations
on certain phenomena? How about explanations on the meaning of life?
The ancient people have found the answer through religion. Excavations
revealed several ceremonial figures in the Stone Age to honor some deity (god),
different tribes have different gods. It is through religion that they were able to
rationalize that there is something or someone in nature that is far greater than them,
which helped them stay grounded.
The Human Condition in the Present Era
The ongoing man-made extinction of both flora and fauna, occurred as early as
100,000 to 200,000 years ago up to the present. Referred to as the Sixth Extinction or
the Anthropocene Extinction, the growing population of humans have led to the death
of animal species through hunting and agriculture.
The increase in needs and wants of the growing human population led them to
wars and trade. People exchanged both tangible and intangible goods, and technology
helped them achieve these in the fields of medicine, education, health and finance.

71
Below are the comparisons of some indicators of the human condition in the old and in
the present era:
1) Mortality Rate. Lesser women and children die during birth because of technological
advances in medicine and health, which gave rise to an increase in population and
workforce. Premature infants were incubated to help them survive and develop.
Maternal screening ensures the health of mothers before, during and after giving
birth.
2) Average Lifespan. Before, wars were fought mainly through man to man combat.
Technology increased the ability of countries to go into war. Medical advances from
gene tests to the treatment of cancer, and sickness from viruses and bacteria
increased the chances of people to live longer lives. Premature infants were
incubated to help them survive and develop.
3) Literacy Rate. Technology enabled people to learn from about the world without
getting out of their seats. It also enabled learners to study without having to attend
regular classroom settings such as online courses or colleges, or open universities. It
is the aim of easier access to education to build an informed society, which could
lead to a more reasonable or fair society.
4) Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It is used to determine the value of the goods and
services manufactured within a country in a given period. A country with a higher
GDP indicates higher production, which is related to the presence of technology in
its manufacturing, communication and financial processes.

72
Longview: Ambisyon Natin 2040 is a compilation of studies,

projections and plans for the Philippine Development Agenda laid by
President Duterte’s administration. Included here is the graph from the
World Economic Outlook database (2016, IMF) shows that the GDP of the
ASEAN-5 countries (Association of Southeast Asian Nations: Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam) is expected to grow at an
average of 5.4 % from 2017 to 2022. This average GDP growth comes
second to China’s projected 6% during the same period.
The human condition thus needs to be thought about considerably.

Read and reflect on the essay below:
Excerpts from “The Question concerning Technology,” by Martin Heidegger
According to ancient doctrine, the essence of a thing is considered to be what

the thing is. We ask the question concerning technology when we ask what it is.
Everyone knows the two statements that answer our question. One says: Technology is
a means to an end. The other says: Technology is a human activity. The two definitions
of technology belong together. The manufacture and utilization of equipment, tools,
and machines, the manufactured and used things themselves, and the needs and ends
that they serve, all belong to what technology is.

73
The current conception of technology according to which it is a means and a

human activity, can therefore be called the instrumental and anthropological definition
of technology.
Even the power plant with its turbines and generators is a manmade means to
an end established by man. Even the jet aircraft and the high-frequency apparatus are
means to ends. A radar station is or course less simple than a weather vane. To be
sure, the construction of a high-frequency apparatus requires the interlocking of various
processes of technical-industrial production. And certainly a sawmill in a secluded valley
of the Black Forest is a primitive means compared with the hydroelectric plant in the
Rhine River.
Everything depends on our manipulating technology in the proper manner as a

means. We will, as we say, “get” technology “spiritually in hand.” We will master it.
The will to mastery becomes all the more urgent the more technology threatens to slip
from human control.
For centuries, philosophy has taught that there are four causes: (1) the causa
materialis, the material, the matter out of which, for example, a silver chalice is made;
(2) the causa formalis, the form, the shape into which the material enters; (3) the causa
finalis, the end, for example, the sacrificial rite in relation to which the chalice required
is determined as to its form and matter; (4) the causa efficiens, which brings about the
effect that is the finished, actual chalice, in this instance, the silversmith. What
technology is, when represented as a means, discloses itself when we trace
instrumentality back to four-fold causality.
We are questioning concerning technology in order to bring to light our

relationship to its essence. The essence of modern technology shows itself in what we
call Enframing... It is nothing technological, nothing on the order of a machine. It is the
way in which the real reveals itself as a standing reserve. Again we ask: Does this
revealing happen somewhere beyond all human doing? No. But; neither does it happen
exclusively in man, or decisively through man.
The threat to man does not come in the first instance from the potentially lethal
machines and apparatus of technology. The actual threat has already affected man in
his essence. The rule of Enframing threatens man with the possibility that it could be

74
denied to him to enter into a more original revealing and hence to experience the call of
a more primal truth.
... Before this other possibility: that the frenziedness of technology may entrench itself
everywhere to such an extent that someday, throughout everything technological, the
essence of technology may come to presence in the coming-to-pass of truth.
... Thus questioning, we bear witness to the crisis that in our sheer preoccupation with
technology, we do not yet experience the coming to presence of technology, that in our
sheer aesthetic-mindedness, we no longer guard and preserve the coming to presence
of art. Yet more questioningly, as we ponder the essence of technology, the more
mysterious the essence of art becomes. The closer we come to the danger, the more
brightly do the ways into the saving power begin to shine, and the more questioning we
become. For questioning is the piety of thought.
Martin Heidegger was born in 1889 in Southern Germany. He was trained for
priesthood in his earlier years but became more interested in philosophy, natural
sciences and mathematics. He taught philosophy at the University of Freiburg in
Germany. Heidegger, who was considered a proponent of phenomenology and
existentialism, observed that because of technology, “all distances in time and
space are shrinking” and “yet the hasty setting aside of all distances brings no
nearness; for nearness does not consist in a small amount of distance.”

75
GROUP ACTIVITY: Module 7: HUMAN FLOURISHING:

Technology as a Way of Revealing the Human Condition
Procedures:

2. Each group will present a brief history or discovery that led to the invention or
discovery of the things stated in the box below.
3. The groups should be able to state their contributions to our scientific
development.
4. The groups have the option to present in following modes: news casting, or
historical timeline comic strip (to be discussed to the class).
and use his/her own rubric or grading system).
Choose 1 for each group either by assigning or drawing of lots:
o Gravity
o wheel
o telescope
o guns
o instant food/processed food
o Radio
o television
o computer
o cell phones
o the Internet

76

Members:
Category 4 3 2 1
CONTRIBUTION All membersMany members Some members Few members
provided usefulprovided useful provided ideas or none
ideas during the
ideas during the during the provided ideas
preparation andpreparation and preparation and during the
discussion. Alldiscussion. discussion. preparation
members There were Group members and
contributed a lot
strong group satisfactorily did discussion.
of effort. members who what are Some refused
tried hard to required from to participate.
contribute to them.
the group.
QUALITY OF Provided work Provided high Provided work Poor quality of
WORK of the highest quality of work. that occasionally work.
quality. needs to be
checked to
ensure quality.
FOCUS ON THE The group was Most of the Some group Most
TASK very self- time, the group members must members have
directed. stayed focused be reminded to let others do
on the task. keep on-task. the work.
WORKING All members Most members Little No
WITH OTHERS supported and supported and cooperation cooperation
shared each shared each from members. from
others’ efforts. others’ efforts. Difficult tasks members.
Tasks were Tasks were were given to Tasks were
divided equally. divided equally. only few mostly done
members. by the L and
AL.
PRIDE Work reflects Work reflects a Work reflects Work reflects
the students’ strong effort some effort very little
best efforts. from the from the effort from the
students. students. students.
TOTAL SCORE

77
Module 8
HUMAN FLOURISHING IN TERMS OF S&T: Human Progress in the face of
Science and Technology
 Analyze the human condition to reflect and express philosophical bases on
humans as part of a society.
technology so the student can define for his/herself the human condition.
Throughout the years in school, the scientific method presented a general way
of conducting scientific work. Although the number of steps varies, generally it includes
the following:
1) Observation to see if there are unexplained occurrences that are unfolding.
2) Determination of the problems to come up with unanswered questions which need

to be solved.
3) Formulation of a hypothesis, an intelligent guess, or possible way of solving the

determined problem.
4) Experimentation or testing of the hypothesis to get data on how the factors which
had contributed to the problem affect each other.
5) Analysis of results or data gathered to come up with possible solutions to the

identified problems.
6) Formulation of conclusions and recommendations to be able to solve the

determined problems.

78
Theories that distinguish Philosophy and Science
Verification Theory. This theory proposes that a discipline is a science if it can

be confirmed or interpreted, if it can be verified. This means that a discipline is a
science if its results are measurable and the experiments used to gather data can be
replicated (repeated). The Vienna Circle, an early 20th century group of scholars in
Austria forwarded that only those that can be observed should be regarded as
meaningful, those which cannot be directly proven are meaningless.
Initially, the
verification theory
promoted by the
Vienna Circle was
strongly supported,
until the rise of
discoveries in physics
that cannot be easily
seen. An example of
this is Einstein’s
theory of existence
of gravitational
waves, and Edwin
Schrödinger’s quantum mechanics explaining that a dead cat in a box is alive.
This theory, as pointed out by American philosopher Thomas Kuhn, is prone to

biased interpretation of evidences. He illustrated it with this short story:
Suppose for instance, a girl, Lea, has a theory that her classmate Ian likes her.
Good, she thought, I like him too. But how do I know that he likes me?
She began by observing him and his interactions with her. Several gestures she
noted include his always exchanging pleasantries with her whenever they bump into
each other, his big smile when he sees her, and him going out of his way to greet her.
Through these observations, she was then able to conclude that Ian does like her
because, she thought, why would anyone do something like that for a person he does
not like?

79
As it turns out, however, Ian is just generally happy to meet people he knew. He
had known Lea since they were in first year and regards her as a generally okay person.
It is no surprise then that upon learning that Ian basically does this to everyone, Lea was
crushed. She vowed to herself that she would never assume again.
Question: Is it justified for Lea to think that Ian does not like her?
Falsification Theory. This theory by Karl Popper proposes if an idea or ideology

cannot be proven false, and that idea can best explain a phenomenon better than other
theories, then that idea is acceptable. Falsification theory encourages research to
determine which can stand the test of falsification.
Karl popper identified

some theories that were
acceptable despite not
testable and not falsifiable.
Examples are Karl Marx’s
Theory of Social History and
Sigmund Freud’s
Psychoanalysis. However,
the same with verification
theory, interpretation of
ideas can still be prone to
bias. A reinstatement of the
short story presented above illustrates this:
Ian is generally everybody’s friend. He likes to be around people and generally

aspires to become everybody’s friend. However, there is this one girl, Lea, who seemed
to not like him when he is around. Every time he waves at her, she turns away, and
when they are in the same room, she avoids his glances. Through this, he concluded that
Lea does not like him, and he does his best to show her that he is not a threat.
He began greeting her whenever they pass by each other at the corridor, even
going out of his way to call her attention when he sees her walking past. When they are
able to talk to each other, he found out that Lea is just really shy and is not accustomed
to people greeting her. He then was able to conclude that his initial impression of her
not liking him (as a person) is wrong and thus the said proposition is rejected.

80
From the story above, we can see that the falsification method is also prone to
generalizations committed by the verification method.
The essay below gives us an excerpt of the history of technology in the

Philippines.
A Brief History of Technology
An excerpt from the essay of Raul Pertierra
(2003, Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University)
Cellphones and “Txt-ing”
A technology of communication much more pervasive than the Internet is the

cell phone. It provides a strong case for the ready acceptance of technology and its
consequent potential for socio-cultural change, for as long as it is able to meet local
needs at practical costs. The Philippines exhibits one of the most spectacular
acceptance rates and use of this technology. As of 2003, the estimated 17 million cell
phone subscribers, who comprised 20 percent of the population continued to grow
significantly, or at a rate of 12 percent annually1. While no reliable figures are available,
Nokia, one of the top cell phone manufacturers in the world, estimates that the demand
will soon peak at 30 percent of the population. For an industry that is concerned with
information, the lack of available data is telling. It should alert us to the difference
between information and knowledge, and their respective relationship to access and
power.
We recently investigated some of the cultural consequences of the rapid

acceptance of cell phones in the Philippines (Pertierra et.al, 2002). While its most
dramatic use may have been during EDSA II, Filipinos have taken to cell phones with
extraordinary enthusiasm. Mobile phones provide ordinary people with a relatively
cheap and reliable means of communication. We are interested in exploring how
Filipinos use this new technology.
Has its usage resulted in extending people’s relationships to non-traditional

areas, or does the cell phone simply allow people to remain in contact with friends and
relatives? As expected, it does both. Traditional ties are maintained despite spatial
distances separating overseas workers from their families. But the ability to
communicate over wide areas also allows for new forms of intimacy. Wives in Hong
Kong whisper intimate requests to their village spouses. It seems this talk-over-distance
encourages people to reveal their desires in ways that would otherwise embarrass

81
them. The facility to engage in covert conversation is relatively new for most Filipinos
among whose domestic space is generally limited and cultural constrains prevent
intimate talk. The cell phone is ideal for unsurveilled and surreptitious (secretive)
conversations.
Our study focuses mainly on the use of “txt-ing,” a new way of communicating
that seems to have gained particular salience in the Philippines. Undoubtedly, its
initially free use may explain its popularity, but there seem to be other reasons for its
success. Txt-ing is characterized by short episodic messages rather than profound
exchanges. It is a form of idle talk as much concerned with creating a reassuring
presence as with its capacity to deliver simple information. This technology allows
Filipinos to remain in contact with friends despite spatial distance. It solves the
Filipinos’ fear of being left out in their respective networks. It enables parents to remain
in touch with their children, and retired people to remain in contact with their former
colleagues. As expected, this new technology can also be used more creatively. Young
people, for example, use it to meet new friends and explore radical identities.
Housewives engage in “txt affairs” without their husbands’ knowledge. While most
people limit these communicative exchanges to a virtual level, some extend it to real
relationships. LAGABLAB, a gay and lesbian organization, uses txt-ing to galvanize its
members, many of whom are too hesitant to participate in its activities directly.
Cobradors use it to transmit bets for “juetxt.”2 The Catholics have set-up catxt-ism
classes and have asked their members to text their support for the Pope’s visit. All of
these varied uses indicate the cell phones’ capacity to mobilize wide interactive
networks. Additionally, txt-ing preserves an intimacy associated with direct speech
while removing the latter’s constraints. People text what they cannot say.
We explore the political implications of txt-ing. While confirming the importance

of txt-ing in EDSA II, the majority of informants denied its central role. Txt-ing was
simply one of the several media used to transmit information on political events. The
coverage of these events by television, the radio, and the press was almost certainly
more significant than txt-ing.
Moreover, txt-ing provided an outlet for humor. Its interactive nature gave
people a sense of active participation in the nation’s crises. Surprisingly, according to
our informants, txt-ing was more important in EDSA III. While arguments may persist on
where txt-ing played a more significant role, it is certain that txt-ing held a central
importance in organizing both events. It facilitated the task of coordinating decisions
about meetings and strategies for EDSA II and III. Interestingly, the number of texts sent

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during EDSA II was slightly lower than that at other times, confirming that its role was
mostly complementary rather than crucial (Pertierra and others, 2002).
To make sense of the data gathered, we used the concepts of complex

connectivity and global modernity. The former refers to the varied and plural ways in
which people are increasingly interlinked...
Global modernity indicates that the modern/postmodern condition is universal.

The events of 11 September 2001, the destruction of Kabul, the bombing in Bali, and the
war in Iraq indicate how complex connectivity links the local with the global, blurring
their differences into a shared glocality. People in Ilocos and elsewhere do not only
communicate regularly with their kin overseas, but also share a common imaginary of
identity and desire...
1
Data from Nokia Philippines
2
juetxt is jueteng but numbers as bets were sent through texts.

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EXERCISE 8: HUMAN FLOURISHING:

Human Progress in the face of Science & Technology
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________

1. This theory proposes that a discipline is a science if it can be
measured and the data gathered can be replicated.
2. This is a synonym for the word secretive.
3. It is the popular way of communicating in the Philippines,
characterized by short messages with bad spelling.
4. This theory proposes that if an idea can best explain a
phenomenon better than other theories, then that idea is
acceptable.
5. This is the group of scholars which said that only events or
ideas that can be observed should be considered meaningful.
A. Is our respect for science acceptable, reasonable and right? Explain your answer.
B. Are people successful in connecting technology with what was thought as

human flourishing (human progress)?
C. What is human flourishing (human progress) for you?
___________________________________ -

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Module 9
THE GOOD LIFE and the Consumption of Sugar
 Examine shared concerns that make up the good life in order to come up
with innovative, creative solutions to contemporary issues guided by
ethical standards.
 Think about the personal and national consumption of sugar and sugar-
added beverages and food.
technology so the student can define for his/herself the human
Aristotle, was referred to as the first person to look into the search for a good
condition.
life. According to him, humans to what they do because they have goals. A goal, also
called as an end, is what every human aspires for. Some students strive to finish their
course because they want to graduate, but some, not only want to graduate, they want
to be able work.
The things people do, claimed by Aristotle, leads to the end which is happiness.
He stated that happiness is the be all and end all of everything humans do.
Look at the pyramid presented below:

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American psychologist Abraham Maslow wrote in his 1943 paper, A Theory of

Human Motivation, that people have needs to be fulfilled, some bigger and some are
smaller in priority compared to one another. Maslow arranged these needs into the
pyramid shown in Figure 9.1.
The bottom four levels of the pyramid are called “deficiency needs,” which
people do not feel anything if these needs are met, yet they feel anxious if these are not
met. The topmost fifth level is the “growth need,” the self-actualization that enables a
person to reach his fullest potential as a human being. Maslow said that only few
people were able to self-actualize, because this level requires uncommon qualities such
as honesty, independence, objectivity, creativity and originality.
Philosophically, the good life can mean “living well.” The philosophers stated
below explained what a good life is.
The Moral Life: A good life is a virtuous life.
Philosophers Socrates
and Plato gave priority to living
with virtue as absolutely better
that with living with pleasure,
wealth or power. According to
Socrates, it is better to suffer
wrongdoing than doing
something wrong. The morally
good person, according to
Plato, enjoys an inner harmony, which a rich, powerful, but wicked person cannot enjoy.
Plato stated in his work, the Republic, that in the afterlife, the virtuous people are
rewarded, while the wicked people are punished.
Religions describe the good life as a life living according to the God’s laws, having
a pious life. For Hindus, they believe in karma, that one will be rewarded for good
deeds done, or one will be punished for doing evil, in this life, or in other reincarnations.

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The Life of Pleasure: A good life should feel good.
The philosopher who had

bluntly, boldly, declared that a
good life should be a life of
pleasure or enjoyment is Epicurus.
According to him, enjoying things
such as food, drink, sex, and other
indulgences, should be felt by the
senses. His philosophy, hedonism,
promotes that pleasure makes life
worth living. Hedonists believe
that happiness means feeling
good, a “happy,” person has many “feel good” experiences.
Though it seemed contrary to the pious life promoted by Socrates, Epicurus did
not encourage people to lose themselves in pleasurable immorality, shamelessness or
depravity because of the following reasons:
 Overindulgence causes health problems, which in the long run would limit the
enjoyment of pleasurable things;
 “Higher” pleasures such as friendship and study; are as important as the
pleasures of the flesh;
 The good life should be virtuous, as was promoted by Socrates and Plato.
The Fulfilled Life: The good life is the happy life.
Plato’s student, Greek philosopher Aristotle, believes people live life to find
happiness. Happiness is the end of all things people work for. He agrees with Socrates
that a good life is a moral life, he agrees with Epicurus that a good life should have many
pleasurable experiences. But for Aristotle, there are some objective conditions that
should be present such as:
 Virtue: Having a moral life.

 Health: Good health and a reasonably long life.
 Prosperity: People should be comfortably well-off that they do not need to work
doing something they don’t want to.

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 Friendship: Good friends. Human beings are innately social; a good life can’t be
that of a hermit, or a recluse.
 Respect. People should enjoy the respect of others, ideally, a person’s qualities
and achievements should be recognized by others.
 Good luck. Anybody can be unhappy because of a tragic loss, accident or
misfortune.
 Fulfillment: People must be able to use their abilities and capacities such as
scientific work, philosophical discussions, or artistic creation.
According to Aristotle, if a
person was able to have these in
his/her life, then, that person has
lived a good life.
THE CONSUMPTION OF SUGAR
The Philippines has the capacity to produce sugar for its own consumption and
for exports. According to the Sugar Regulatory Administration (SRA) of the Department
of Agriculture, our country mills 7,567 metric tons (MT) of sugarcane per day (as of
March 25, 2018,SRA Philippine Sugar Statistics). This is equivalent to 1,507,297 MT of
raw sugar for crop year 2017 – 2018, of which 1,052,524 MT is for local consumption,
30,000 MT is exported to the US, and 160,719.34 MT is sold to the world market.
According to Tufts University (Statista Charts 2017), Mexico has the highest
number of deaths due to high consumption of sugar in the world, followed by the South
Africa, Morocco, United States and Colombia. The Philippines is not included in the top
15 listed in the Tufts chart.
The TRAIN Law imposed excise taxes on sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs)
which include:
 Sweetened juice drinks;
 Sweetened tea;
 Carbonated beverages with added sugars;
 Flavoured water;

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 Energy drinks and sports drinks;

 Powdered drinks NOT classified as milk, cereal and other grain beverages
and;
 Non-alcoholic beverages that contain added sugar.
EXEMPTED from the imposed excise taxes are milk and 100% natural juices.
Below is a table that summarizes the effect of the excise tax on SSBs’ prices.
Table 9.1 Effect of Excise Taxes on the Prices of Sugar Sweetened Beverages
Item Before Beverage Tax After Beverage Tax
3-in-1 coffee sachet ₽ 5.00 ₽ 8.00
Powdered Juice, 1 liter sachet ₽ 9.00 ₽ 20.00
Iced tea, 1 liter sachet ₽ 20.00 ₽ 30.00
Sodas, 350 ml bottle ₽ 16.00 ₽ 25.00
Ready to drink juice, 350 ml ₽ 20.00 ₽ 26.00
Source: Philippine Association of Store and Carinderia Owners (2017).
This increase in prices will affect 1.3 million sari-sari store owners whose 40%
income comes from the sales of sugar sweetened beverages (AC Nielsen, June 02, 2017).

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GROUP ACTIVITY: Module 9: The Good Life
Procedures:

2. Each member will bring pictures or cut-outs that show what a good life means to
him/her.
3. The groups should construct a collage and its story from the cut-outs or prints of
the members.
4. The groups should present their “Good Life Collage and Story,” to the class.
his/her rubric or grading system).

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Members:
5 Excellent
Rating Scale:
4 Very Good
3 Good
2 Fair
1 Needs Improvement
Encircle the value of the presenter/s grades from the scale below.
CONTENT
1. The presentation has information relevant to 5 4 3 2 1
the topic/s.
2. Major and important points in the presentation 5 4 3 2 1
were highlighted clearly and concisely.
ORGANIZATION
3. The presentation is well-planned and organized. 5 4 3 2 1
4. There is no repetition of slides or parts in the
presentation. 5 4 3 2 1
VISUAL PRESENTATION
5. There is smooth transition among presentation 5 4 3 2 1
slides or parts.
6. The presentation has large legible fonts and 5 4 3 2 1
good color combination.
DELIVERY
7. Presenter/s have clear and easy to hear voices. 5 4 3 2 1
8. Presenter/s had eye contact with, or looked at
the audience during delivery. 5 4 3 2 1
9. Presenter/s included or encouraged audience’
participation and entertained their questions. 5 4 3 2 1
10. Presenter/s were able to answer accurately the
questions from the audience. 5 4 3 2 1
TOTAL SCORE

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Module 10
HUMAN RIGHTS and TECHNOLOGICAL ETHICAL DILEMMAS
 Examine human rights in order to uphold such rights in technological
ethical dilemmas.
As was discussed in the previous modules, historical technology included the

development and use of machines and tools. As man progressed, he was able think of
more complex things, and was able to address his increasingly complex needs to make
his life more comfortable through technology – the use of devices, software, the Web
and social media, among others. For each development in science and technology,
there were always concerns regarding the possible dangers of its use, and the possibility
of the replacement of man by the machines they created.
This module presents two technologies that raise human rights and ethical
dilemmas: mind reading and robotics. Discussed further after each technological
advancement are possible ethical issues regarding these.
In his book, Physics of the Future (2011), Dr. Michio Kaku, a professor of
theoretical physics in the City University of New York, wrote about how the lives of
people will be run by technology until the year 2100. He divided the century into three
parts: Near Future (Now to 2030), Midcentury (2030 to 2070), and the Far Future (2070
to 2100). As a physicist, he made sure he got firsthand experience in all the
technological advancements he had mentioned in the book (he himself underwent
through the machines and interacted with the robots), he interviewed 300 scientists,
thus presenting an insider’s perception on the future. All the technologies he
mentioned already existed by the time the book was published.
The technologies and ethical dilemmas presented in this module were

summarized and interpreted from his book.

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Mind Reading
Japan, US and India have been using an equipment that to locate accurately
what part of the brain a thought was processed. This is the functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) machine, which uses echoes created by radio waves to
pinpoint the location of brain signals, which then gives 3D images of the inside of the
brain.
The fMRI scan can locate the presence of oxygen in the blood’s haemoglobin,
and this flow of oxygen that was detected allows the flow of thoughts in the brain to be
traced, up to a resolution of 0.1 millimeter.
Scientists at the Advanced Telecommunications Research (ATR)

Computational Neuroscience Laboratory in Kyoto, Japan made use of a fMRI
(functional magnetic resonance imaging) brain scan to record where the
brain stored an image. This development would lead to taking a snapshot of
a person’s memory.
The machine was used by Kendrick Kay and his colleagues at the University of
California at Berkeley. They did fMRI scans of people who looked at pictures of food,
animals, people and other common things of various colors. Using a software program
that they created, the objects have corresponding fMRI patterns. The UC at Berkeley

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team observed through the software program, that the more objects the people saw,
the better these objects were identified in their fMRI scans (120 pictures, 90%
identifiable, 1,000 pictures, 80% identifiable by the software program). Kay stated that
“it would soon be possible to reconstruct a picture of a person’s visual experience from
measurements of brain activity alone.”
The method used by Kay and his colleagues thus enables reading of the fMRI
patterns translate what object a person is thinking about. In the future, if thousands of
fMRI patterns can be interpreted, one may be able to know a person’s stream of
thought.
Ethics of Mind Reading
Nobel Prize recipient David Baltimore, former president of the California

Institute of Technology (Caltech) worries about the ethics of mind reading. He stated,
”Can we tap into the thoughts of others?... I don’t think that’s pure science fiction, but it
would create a hell of a world. Imagine courting a mate if your thoughts could be read,
or negotiating a contract if your thoughts could be read.”
The possibility of photographing daydreams and dreams may come true one day,
but the clarity of the pictures may not be as good. Furthermore, the methods done by
Kay and his colleagues at University of Berkeley, and Japan’s ATR (see picture on the
previous page), requires close contact with the person, so it is doubtful, at this time, to
read someone’s mind from a distance.
Also, laws may eventually be passed to limit unauthorized mind reading, and
devices may be created to protect people’s thoughts from being read through jamming,
blocking or scrambling of the brain’s electrical signals.
Robotics
In Greek mythology, Vulcan, the blacksmith of the gods, could create an army by
breathing life into metal soldiers he forged (the term vulcanizing was named after him).
Man, have been making robots made of alloys and containing programs stored within
silicon chips for many decades, resembling Vulcan’s ability.

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Evidences of the robotic revolution is the Predator drone, a pilotless robot plane
that hits terrorists in Afghanistan and Pakistan with great accuracy, driverless cars, and
ASIMO, considered as the most advanced robot that can do humanlike movements.
Though pilotless, the 27-foot Predator drone is actually human-controlled, by a

person who sits in front of a computer screen and selects the targets, much like playing
video games. The driverless cars are actually following global positioning systems (GPS)
stored in their memories that enable them to make decisions as they drive themselves.
Dr. Kaku (2011) had firsthand experience with

Honda’s ASIMO. He shook ASIMO’s hand, waved to
him, and ASIMO waved back. He has a revelation.
People see an intelligent robot. But the reality

was, it took 3 hours to record a 5-minute segment of
Dr. Kaku interacting with ASIMO: this robot fetching
him juice, conversing with him, dancing with him. All
throughout, ASIMO was programmed and
reprogrammed by its handlers through their laptops --
- its motions would have to be programmed before a
scene would be shot.
Honda’s ASIMO the
Robot
(Advanced Step in
Innovative Mobility)
Two Types of Robots
There are two types of robots according to Dr. Kaku: the remote-controlled and
programmed robots, and the truly autonomous robots. The first type, as it was named
after, are controlled by humans (see Predator and ASIMO from the previous pages), or
have programs stored inside their memories (as the case of the driverless cars). The
second types, the truly autonomous robots, are the ones that think and decide by
themselves without human intervention or control. It is these second types that artificial
intelligence (AI) researchers and scientists were still trying to construct.

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Below is a brief historical timeline of AI robotics:

Year or Period Achievement in AI robotics
1950s, post World War II  Machines that could pick up blocks, play checkers,
solve algebra problems in the US and Britain.
1974  Criticized that the machines could do only those
mentioned above, the US and British governments
cut off funding.
1980s  The smart truck was built by the Pentagon (the US
military establishment) for reconnaissance, rescue
of US troops and return to headquarters by itself.
It was a failure because the smart truck always got
lost in its way.
 Japan launched its Fifth Generation Project, a
computer system that could speak in multiple
languages, have full reasoning ability and
anticipate what humans want by the 1990s. It was
quietly stopped without explanation.
1997  International Business Machines (IBM)’s Deep Blue
computer program beat world chess master Gary
Kasparov. It could compute 11 billion chess
operations per second, yet it scored 0 on an IQ
exam. It was also quietly stopped.
The error in AI
Kaku (2011) pointed out the error that the AI researchers have been committing
since 50 years ago: the human brain was interpreted as a large digital computer.
Digital computers and AI robots are controlled with programs that enable it to
function, yet these have no learning ability. The intelligence of these uses the top-
down approach, wherein all the rules of intelligence were pre-programmed into them.
A human brain is not wired in the same way. The brain is made up of a more
complex “neural network”, neurons that are interconnected and have the ability to

96
rewire itself. It is through this design that humans are able to learn. Neural networks
use the bottom-up approach, learning the way a baby does: by bumping into things and
learning by experience.
When a digital computer loses its central processor or a transistor is removed

from its CPU, it fails, it would not function. If a chunk of the human brain is damaged or
removed, it can still function, as the other neurons will take over for the missing pieces.
Digital computers calculate nearly at the speed of light (3 x 108 meters per
second), while nerve impulses of the brain travel only at 200 miles per hour, which is
89.39 meters per second. Yet, the human brain is parallel, which means, when a person
thinks, 100 billion neurons operate at the same time. Think of this riddle: If one cat can
eat a mouse in one minute, how long does it take for a million cats to eat a million mice?
Problems with Robots
Form the comparisons given above, we can see the limitations of computers and
robots. They are not able to accomplish two key tasks that humans can do: pattern
recognition and common sense.
Pattern Recognition
Robots can see clearly, but they do not understand what they are seeing. When
a robot glides into a room, it sees objects as interconnected dots and lines, and matches
these with the objects stored in its memory. When a human walks into a room with a
chair in its center, instantly, that human knows that is a chair.
Common Sense
Read and think of these phrases:
 Children like sweets but not punishment;
 Strings can pull but not push;
 Sticks can push but not pull;
 Spinning makes people dizzy.

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As humans, we know that these statements are true. Not for robots. Though
they may hear very clearly, they do not understand what they are hearing. Robots,
since they are programmed with the top-down approach, had to be coded with a lot of
programs to be able to have the common sense of humans. A robot may see a child
eating a candy, but it would not register that the child likes eating candy.
These two limitations of computers and robots are stated precisely by Dr. Hans
Moravee, a former director of the AI laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University:
“To this day, AI programs exhibit no shred of common sense—a medical

diagnosis program, for instance, may prescribe an antibiotic when presented with a
broken bicycle because it lacks a model of people, disease, or bicycles.”

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EXERCISE 10: HUMAN RIGHTS AND TECHNOLOGICAL ETHICAL DILEMMAS

Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________

1. It is the approach used to design robots and digital computers.
2. This gives driverless cars the ability to drive themselves.
3. It is the pilotless robot plane used to attack terrorists in
Afghanistan and Pakistan.
4. It is the famous robot with humanlike movements.
5. The brain is made up of this, which enables it to understand.
6. It is the machine that produces scans of what people are
thinking.
7. These are two limitations why computers and robots
are not yet better than humans.
8.
9. It is the brain’s innate approach that enables humans to learn.
10. Answer to this riddle:
If one cat can eat a mouse in one minute, how long does it
take for a million cats to eat a million mice?

A. Do you believe that there will come a time that robots will be as smart as
humans? Explain your answer.
B. What do you think would be the benefits or disadvantages if there will be a law
that allows mind reading in the Philippines?

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Module 11
CONTEMPORARY HUMAN EXPERIENCE IN SOCIETY

 Evaluate contemporary human experience in order to strengthen and
enlighten the human person functioning in society.
The earlier modules have presented the influence of science and technology on
modern society. This module aims to show the human experience in the present society
that has available technology which supplies most
of its needs.
The first part of this module enumerates

noteworthy technology and science- influenced
aspects of everyday life. The list from McGinn’s
(2002) Science, Technology and Society, includes the
characteristics of everyday life that we take for
granted, or have not realized, as part of an industrial society. The discussions that
describe each characteristic were infused by the authors with real occurrences and
habits in the Philippine society.
The latter part of this module presents Bill Joy’s essay on the possibility of
humans not being needed in the future, which would let us think if such a scenario
would indeed happen, and we should evaluate if humans are really that significant in
the biological story of the world.
Characteristics of Everyday Life
Everyday life may seem to us as a cycle of producing, spending and consuming.

For students, it can be a cycle of going to school, eating, asking for allowances, doing
schoolwork, enjoyment. Listed below are the 8 characteristics of everyday life for us to
ponder on.
Table 11.1 The Eight Characteristics of Everyday Life
Multiplicity Transience
Material Abundance Scale
Flow Mobility
Pace Technicity

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Multiplicity
This refers to diversity or variety. Each product consumed or owned by people

has a variety of brands, manufacturers, variants or models. Example, to a Filipino, 3-in-
1 coffee can be Nescafe, San Mig, Great Taste or Kopiko. Yet we have to clarify, because
3-in-1 coffee can still be further classified according to its components: original (with
sugar and cream), strong, white (more cream), sugar-free or decaffeinated (decaf).
Then the flavoured, bottled coffees that give a more expensive range to consumers.
In a democratic country, such diversity is encouraged by the Department of

Trade and Industry in the sense that it gives consumers more options to choose from.
McGinn (2002) cited Friedrich Nietzche who criticized that this multiplicity in human
culture, which he called a “flood of impressions,” blurs a person’s ability “filter.” As
Nietzsche stated:
“A kind of adaptation to this flood of impressions takes place: men unlearn

spontaneously action, there merely react to stimuli from the outside... Profound
weakening in spontaneity.”
This multiplicity of modern society requires that people have to be more

discriminating in choosing from a wide range of options to have a productive path.
Material Abundance
Material abundance is synonymous with having a great quantity, large quantity,

plenty of a certain object or good, or it can be interpreted as wealth. For example,
middle class to upper class Filipino families have a TV on the receiving room or sala,
they may have another flat screen TV in the dining room or kitchen, and the kids have
their own TVs in their bedrooms. Before, in the 1950s, a well-off family is one that has a
television set in the living room, and the neighbours would be watching TV by peering
through the family’s big sala window.
McGinn (2002) gives this situation in the United States: In 1985, there were 145
million televisions in 87 million American households. As of January 1986, 91% of them
have at least one color television, 57% had two or more televisions sets, and 30% had at
least two color TVs.

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Such contemporary material abundance is made possible by technology-based

systems of mass production, marketing and distribution.
Flow
Flow, in a contemporary industrialized society means having a large amount of

throughput i.e., output. Energy, raw materials, and information flow into, through, and
out of production systems per unit of time.
Philippine malls, such as SM or Robinsons, frequently hold “Sale” periods,

especially during weekend paydays to keep merchandise or items “moving.” Blinded
and crazed by the possibility of buying more for less, people flock to these places that
results to heavy traffic. The movement of items sold, in turn, makes room for the next
batch of goods to be produced and shipped by manufacturers.
McGinn narrates that a similar situation exists regarding the production,

marketing and consumption of information, by publishing and broadcasting industries.
These industries were driven by the requirements of the households: for news,
entertainment or simply for being informed.
This flow of production, transportation, communication and consumption takes

in a great amount of materials and energy from the environment. At the same time, the
environment receives the wastes from this cycle of human activity.
Pace
This refers to rapidity, speed, rate or swiftness. Related to flow, there is an

increased need to be fast; higher production rate, higher demand for time from people
doing production, transportation and communication. Likewise, previously leisure
activities have been aided by technology: microwaveable food packaging, storage,
prepared meals, the microwave oven. Eating and drinking have been synonymous with
refuelling (remember that Gatorade commercial?)
The contemporary industrial society has become less favourable or not

conducive to spiritual or emotional intimacy, as observed by McGinn. Growing time
demands have made regular, relaxed encounters difficult to achieve.

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Transience
The combination of flow and pace leads to transience, the state of being
constantly changing. Transience is synonymous with being temporary, short-lived, brief.
Transience exists when the composition of flow through a system changes rapidly over
time. For example, in Philippine entertainment, a movie star will not be a “star,” or lead
actor/actress for a very long time. When a prettier or more handsome or younger talent
comes in, that “star,” will be reduced to being the sidekick, the elder brother/sister, the
villain, the parent, or worst, will be forgotten.
This is also present in numerous phenomena, the ever-changing models of cell

phones, modes of social media, the headlines. Also coined as “planned obsolescence,”
products have become easier and cheaper to replace than to repair.
McGinn (2011) observes that the transience of contemporary life becomes

problematic when the people exposed to it tend to have longer lives. These people in
their later years, find difficulty in removing themselves from the cultural and physical
environments of their youth or early adulthood. This sociological phenomenon is
commonly termed as a “generation gap,” which is partly a cultural gap between the
elder and younger generations.
Mobility
This distinct technology-related characteristic made transience possible.

Mobility is the ability to move – people, materials and products through transportation,
information through satellites, news and communication through various media. Take
note that mobility in an industrialized society means moving at a very fast pace.
Mobility also causes changes in the composition of the population in a place.

Most Filipinos settle in places where there is employment, near the cities, but do come
home to their provinces for the holidays. In the Philippines, as of 2017, the most
populous province is Cavite, which took in more residents from other regions as there is
still the construction boom of subdivisions in its area, aside from opportunities for
employment.
This movement of people has sociological significance. It promoted tourism,

both internationally and nationally, that helped improved the lives of locals. It reduces
regionalism, provincialism and xenophobia (fear of foreigners) among people. However,

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there is a disadvantage: natural wonders such as waterfalls, beaches or hills were being
maintained for moneyed tourists, not for the enjoyment of mostly Filipinos, as they
themselves, cannot afford to take a vacation. Another disadvantage, McGinn observes
in the United States, is that citizens develop psychic transience --- they are less
committed to their temporary neighbourhoods and communities.
Scale
Scale refers to size – the sizes of populations, human settlements, human

associations, social organizations or technics. The first five terms enumerated were
already self-explanatory.
Technics refers to high technology, and its scaling is done in two ways:
gigantism and miniaturization. Gigantism is seen in the construction of skyscrapers,
buildings, use of earth movers, contrary to the historical landscape when churches were
the only largest structures in the Philippines.
On the other hand, miniaturization is very evident in the fields of electronics,

artificial intelligence and robotics, among others. In 1946, the ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was built by the University of Pennsylvania
(McGinn, 2011). This large ancestor of the personal computer was made of 18,000
vacuum tubes, 7,500 switches and relays, 7 million resistors, occupied 3,000 cubic feet
of space, weighed 30 tons and used 140 kilowatts of power. The invention of the
transistor, microprocessor and integrated circuits then led the way to increased
computational ability and portability. And we know that, these had enabled the
production of consumer devices: televisions, calculators and smart phones, among
others.
Technicity
This last characteristic of an industrialized society refers to the extent to which

technics cover everyday life. It has become a necessity; in and outside of work,
relaxation, even in relationships. Consider specialized air-soled rubber shoes, Bluetooth
enabled earphones, downloadable music and dating apps.
The sociological interest in this characteristic lies in the degree to which

interpersonal relationships (for example, doctor to patient, teacher to student), and the
relationships of humans to nature (animals, plants, food sources in the environment),

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become mediated by technics. It is for us to consider if high technology, the technicity

of our society, makes us closer with one another as humans, and more protective of the
environment and other living things.
Related to the discussion of artificial intelligence and robotics in Module 10, and
given here the occurrence of man’s dependence of high technology (technics), let us
now take time to read and reflect on man’s significance as a part of the biological world.
Read and reflect on the essay below:
Summary of Bill Joy’s, “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us.”

(published in Wired Magazine, April 2000)
Joy traces his concern to a discussion he had with Ray Kurzweil at a conference in
1998. Taken aback by Kurzweil’s predictions, he read an early draft of The Age of
Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence, and found it deeply
disturbed. Subsequently he encountered arguments by the Unabomber Ted Kaczynski’s.
Kaczynski argued that if machines do all the work, as they inevitably will, then we can:
a) let the machines make all the decisions; or
b) maintain human control over the machines.
If we choose “a” then we are at the mercy of our machines. It is not that we
would give them control or that they would take control, rather, we might become so
dependent on them that we would have to accept their commands. Needless to say, Joy
doesn’t like this scenario. If we choose “b” then control would be in the hands of an
elite, and the masses would be unnecessary. In that case the tiny elite: 1) would
exterminate the masses; 2) reduce their birth rate so they slowly became extinct; or 3)
become benevolent shepherds to the masses. The first two scenarios entail our
extinction, but even the third option is no good. In this last scenario the elite would see
to it that all physical and psychological needs of the masses are met, while at the same
time engineering the masses to sublimate their drive for power. In this case the masses
might be happy, but they would not be free.
Joy finds these arguments convincing and deeply troubling. About this time Joy
read Moravec’s book where he found more of the same kind of predictions. He found
himself especially concerned by Moravec’s claim that technological superiors always
defeat the inferiors, as well as his contention that humans will become extinct as they
merge with the robots. Disturbed, Joy consulted other computer scientists who basically

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agreed with these technological predictions but were themselves unconcerned. Joy was
stirred to action.
Joy’s concerns focus on the transforming technologies of the 21 st century—

genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics (GNR). What is particularly problematic about
them is that they have the potential to self-replicate. This makes them inherently more
dangerous than 20th-century technologies—nuclear, biological, and chemical
weapons—which were expensive to build and require rare raw materials. By contrast,
21st-century technologies allow for small groups or individuals to bring about massive
destruction. Joy accepts that we will soon achieve the computing power to implement
some of the dreams of Kurzweil and Moravec, worrying nevertheless that we
overestimate our design abilities. Such hubris may lead to disaster.
Robotics is primarily motivated by the desire to be immortal—by downloading

ourselves into them. (The terms uploading and downloading are used interchangeably.)
But Joy doesn’t believe that we will be human after the download or that the robots
would be our children. As for genetic engineering, it will create new crops, plants, and
eventually new species including many variations of human species, but Joy fears that
we do not know enough to conduct such experiments. And nanotechnology confronts
the so-called “gray goo” problem—self-replicating nanobots out of control. In short, we
may be on the verge of killing ourselves! Is it not arrogant, he wonders, to design a
robot replacement species when we so often make design mistakes?
Joy concludes that we ought to relinquish these technologies before it’s too late.
Yes, GNR may bring happiness and immortality, but should we risk the survival or the
species for such goals? Joy thinks not.
Summary – Genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics are

too dangerous to pursue. We should relinquish them.
Bill Joy (1954 – ) is an American computer scientist

who co-founded Sun Microsystems in 1982, and
served as chief scientist at the company until
2003. His now famous Wired magazine essay,
“Why the future doesn’t need us,” (2000) sets
forth his deep concerns over the development of
modern technologies.

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CLASS ACTIVITY: “Pass-the-mike”

Module 11: Contemporary Human Experience in Society
Procedures:
1. The instructor will instruct the class to arrange their chairs as a circle inside the
classroom.
2. The class will do “pass-the-mike.”
3. Each member of the class will be made to read out loud, a part of Bill Joy’s “Why
the Future Doesn’t Need Us,” essay on the last page of this chapter, while his/her
classmates follow by reading the same page on their modules.
4. After reading, the student will give his/her opinion or understanding on what
he/she have read. Other classmates are allowed to give their opinion supporting
or negating the assigned reader’s statements.
5. The instructor has to facilitate, stimulate and mediate discussions coming from
other members of the class.
6. Participation in this activity will be part of the students’ grade in recitation.

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Exercise 12: Midterm Review Exercises
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________
1. This theory proposes that a discipline is a science if it can be

measured and the data gathered can be replicated.
2. This is a synonym for the word secretive.
3. It is the popular way of communicating in the Philippines,
characterized by short messages with bad spelling.
4. This theory proposes that if an idea can best explain a
phenomenon better than other theories, then that idea is
acceptable.
5. This is the group of scholars which said that only events or
ideas that can be observed should be considered meaningful.
6. It is the famous robot with humanlike movements.
7. The brain is made up of this, which enables it to understand.
8. It is the machine that produces scans of what people are
thinking.
9. These are two limitations why computers and robots
are not yet better than humans.
10.
11. He wrote an essay about a future wherein humans would no
longer be important.
12. This characteristic also means swiftness.
13. These are the 3 transforming technologies in the 21 st
14. century that should not be pursued, according to the
15. answer in number 11.

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FINALS
Specific Issues in STS

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Module 13
IMPACT and EFFECTS on the SOCIETY of The INFORMATION AGE
 Link learned concepts to the development of the information age and its
impact on society.
 Illustrate how the social media and the information age have impacted
our lives.
Definition of Information Age
The Information Age (also known as the Computer Age, Digital Age, or New
Media Age), is a 21st century period in human history characterized by the rapid shift
from traditional industry that the Industrial revolution brought through industrialization,
to an economy based on information technology.
The Information Age is the idea that access to and the availability of information
is the defining characteristic of this current era in human civilization.
It is coupled tightly with the advent of personal

computers, but many computer historians trace its
beginnings to the work of the American mathematician
Claude E. Shannon. At age 32, as a researcher at Bell
Laboratories, Shannon published a landmark paper
proposing that information can be quantitatively
encoded as a series of ones and zeroes. Known as the
“Father of Information Theory,” Shannon showed how all
information media, from telephone signals to radio waves, to
television, could be transmitted without error using this single framework.
By the 1970s, with the development of the Internet by the United States
Department of Defense, and the subsequent adoption of personal computers a decade
later, the Information or Digital Revolution was underway. More technological changes,
such as the development of fiber optic cables and microprocessors, accelerated the
transmission and processing of information. The Worldwide Web, used initially by
companies as an electronic billboard for their products and services, morphed into an
interactive consumer exchange for goods and information. Electronic mail (email),

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which permitted near instant exchange of information, was widely adopted as the
primary platform for workplace and personal communications.
The digitization of information has had a profound impact on traditional media

businesses, such as book publishing, the music industry, and more recently, the major
television and cable networks. As information is increasingly described in digital form,
business across many industries has sharpened their focus on how to capitalize on the
Information Age.
Companies whose businesses are built on digitized information have become

valuable and powerful in a relatively short period of time. Author Larry Acler of Real
Media Group stated that “the companies which define the Information Age are the
ones that know consumers the best.” He points out that just landowners held the
wealth and yielded power in the Agrarian Age, and the manufacturers such as Henry
Ford and Cyrus McCormick accumulated fortunes in the Industrial Age, the Digital Age
spawned its own breed of wealthy, influential brokers, from Microsoft’s Bill Gates, to
Apple’s Steve Jobs, to Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg.
History of Information Technology
Information technology has been around for a long time, as long as people have
been around, because there were always ways of communicating through technology
available at that point in time. There are four main ages that divide the history of
information technology.
1. Pre-mechanical Age
The Pre-mechanical Age is the earliest age of information technology. It can be

defined as the time between 3000 BC and 1450 AD. Early alphabets were developed,
such as the Phoenician alphabet.
As alphabets became more popular, and more people were writing information
down, pens and paper began to be developed. Egyptian scrolls were popular way s of
writing down information. Around 100 AD, the first numbering system was created by
the people from India. The calculator that was developed as the very first information
processor, was the abacus.

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2. Mechanical Age
The Mechanical Age can be defined as the time between 1450 and 1840. A lot of
technologies were developed in this era, as there is a large explosion of interest. The
slide rule (an analog computer used for multiplying and dividing) was invented. Blaise
Pascal invented the Pascaline, which was a very popular mechanical computer. Charles
Babbage developed the different engines which tabulated polynomial equations using
the method of finite differences.
3. Electromechanical Age
The Electromechanical Age can be defined as the time between 1840 and 1940.
This saw the beginnings of telecommunication. The telegraph was used in the 1800s.
The Morse code was created by Samuel Morse in 1835. The telephone was created by
Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. The first radio was developed by Guglielmo Marconi in
1894.
The first large-scale automatic digital computer in the United States was the
Mark I, created by Harvard University around 1940. It was 8 feet high, 50 feet long, 2
feet wide, and weighed 5 tons – huge! It was programmed using punch cards. It was
from this huge machine that people began to look at downsizing all the parts to first
make them usable by businesses and eventually in homes.
Mark I, the first large scale

computer

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4. Electronic Age
The Electronic Age is what we are currently in. It can be defined as the time
between 1940 and now. The ENIAC was the first high-speed digital computer capable of
being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computer problems. This computer was
designed to be used by the US Army for artillery firing tables. Also during this time,
high-level programming languages were created such as FORTRAN for scientific
research, and COBOL for businesses.
There are four main sections of digital computing:
4.1 The era of vacuum tube punch cards, like the ENIAC and MARK I.
4.2 The second generation replaced the vacuum tubes with transistors.
4.3 The third generation replaced transistors with integrated circuits.
4.4 The fourth and latest generation brought in central processing units (CPUs). It was
in this generation that the personal computer (Apple II), and the graphical user interface
(GUI) were developed.
Impact of Information Technology on Society
Information technology is a comprehensive tem that includes all types of

technology used for exchanging, storing, using or creating information. Commonly used
information technology equipment includes computers, servers, peripheral devices,
Internet connectivity and phone systems.
Information technology benefits the business world. It allows organizations to

work more efficiently to maximize productivity. The advantages that IT offers on
enterprises are faster communication, electronic storage, and the protection of records.
Rapid communication can help increase productivity in the business. Likewise, email
servers, routers, internal company billboards and chat services can serve as the
backbone of company communications.
IT equipment are used to send business status reports to executives, to update

employees on critical business projects, and to connect with business partners and
customers, etc. IT has become a way of life, it is all about communicating in real time.

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Redundant tasks can be centralized in one location using IT. A large company
could centralize their payroll function to lower employee cost. Economic efficiencies
can be realized by migrating high-cost functions into an online environment. Companies
can offer email support for customers that may have a lower cost, than a live customer
support call.
Cost savings could also be found through outsourcing opportunities, through

remote work options and lower cost communication options. IT systems give us remote
access to our company’s electronic work, so that we can work at home or while on the
road, increasing productivity.
IT greatly changed our private lives due to increase in the use of computers,
which has resulted to high dependency on IT. This new way of communicating has
removed pro-activeness and thinking ability, though it makes socializing easier.
Information technology has improved our transportation system as it aids travel

from one country to another easier through control of air traffic, online reservations and
bookings.
There is also a negative effect on our health from too much use of computers. It
causes injuries on our hands, eyes and wrists: carpal syndrome, eye irritation and
dryness.
Another negative effect is obesity, coming from too much watching of TV shows
online through the internet.
The use of IT has raised privacy issues as information is easily shared among
people, and this affects both the private and public sectors.
Impact of Information Technology on the Labor Market
In the labor market, there is high demand for technological know-how in most
industries. All activities are carried out using technology, the use of telephones or the
internet to communicate. Technology bridges the gap and reduces jobs requiring
humans in this area. Firms move their businesses and jobs to countries where they can
benefit from low production costs like cheap labor and raw materials.

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Impact of Information Technology on Education
Information technology eases studying through easy access to research materials

and complementing the traditional lecture method in conducting classes. Information is
easily passed from lectures to students through the internet via email, which simplifies
the interaction between student during coursework. Distance learning through the
internet is highly supported with tutorial videos, and is used by some prestigious
universities to enable people from different geographical locations obtain a degree,
thereby creating a room for expansion in e-commerce.
Impact of Information Technology on Business and Market Structure
Information technology reduces the geographical distance between the

workplace and home. Many industries, like the software industry, make use of this to
overcome local market competition for engineers in software, by targeting countries
that pay lower wages like in India. Firms can outsource for investment from other
countries with better infrastructures and use information technology through
telecommunications in their marketing processes. IT brings about product awareness,
choice and a more interactive and professional way of marketing products tailored to
consumers’ needs and services, both in the own country of production and other
countries as a marketing strategy.
Advantages of Information Technology in Business
 Increases production and saves time

 Improves communication
 Improves data storage, file management and data reporting/analysis
 Improves financial management
 Cuts costs of operation and increases return-on-investment
 Improves business to customer relationships
 Improves business competitive advantage
 Credit cards and smartcards make payment safer
 Electronic bill presentation and payment.

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Disadvantages of Information Technology in Business
o Implementation expenses
o Job elimination
o Security breaches
o Internet security issues
o Faulty products and duplication
o Problems with privacy.
Advantages of Information Technology in Society
 Improved innovation
 Improved entertainment
 Improved social discovery
 Globalization of knowledge
 Improved communication.
Disadvantages of Information Technology in Society
o Cybersickness
Advantages of Information Technology in Education
 Online education has made educational materials and data accessible anywhere
 Technology has created new methods of education
Disadvantages of Information Technology in Society
o Over-dependence on Information technology

o Poor quality publications are available online.
Advantages of Information Technology in Banking
 Online banking and convenient payments

 Fast credit.

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Disadvantages of Information Technology in Banking
o Prone to money laundering.

o Danger of breach of security.
The Positive Effects of Information Technology on Society
 Worldwide learning
 Curiosity and creativity are stimulated
 More connections are made.
The Negative Effects of Information Technology on Society
o Isolation.
o Lack of social skills
o Obesity
o Depression
o Poor sleep Habits
o Predation
o Increases bullying (cyber-bullying)
o Lack of Privacy.

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EXERCISE 13: The INFORMATION AGE
Name:______________________________ Date:_______________
Section:_____________________________ Score:______________

1. It is also known as the New Media Age.
2. He published a landmark paper and is known as the Father of
Information Theory.
3. He is an American car manufacturer who accumulated fortunes
during the Industrial Age.
4. It is the idea that access to and the control of information
characterize this current era in human civilization.
5. It is the earliest age of information technology.
6. It can be defined as the time between 1940 and the present.
7. He pointed out that the companies which define the
Information Age are the ones that know consumers the best.
8.
Give the three main ages that divide the history of
9.
Information Technology.
10.

A. Describe the impact of IT on education.
B. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of IT on society

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Module 14
IMPACT and EFFECTS on the SOCIETY of BIODIVERSITY
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
 Determine the interrelatedness of society, environment and health.
Biodiversity, refers to the biological diversity that describes the variety of life
forms at all levels, from microorganisms to wild flora and fauna, aside from the human
species. However, the variety of living beings should not be viewed individually, but as a
structural and functional whole, from the ecological standpoint of the natural system.
Biodiversity is essential for supporting human life on earth. The health of the
natural environment depends on continuing diversity, for instance, if one species is lost
from an ecosystem, then all the other species in the ecosystem are affected.
Biodiversity also is important for ensuring agricultural productivity and for the ongoing
sustainable use of natural resources. Biodiversity ensures clean air and water, and
fertile soil.
In general, human activity has three major impacts on the natural environment:
(1) Loss and change of habitats and biodiversity;

(2) Predatory exploitation of resources, and
(3) The introduction of alien species in ecosystems.
There are also three big impacts being currently perceived:

(4) Increase in pathogens;
(5) Increase in environmental toxicants, and
(6) Climate change.
Today, there is no doubt that the impact of the human population on nature is
big, leading to a drastic loss of biodiversity.
History of Biodiversity
The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years),
starts with rapid growth during the Cambrian explosion. A period during which nearly
every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. The Cambrian Period marks an
important point in the history of life on earth, it is the time when most of the major
groups of animals first appear in the fossil records. This event is sometimes called the

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“Cambrian Explosion,” because of the relatively short time over which this diversity of
forms appears.
The worst was the Permian-Triassic extinction event, 250 million years ago.
Pinpointing the exact cause or causes of the Permian-Triassic extinction event was
difficult, mostly because the catastrophe occurred over 250 million years ago, and since
then much of the evidence that would have pointed to the cause have been destroyed
or is concealed deep within the earth under more layers of rock.
Charles Darwin identified the first

principle of the origin of modern diversity,
namely that all species were linked in a single
great phylogeny, or a tree of life, and that all
could be traced back to a presumed single
original species at some distant time in the
geological past. The origin of life is now
dated at 3.5 to 4 billion years ago deep in the
Pre-Cambrian Period.
The Importance of biodiversity to Human Health
For most people, it does not just mean freedom from illness, but a state of
overall social, emotional, physical, spiritual and cultural welfare. At the same time, the
wider social and public health importance of biodiversity is not always understood by
those concerned with biodiversity conservation.
 Biodiversity and its Importance
Biodiversity boost ecosystem productivity where each specie, no matter how

small, has an important role to play. For example, a large number of plant species
means greater variety of crops. Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability
for all life forms.
 The Impact of Humans on Biodiversity
Climate changes are not the only pressure on our environments. Habitat loss
and degradation, pollution, overexploitation and invasive species also play significant
roles in biodiversity decline. Note that these pressures also come from human
activities.

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 How do humans benefit from biodiversity?
Biodiversity loss can have significant direct human health impacts if ecosystem
services are no longer adequate to meet social needs. Additionally, biophysical diversity
of microorganisms, flora and fauna provides extensive knowledge which carry important
benefits to biological, health, and pharmacological sciences.
 How do humans negatively affect biodiversity?
The effect of global carbon dioxide levels, loss of biodiversity and marine
pollution do not respect political boundaries and ultimately affect everyone in the
world. Habitat fragmentation is the loss and subdivision of a habitat and the
corresponding increase in other habitats in the landscape.
 How does the loss of biodiversity affect the environment?
Loss of biodiversity appears to impact ecosystems as much as climate change,

pollution and other major forms of environmental stress, according to a study from an
international research team in Ann Arbor, Michigan (May 2, 2010).
 What is an example of a biodiversity?
The definition of biodiversity is the amount of diversity among different plants,

animals and other species in a given habitat at a particular time. The different varieties
and types of animals and plants that live in the ocean, is an example of biodiversity.
 What will happen if there is no biodiversity?
Every ecosystem on earth needs biodiversity and without it, the whole web of
life that includes us humans will collapse. Species provide important resources so that
we can survive. This is biodiversity in action.
 The loss of biodiversity can be a serious problem.
The loss of biodiversity has two significant impacts on human health and the
spread of disease. First, it increases the number of disease-carrying animals in local
populations. At the same time, habitat fragmentation brings humans closer and more
frequent with these disease-carrying species.

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 What can we to reduce human impact on biodiversity?
We can:
1. Help native pollinators.
2. Reduce or eliminate pesticides and fertilizer use.
3. Restore habitats in your yard.
4. Restore habitat in your community.
5. Reduce your consumption.
Biodiversity, Food Production and Nutrition
Biodiversity is the basis of crops, livestock, farmed fish and other parts of
agricultural production and aquaculture. Genetic diversity within these ensure
continuing improvements in food production allows adaptation to current needs and
ensures adaptability to future ones, including climate changes.
The loss of biodiversity in agro-ecosystems is increasing the vulnerability and

reducing the sustainability of many production systems, negative effects on human
health. The diversity of species, varieties and breeds as well as wild food and medicinal
sources, undermines dietary diversity, good nutrition and health.
For this reason, reduced access to and global declines in terrestrial, marine and
freshwater systems will present major public health challenges for resource-dependent
human populations, particularly in low and middle income countries.
The importance of biodiversity to human health
Biodiversity plays an important role in human wellbeing and health, providing

basic products and ecosystem services. The products or goods from natural ecosystems
include pharmaceutical materials, food stock such as fish, timber and many others.
Natural ecosystems also provide essential life-supporting services such as purification of
air and water, climate regulation, reproductive and feeding habitats for extraction, as
well as maintenance of organisms responsible for cycling soil nutrients, making them
available for plant absorption.

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10 Ways Biodiversity Affects your Life
1. It provides access to plentiful food sources.

2. It provides sources of varied nutrition.
3. It helps remove harmful substances from drinking water.
4. It keeps our air breathable.
5. It provides raw materials for industries.
6. It is a key source of our medicines.
7. It helps provide protection against diseases.
8. It provides protection against the elements.
9. It enhances social relationships.
10. It improves our sense of wonder.
10 Ways Humans Impact the Environment
1. Overpopulation.
2. Pollution.
3. Global Warming.
4. Climate Change.
5. Genetic modification.
6. Ocean acidification.
7. Water Pollution.
8. Deforestation.
9. Acid rain.
10. Ozone depletion.

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EXERCISE 14: IMPACT and EFFECTS on the SOCIETY of BIODIVERSITY
Name:_______________________________ Date:___________________
Section:______________________________ Score:__________________

1. It refers to the described variety of life forms at all levels, from
microorganisms to wild flora and fauna, aside from the
human species.
2. He first identified the principle of the origin of modern
biodiversity.
3. It is the time when most of the major groups of animals first
appeared in the fossil record.
4. It is the compound which consists of one atom of carbon and
two atoms of oxygen.
5.
6. Enumerate ways how biodiversity affects your
7. everyday life.
8.
9.
10.

A. Describe how biodiversity affect human health.
B. Describe the importance of biodiversity to human health.

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Module 15
IMPACT and EFFECTS on the SOCIETY of GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGANISMS (GMO)
 Discuss the ethics and implications of GMOs and their potential
impacts on the future.
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material

has been altered using genetic engineering. GMOs are used to produce medications
and GMO foods, and are widely used in scientific research and the production of other
goods. GMO is very close to the technical legal term, ”living modified organism,”
defined in the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which regulates international trade in
living GMO. Specifically it stated,”any living organism that possesses a novel
recombination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.”
A more specifically defined

type of GMO is a “transgenic
organism.” This is an organism made
up by the addition of genetic material
from an unrelated organism. This
should not be confused with the more
general way in which “GMO” is used,
as GMOs have been altered without
the addition of any genetic material.
The first genetically modified mouse was created in 1974, and the first plant was
produced in 1983.
The GMO Age Begins
The history of genetically modified organisms, GMOs in agriculture actually

began before recorded history. Prehistoric farmers have been selecting the most
productive plants and seeds from their domesticated crops for up to 10,000 years.
In the last quarter of the 20th century, scientists began selecting productive traits
at the individual gene level and controlling the placement of genes in new crops. The
genetic study began in the 1860s when Austrian monk Gregor Mendel systematically

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crossed varieties of garden beans. He introduced the concept of a “gene,” as a unit of

heredity.
In 1868, German chemist Friedrich Meisher discovered the substance we now

know as deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA. In 1944, Oswald Avery tentatively identified DNA
as the carrier of molecular information, and the findings were confirmed in 1952.
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick described DNA’s molecular shape as a
double helix. That opened the door to genetic engineering.
Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer developed techniques that made it possible to
chemically cut and splice strands of DNA at specific places in the sequence. Cohen
introduced the DNA sequence into bacteria and yeast cells. These two scientists turned
these microbes into hormone factories.
In 1976, they founded the company Genetech, and introduced human genes that
produce insulin into strains of bacteria. Next, they manufactured the human growth
hormone (HGH). HGH was used to enable children with dwarfism to grow to normal
size. Before genetic modification techniques, the only source of the drug had been
human cadavers.
In 2009, Genetech was brought by the Swiss drug maker Roche for 47 billion
dollars.
In 1990, FDA approved the safety of a new strain of GMO rennet. Rennet is used
to curdle mild to form curds and whey, the raw material of cheese and other dairy
products.
By 1995, fully 67% of the cheese produced in the US was made using rennet
from GMOs.
In 1994, Monsanto introduced a form of bovine growth hormone (BGH) that was
manufactured from genetically modified bacteria. Farmers could inject the hormone
directly into dairy cattle to increase their milk production. For the most part, the public
and the farmers accepted BGH. Monsanto became a seed giant. Genetically modified
corn was planted in 80% of the field in the US by 2008.

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Listed below are the benefits humans obtain from transgenic animals:
1. Agricultural Applications
a) Breeding
Farmers have always used selective breeding to produce animals that exhibit
desired traits, e.g. increased milk production, high growth rate.
b) Quality
Transgenic cows produce more milk or milk with less lactose or cholesterol. Pigs
and cattle have more meat. Sheep grow more wool.
c) Disease resistance
Scientists are attempting to produce disease-resistant animals, such as influenza-
resistant pigs, but a very limited number of genes are currently known to be
responsible for resistance from disease in farm animals.
2. Medical Applications
a) Xenotransplantation
Patients die every year due to lack of replacement organs. Research is underway
to extract pig protein and use it to replace human protein.
b) Nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals

Research is underway to obtain products such as insulin, growth hormone, and
blood anti-clotting agents from transgenic cows, sheep or goat.
c) Human gene therapy

Human gene therapy involves adding a normal copy or a gene (transgene) to the
genome of a person carrying defective copies of the gene. Virtanen Institute in
Finland produced a calf with genes that make substances which promote the growth
of red cells in humans.
3. Industrial Applications
In 2001, two scientist at Nexia Biotechnologies in Canada spliced spider genes into
the cells of lactating goats.

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Toxicity – sensitive transgenic animals have been produced for chemical safety
testing.
Advantages of Genetically Modified Crops
 Create plants that are better resistant to weeds, pests and other diseases.
 Bigger yields to create more efficient use of land, less use of herbicides and other
pesticides.
 Foods with better texture, flavour and nutritional value.
Countries which produce

the most genetically
modified foods
 USA
 Brazil
 Argentina
 India
How can we avoid GMO foods?
o Start looking at labels.

o Look for products that are USDA certified organic or non-GMO project verified.
o Avoid all corn, soy, and canola that are not labelled as non-GMO.
o Familiarize yourself with the abundant aliases for corn and soy.
Ways GMOs may unfavourably affect health
1. Food allergy. These are the most widespread food allergens: eggs, fish, shellfish,
peanuts, soy, tree nuts and wheat.
2. Toxicity. GM crops commercialized as soy and maize fed to mammals that become
part of human food chain have shown consistent toxic effects on the liver and
kidneys.
3. Infertility. In a study on GM corn and fertility, there was a considerate decrease in
offspring over time and considerably lower litter weight in mice fed with GM corn.

128
4. Gluten disorders. GMOs in diet add to the increase in gluten sensitivity in the
population.
5. DNA transfer. Nutrients containing DNA from ingested GMO food and feed can
certainly go through the digestive tract and pass through the intestinal wall and
enter the bloodstream.
6. Birth defects. “Roundup ready,” crops that are regularly treated with herbicide is
accountable for causing infertility, birth defects, sperm destruction and cancer.
7. Cancer. There was a controversial study which stated that rats were more probable
to develop tumors and die after consuming a diet of Monsanto GM corn.
GM plants such as soybean, corn, cottonseed and canola, have had foreign genes
into their DNA. The inserted genes come from species such as bacteria and viruses,
which have never been in human bodies.
Top GMO foods and Ingredients to Avoid
o Corn
o Sugar beets
o High fructose corn syrup
o Soy (lecithin)
o Cornstarch
o Tomatoes
o sausages

129
EXERCISE 15: IMPACT and EFFECTS on the SOCIETY of GENETICALLY MODIFIED

ORGANISMS (GMO)
Name:________________________________ Date:_________________
Section:_______________________________ Score:________________

1. It any organism whose genetic material have been altered
using genetic engineering.
2. It is an organism whose genes were altered by the transfer of
genes from another species or breed.
3. What does DNA stand for?
4. He introduced DNA sequences into bacteria and yeast cells.
5. It was used to enable children with dwarfism to grow to
normal size.
6. Monsanto manufactured this genetically- modified bacteria.
7. This is the number one crop grown in the US.
8. It approved the first human biological drug from a goat.
9. This is the country with the highest percentage of GMO crops.
10. Give one bad effect of GMO foods.

A. Describe health benefits of GMO to society.
B. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of GMO crops to society.

130
Module 16
IMPACT and EFFECTS on the SOCIETY of: THE NANO WORLD
(Nanotechnology)
 Discuss the major impacts (both potential and realized) of
nanotechnology on society.
 Analyze the nanotechnology issue on its costs and benefits
To the Instructor: You have the option to do this on the board, as a class.
Instruction for the student: Fill the spaces under the 1st and 2nd columns, as honestly as
you can.
EXERCISE 16: KWL Organizer: Nanotechnology
Name:________________________________ Date:__________________
Section:______________________________ Score:_________________
WHAT I KNOW ABOUT WHAT I WANT TO WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

NANOTECHNOLOGY KNOW ABOUT ABOUT
NANOTECHNOLOGY NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology is an emerging technology that utilizes materials constructed

from elements whose molecules were broken down to the size of 1 x 10 – 9 meters, a
thousand times smaller than a millimeter. By downsizing, the properties of the
materials were observed to have become stronger yet lighter, have become better
insulators, moisture-absorbent yet waterproof, self-cleaning, or more reactive, among
other properties.

131
Consider these examples. Aluminum is a metal very commonly used in the

manufacture of tin cans. When aluminium is made into a finely ground powder, its
increased surface area make it explosive upon exposure to air.
We already know that the “lead,” of pencils is made up of carbon, in its

amorphous form as graphite, yet carbon in its crystalline form, are diamonds. At
nanoscale, carbon is transformed into one of the strongest materials currently used in
Japan and the United States: carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes have been proven
to be 100 times stronger than steel at 1/6 times the weight, useful for construction
works. Hence it has been added to cement and steel for added strength and crack
prevention.
Zhang, Asmatulu, et. al (2011) pointed out these improved properties why some
countries spend for nanotechnology research:
 Nanoscaled particles have larger surface area per unit mass, which increases
their mechanical modulus, physical and chemical properties.
 The dominance of quantum physics changes basic properties of materials when
downsized into nanoscale particles.

132
Below are some of the current uses of nanotechnology:
 Steel embedded with nanoscaled copper can withstand temperatures until

10000F, have ultra-high strength, corrosion resistance and good surface finish.
 Paints with titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles become water-repellent,
scratch resistant and crack resistant. Glass coated with TiO2 nanoparticles
become self-cleaning; as it becomes waterproof and dirtproof.
 Stain-proof, waterproof and anti-bacterial textiles were already made using
carbon nanoparticles.
Titanium dioxide nanoparticle

coatings make glass
water- repellent and self-
cleaning.
Future predicted uses of nanotechnology
Alhoff and Lin (2007) predicted that nanotechnology would:

 Enable the manufacture of smaller, faster, microchips that may be embedded in
clothing;
 Do less invasive surgery and better drug delivery through the use of “nanobots”
in medicine;
 Enable us to travel faster and farther because of lighter, more efficient materials
for transportation;
 Increase lifespan through cellular repair and reversal of the aging process.

133
Benefits of Nanotechnology
 Lower energy consumption due to increased weight efficiency. Lighter materials
consume less energy, such as when wind turbines or the body of a plane is
coated with graphene (the nanoparticle name of carbon), only one coating is
needed.
 Environmental monitoring and protection. The leak in the Fukushima Daiichi
Nuclear Power Plant was detected accurately and faster because of the use of
nanotechnology-enabled detectors.
 Biological applications. Ultra-small probes may can be developed to control soil,
air and water contamination.
 Less waste on raw materials. Sample testing is done on a smaller scale,
nanoparticles are more reactive and consume less reagents.
Environmental Impacts of Nanotechnology

Researchers and scientists proposes that nanotechnology would decrease the
impact of human activities in the environment (Zhang, Asmatulu, et. al.2011). Below are
some of the positive effects brought about by this emerging technology:
 Cleaner, more efficient industrial processes;

 Improved ability to detect and eliminate pollution by improving air, water, and
soil quality;
 High precision manufacturing by reducing amount of waste;
 Clean abundant power via more efficient solar cells;
 Removal of greenhouse gases and other pollutants from the atmosphere;
 Decreased need for large industrial plants;
 Remediating environmental damages.
As an emerging technology, much is yet to be researched about the effects of

using nanoparticles. The environmental concerns regarding their use were summarized
as follows:
 High energy requirements for synthesizing nanoparticles causing high energy
demand
 Dissemination of toxic, persistent nanosubstances originating environmental
harm
 Lower recovery and recycling rates
 Environmental implications of other life cycle stages also not clear
 Lack of trained engineers and workers causing further concerns.

134
Nanoethics: Ethical and Social Implications of Nanotechnology
The use of products containing nanoparticles has been questioned by other

researchers, concerned groups and scientists. It is because of this that Allhoff and Lin
(2007) proposed that an area of study be focused on the ethics involved with
nanotechnology: nanoethics.
Nanoethics was challenged by other science writers, such as Soren Holm (2005)
and Philip Ball (2003). Ball stated that if nanoethics should be treated as a separate area
of study, it should be able to raise questions that were not previously asked about other
technologies.
Summarized below are some of the ethical and social questions that were
brought up about the use of nanotechnology:
o Invasion of Privacy. If nanotechnology aims to shrink down devices, it
would be then possible to construct surveillance devices that are
invisible and undetectable.
o The ethics of human-enhancing technology. Cybernetic parts of
exoskeletons that give superhuman strength or infrared vision raises
further ethical problems related to biotechnology and cognitive
sciences.
o Immortality issue. If nanoparticles were proposed to do cellular repair,
and lead to reversal of aging, it would mean humans would live longer
than expected. This raises the question: Do humans really want to,
need to, or should, live longer?
o Environmental issue regarding biodegradable nanoparticles. Will all
nanoparticle-reinforced materials decompose over time? Will there be
no contamination or pollution that will occur in the environment due to
their presence?
o The humanitarianism issue. Will nanotechnology help in reducing
poverty, hunger, produce clean water and clean energy?
With these issues, Allhoff and Lin recommend that more industry experts,
scientists, researchers, academicians and the broader public help guide science and
humanity to a better future.

135
To the Student: Go back to the first page of this module (Module 16).
Now fill up the 3rd column about what you have learned regarding
nanotechnology. Share it to the class.
GROUP ACTIVITY: Student Report

Module 16: Specific Issues in STS: Stem Cells (Gene Therapy)
Another technology that is currently used in the medical field is stem cell
technology. Stem cells are obtained from the bodies of living things: body tissues, blood
or skin. These cells are preserved, then cultured in laboratories for them to aid in skin
repair of burn patients and for body parts to heal or regenerate. It is also being used in
dermatology as an anti-aging ingredient.
Procedures:

2. Each group will present a group report (either by draw lots or assignment),
about the uses, environmental and health impacts, benefits and the ethical and
social problems stem cells (gene therapy) involve (see box).
o Uses of stem cells

o Environmental impacts of stem cell (gene therapy) use
o Health impacts of stem cell (gene therapy) use
o Benefits obtained from stem cell (gene therapy) use.
o Ethical and social issues about stem cell (gene therapy) use

136

Members:
5 Excellent
Rating Scale:
4 Very Good
3 Good
2 Fair
1 Needs Improvement
CONTENT
the topic/s.
ORGANIZATION
VISUAL PRESENTATION
slides or parts.
6. The presentation has large legible fonts, used 5 4 3 2 1
diagrams or pictures, and has good color
combination.
DELIVERY
TOTAL SCORE

137
Module 17
IMPACT and EFFECTS on the SOCIETY of: CLIMATE CHANGE &
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
 Identify the causes of climate change.
 Assess the various impacts of climate change including economic,
geopolitical, biological, meteorological, among others.
 Apply STS concepts to the issue of climate change.
The United Nation’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),

reported that by the year 2100, the mean surface temperature of the earth will increase
between 10C and 3.50C. Recently, there is an average increase of 1.50C in the earth’s
temperature. This change in climate would in the future, change life in our planet.
This module covers the causes of climate change and its impacts. Most of the
discussions came from the lessons taught by the authors during their Ecology classes.
Climate refers to the average conditions, and the extremes that occur in a given
place or area over a period of years. It is affected most by temperature and
precipitation. Other factors that affect the climate are: humidity, fog, cloud cover and
fires.
Climate change is the situation wherein the average conditions are altered
mostly due to human activities.
Unlike weather, climate generally changes slowly.
Causes of Climate Change

Climate change is attributed to natural causes and
pollution from human activities. Most human activities,
when they consume or use up any resources, or
manufacture and transport goods, generate wastes that
disappear or biodegrade in the environment.

138
NATURAL CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Natural causes of climate change include: volcanic eruptions and orbital changes.
 Volcanic eruptions and

 Orbital changes.
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic
eruptions release
carbon dioxide, sulphur
oxides, volcanic ash or
dust into the
atmosphere. Eruptions
provide a cooling effect
on the surface of the
earth because they
partially block
radiation from the sun.
The eruption of Mt.
Pinatubo in 1991, caused a lowering of worldwide temperature by 0.50C, which delayed
increase in the earth’s temperature by 5 years. The picture above shows the flow of
lahar from Pinatubo.
Orbital Changes
The Milankovitch theory states, “as the Earth travels through space around the
sun, cyclical variations in three elements of earth-sun geometry combine to produce
variations in the amount of solar energy that reaches the earth. “ (Academic Emporia,
2017, cited by Pawilen, Caslib, Alata and Serafica,2018). Pawilen et. al (2018)
enumerated these three elements of the earth-sun geometry as: eccentricity, obliquity,
and precession.
The 3 elements of earth-sun geometry
 Eccentricity
Eccentricity is the shape of the earth’s orbit around the sun. Recall that the orbit
of the earth is an ellipse with an eccentricity of 0.016. During apehelion (period where
the earth is closest to the sun in its orbit), the earth gets more solar radiation. During

139
perihelion (period where the earth is farthest from the sun in its orbit), which occurs
during July to January the following year, the earth gets less solar radiation.
 Obliquity
Obliquity is the variation of the tilt of the earth on its axis. We have learned
since our elementary years that the earth is tilted 23.4 degrees on its axis, which
contributes to the differences in temperatures among countries above and below the
equator. As the tilt changes, the changes of seasons become stronger or weaker. The
earth’s obliquity changes every 40,000 years. As was explained in the Academic
Emporia (2017, cited by Pawilen, Caslib, Alata and Serafica,2018), “the more tilt means
more severe seasons – warmer summer and colder winters, less tilt means cooler
summers and milder winters.”
 Precession
Precession is the change of the rotational axis of the earth. A precession cycle
takes 19,000 to 23,000 years, depending on the wobble of the earth’s axis or on the
shape of the earth’s orbit. When these two change, they affect the location and period
of the earth’s apehelion and perihelion, which results to changes in the earth’s climate.
TYPES OF POLLUTION FROM HUMAN ACTIVITIES WHICH CAUSE CLIMATE CHANGE

These are the types of pollution from human activities that contributed to
climate change:
 Air Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Land Pollution
The effects of each type of pollution are discussed on the succeeding pages.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence of contaminants in the atmosphere which is

injurious to life and property. It comes from gaseous air pollutants and particulate air
pollutants.
Major gaseous air pollutants and their effects

1) Carbon oxides (COx). These are mostly carbon dioxide (CO2) that comes from the
burning of fuels and the gas that is exhaled by humans and animals. It increases
concentration of 0.7 mg/L of air per year worldwide. CO2 absorbs radiation from the

140
atmosphere, causing gradual heat build-up. This gradual heat build-up is called the
greenhouse effect.
The silent killer: carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon monoxide comes from the incomplete
burning of fuels. It is an odourless, colorless gas. The maximum allowable
concentration is 50 mg/L of air yet transportation traffic causes it to be higher. A
concentration of 1000 mg/L causes unconsciousness in 1 hour, and death in 4 hours.
2) Sulfur compounds (SOx). These are sulphur oxides form the burning of coal and fuel
oil. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3). When combined with water vapour
from the clouds, these two gases form sulphuric acid (H2SO4) that mixes with
precipitated water and falls as acid rain.
Particulate air pollutants and their effects

1) Organic particles. These are also called organic particulates. These include: pollen
grains, bacteria, fungi, mold or spores, insects or insect parts such as hair, wings and
legs.
Dangers to humans: hay fever, bronchial asthma, fungus infections, airborne
bacterial diseases.
2) Inorganic Particles. These are natural particulates and man-made particulates.

Natural particulates include: sand, soil, volcanic dust and saltwater droplets. Natural
particulates include: sand, soil, volcanic dust and saltwater droplets. Manmade
particulates include: smoke from the burning of fuel, dust from the production of
cement, glass, ceramics and asbestos.
Danger to humans: Inorganic particles are mostly carcinogenic, and they block
the air passages of the lungs causing death by asphyxiation.
Water Pollution
Water pollution is the alteration of the biological, physical and chemical

properties of water, making it dirty, smelly and unfit for drinking. Some places with
serious water pollution are: Laguna Lake and the Pasig River.
Laguna Lake is the largest freshwater lake in the Philippines. It started to

become polluted when very many fishpens sprang up on it. The Laguna Lake
Development Authority (LLDA) is continually making efforts to recover the lake, by
dismantling and relocating the fishermen who own and operate the fishpens.

141
The Pasig River was considered before as a “dead” river. During President Fidel
Ramos’ administration (1992 – 1998), it was the priority of his wife, Mrs. Amelita “Ming”
Ramos to rehabilitate the river through the Pasig River project. Currently, the flow of
the river has returned, the number of water hyacinths floating on the river has
decreased, and its water’s color has changed from black to gray. There are also river
ferries that already transport passengers through the Pasig River.
As we already know, most of the pollution in our waters come from the dumping
of solid and liquid wastes into the water by nearby residents, informal settlers and
industries.
Major water pollutants and their effects

1) Municipal Sewage. This is the most serious water pollutant. It is the wastewater of
communities from sewer pipes of homes and factories. The decomposition of these
wastes consumes oxygen.
Effects: Depleted oxygen in water makes it stink, and leads to the death of aquatic
animals and plants.
2) Plant nutrients. This comes from fertilizers in the soil that leach out from the ground
then goes into water. Fertilizers contain nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, that
make an excessive amount of algae and water plants to grow, and makes the water
turbid (eutrophication).
Effects: When excessive algae and water plants die, their decomposition consumes a lot
of oxygen available in water. Their decomposition causes fish kill and death of aquatic
plants due to low available oxygen.
3) Sand, sediments and silt. These suffocate coral reefs, destroy mangroves and
breeding grounds of fish.
Effects: These cause turbidity of water that blocks aquatic plants to perform synthesis.
4) Oil spills. These come from seagoing vessels, ships, boats. Oil spills kill plants and
animals.

142
Effects: Oil settle on the ocean floor, killing benthic (bottom dwelling) organisms such
as crabs and exotic fish. They also disrupt food chains and make fish (those who survive
oil spills), inedible.
It takes 2 to 10 years for aquatic life to recover after an oil spill.
Land Pollution
Land pollution is the deposition of solid or liquid materials on land or

underground in a manner that it can contaminate the soil and groundwater.
Major land pollutants and their effects
1) Refuse. This is the composed of solid wastes. Please consider the rate of
biodegradation (decomposition) of these components of refuse:
o Food wastes biodegrade in 1 month.

o Paper biodegrades in 45 days.
o Cigarette filters biodegrade in 60 years.
o Snack bags and plastic bags biodegrade in 80 years.
o Plastic bottles biodegrade in 450 years.
o Tin cans biodegrade in 500 years.
o Hard plastics biodegrade in 1000 years.
o Glass, a natural material made of sand, biodegrades in 4,000 to 1,000,000 years.
2) Urban wastes. These are refuse coming from cities, which form the larger part of
land pollutants. It includes commercial and domestic wastes.
Examples of these are: construction rubble, street sweepings and abandoned junk.
Effects of Land Pollution

 Erosion, Siltation and Flooding.
Erosion is the slow destruction or wearing down of land mainly caused by water
or wind.
Siltation is the movement of soil by running water, causing deposition of mud
that prevents natural flow direction of water.

143
Erosion and siltation cause:

o Muddied streams and lakes;
o Rapid surface water run-off;
o Increased flooding;
o Reduced water supply.
 Risks on People’s health.

Risks on people’s health come from infectious wastes dumped on open
dumpsites from hospitals. Also, land pollution leads to the proliferation of disease-
bearing animals, such as flies and rats. Flies and mosquitoes carry the virus that causes
dengue fever. The urine of rats may be infected with leptospirosis, a disease that causes
jaundice, liver failure and death in animals and humans.
Environmental Awareness
An environment is the sum of external forces and conditions acting on
organisms. There are two types of environment: the natural or physical environment,
and the cultural or social environment.
The natural or physical environment includes surroundings provided by nature

such as terrestrial (land) or marine (water) environment. The cultural or social
environment includes surroundings that come from human activities such as urban
centers, buildings, transport systems and shopping malls.
Some schools environmental science as a course in their programs offered.

Environmental science is the study of the interactions among the physical, chemical and
biological components of the environment.
Environmental education through the inclusion of ecology or environmental

science courses, and now the STS course, aims to develop environmentally literate
citizens who will support and ensure the protection, conservation and improvement of
the environment, safeguard and promote sustainable living and development, social
equity, and economic efficiency in the utilization of natural resources, as indicated in the
Philippine Constitution.
Environmental awareness is not only promoted inside the school. Activities such
as Bantay Kalikasan, Manila Bay Clean-up and other community extension programs aim
to educate people on the importance and need to maintain clean and safe natural
resources.

144
GROUP ACTIVITY: Student Report

Module 17: Specific Issues in STS: Alternative Energy Sources
In the Philippines, through the Philippine National Oil Company’s Energy

Exploration Corporation (PNOC-EEC), continually finds other probable and viable
sources of energy in the country. Among the notable developments is the geothermal
energy sector. The Tiwi Geothermal Plant is the 2nd largest in the world, next to the
United States. Alternative energy sources are continuously researched on by the DOST, PNOC
and other government agencies.
Procedures:

2. Each group will present a group report (either by draw lots or assignment),
about alternative energy sources (see box).
o Solar Energy
o Wind Energy
o Hydropower
o Natural Gas
o Geothermal Energy

145

Members:
5 Excellent
Rating Scale:
4 Very Good
3 Good
2 Fair
1 Needs Improvement
CONTENT
the topic/s.
ORGANIZATION
VISUAL PRESENTATION
slides or parts.
6. The presentation has large legible fonts, used 5 4 3 2 1
diagrams or pictures, and has good color
combination.
DELIVERY
TOTAL SCORE

146
Exercise 18: Finals Review Exercises

Name:________________________________ Date:_____________________
Section:______________________________ Score:____________________

_________________1. It is the condition when the average climate of the earth is

altered, mostly due to human activities.
2. This is the most serious water pollutant.
3. It refers to the movement of soil by running water.
4. The odorless, colorless gas considered a silent killer.
5. This refers to the variation of the earth’s tilt on its axis.
6. Monsanto manufactured this genetically- modified bacteria.
7. This is the number one crop grown in the US.
8. It approved the first human biological drug from a goat.
9. This is the country with the highest percentage of GMO crops.
10. Give one bad effect of GMO foods.
11. It is also known as the New Media Age.
12. He published a landmark paper and is known as the Father of
Information Theory.
13. He is an American car manufacturer who accumulated
fortunes during the Industrial Age.
14. It is the idea that access to and the control of information
characterize this current era in human civilization.
15. It is the earliest age of information technology.

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PRELIM

General Concepts and

 Discuss the interactions between Science and Technology and society

1.1. What is science?

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

1.2. Why science? Who does science?

Science today is a field providing direct and indirect source of employment to

1.3. What is technology?

Technology, a combination of Greek ‘techne’ (“art” or “craft”) and

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

1.4. Science and technology and society

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Truly, not many societies have taken advantage of technological progress as an

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Technology and economies as part of human civilization could no longer subsist

Governments, institutions and communities now see that science and

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Table 1.1: Energy Resources of Countries

1.5. Science and technology today

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Table 1.2: Impacts of Science and Technology

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

in transportation infrastructure. Land, air and sea-

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

provides accessible information regarding one’s

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

EXERCISE 01: WHAT IS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (S&T)

I. Identification: Identify what or who is being referred to in the following statements.

B. In this chapter, describe one of the most important contributions to public

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

 Discuss the prehistoric technology.

2.1 Prehistoric Era

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

2.2. Ancient Era

Table 2.1: The Cradles of Civilization

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

important region of China, is one of the most rapidly-

Central Andes This is located in the middle portion of the Andean

Mesoamerica This area is part of present-day Mexico, which then

2.3. Bronze Age

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Table 2.2 Places of Progress during the Bronze Age

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

I. Identification: Identify what or who is being referred to in the following statements.

II. Essay (5 points each)

B. Describe the Aztec civilization’s contribution to science and technology.

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

 Discuss the development of early science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations

1. Roads paved with stones

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

Development of Science in Asia

India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional

Engr. M. Javier, MSEE

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of

In the field of astronomy, the