GSP1202/2202: FOUNDATION OF NIGERIAN AND CULTURE

CULTURE
Meaning of Culture
Culture is defined as the fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, aesthetic
objects, method of thinking, of eating and of talking as well as customs and
institutions into which each member of the society is born. Culture includes
the way each individual makes a living, the music he plays, celebrations and
festivals, modes of communication and transportation, the house we live in
and the food we eat.

Types of Culture
1. Material culture:-means those visible and tangible aspects of our
cultures. Materials culture includes baskets, woven cloth and style of
dressing, food, types of weapons, furniture, farming implements and
domestic utensils etc.
2. Non-material culture: -means those abstract aspects of people’s culture
such as language, myth, music, dances, philosophy etc. On the other hand,
art is part of culture. It is difficult to define art because it cuts across so
many things. However, what everyone seems to be saying is that for an
object to be qualified as a work of art, it must have “Something” beyond
mere utilitarian value. This “Something” can only be sensed. Some people
call it aesthetic value, some beauty, but each of these words has different
meaning. It is the individual who decides which of the pieces illustrated, he
likes. Basically, art and culture cannot be separated from society.
Specifically, society is what culture makes it to be, and culture is what
society makes it to be. As pointed out “People and their culture are in a
perpetual state of interaction, mutual influence, of inter-dependence and
progressive reciprocal adoption”.
In pre-colonial Nigeria, different works of art and culture existed. The Yoruba,
Hausa, Igbo, Ibibio, Kanuri etc, all had their ways of life. The ways of life of
these peoples were conditioned by the geographical environment in which
they live. The Kanuri way of dressing was quite different from that of Igbo or
the Yoruba people.
And other ethnic groups in Nigeria. However, some of the native attires worn
during pre-colonial period were conditioned not by environment, but by
religion. In the north where the sun is always high, the people living there
wore an open or light garments (‘Dan Ciki’). Women wore light dresses. The
same could not be said of the people of western, eastern and south-south
Nigeria. Because of the nature of their environment, they wore heavy
dresses to protect them from cool weather. Various types of artwork existed
during the pre-colonial period. The Nok culture which has been dated by
radio carbon to 900 BC and AD 200 was well noted for art work. Beside Nok
culture, most of the archaeological excavations of works in Yoruba land were
carried out in Ile – Ife. The findings revealed a number of bronze sculptures
of various sizes. In short, every ethnic group in the pre-colonial era had rich
central heritage through their work of art. However, majority of these works
of art have disappeared and have found their ways to museums in America,
Britain, and Germany etc. This has denied Nigerians the opportunity of
seeing some of the artworks of their forefathers.
LAND AND PEOPLE OF NIGERIA
In the pre-colonial period, the present Nigeria was basically characterized
based on different number of Kingdoms and empires which were generally
united. Those empires are: - the Bornu empires, Oyo Empire, Benin and
Sokoto Caliphate. But the Sokoto Caliphate became more powerful and
prominent in the 19th century as a result of its Jihad. And the consequences
of the Jihad gave rise to about twenty Hausa emirates council. There was
interaction in the areas of trade, inter marriage, exchange of gifts and other
forms of community relations within and between these empires and emirate
which served as the building forces. It must be noted that Hausa traders are
located in all Nigerian urban communities, and indeed throughout West
Africa.
However, Nigeria hasthe greatest number of language groups; some are
small while others are large in number. English served as the official national
language in the country because of the impact of British colonialism, but a
number of languages have become prominent in the country because of its
widespread manifestation among diverse ethnic groups. Those languages
serve as the language of commerce, politics, and administration shared
widely and spoken by majority of Nigerians, and they are classified as the
largest and fast growing language groups. That is why they were identified
as the major ethnic groups in Nigeria. They include:-. Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba
and Fulfulde (Fulani)
THE GEO-POLITICAL FORMATION OF NIGERIA
Nigeria is divided into three (3) main geopolitical zones; the savannah, the
forest and the coastal zone.

The Savannah Zone: The savannah zone was characterized by an open

land with tall grasses which cover large portion of the zone, and movement
of both peoples and animals are easily. The temperatures in the area are
usually high except in the month of December and January when the
harmattan blow winds and cold air. The savannah zone is inhibited by
numerous groups of people with distinguish customs, languages and system
of government. The most dominated ethnic group in the savannah zone are
Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri, Jukun, Nupe, Igala e.t.c. and mostly their major
economic activities are farming and trading. Most of their agricultural
products are maize, groundnut, millet, beans among others.
Forest Zone: The forest zone is occupied by green tall trees and was
characterized by heavily and long lasting rainfall. Agricultural crops found in
the area are mainly root-crops and tress such as Yam, Cassava, Cocoa,
Rubber, Palm Trees and Timber etc. the various group of people that
inhabited this zone are the Yoruba, Edo, Ibibio, and Igbo. Political
organizations were based on blood relation. Most people of this area engage
in farming and trading as their major economic activities.
The Coastal Zone: This area occupied places like Niger delta and Lagos
which experienced frequent rainfall and their major productive and economic
activities is fishing and trading. The various ethnic groups found in the
coastal area are the Itsekiri, Okrika, and the Ijaw people etc. They are the
most populous and their political organization was characterized by small
communities administered by village elders.
THE YORUBA PEOPLE
The Yoruba can be described as one of the major ethnic groups in the forest
zone. Several members of the Yoruba race can be found everywhere around
the globe. But the majority of them are found in some Western and Central
States of today’s Nigeria stretching across Oyo, Osun, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos,
Kwara and Kogi. They practice both Islam and Christianity but most of them
are still traditionalist to the core. The Yoruba ethnic group is believed to have
come into existence between 2000-1000 BC.
Till today, the history of the origins of the Yoruba people remains
controversial. The Yoruba, as an ethnic group still holds many versions about
their origins. Rev. Samuel Johnson in his book, History of the Yoruba (1950),
traces the origin of the Yoruba to the “East”. According to him, the Yoruba
originally came from the North-Eastern area of Africa. The similarities
between the cultures of the Yoruba and the Egyptians in terms of religious
observances, works of arts, burial and other traditional practices are enough
evidence. It is from Egypt, after several years of journey that the Yoruba
finally settled in Ile-Ife in Nigeria. Oduduwa is believed to be the first leader
that led the Yoruba to Ile-Ife and subsequently sent his sons and grandsons
to found other Yoruba kingdoms. Johnson’s conclusion is worth recalling:
That the Yoruba came originally from the East, there cannot be the slightest
doubt as their habits, manner and customs, etc., all go to prove. To them the
East is Mecca and Mecca is the East. Having strong affinities with the east
looming so largely in their imagination, everything that comes from the east
to them comes from Mecca, and hence it is natural to present themselves as
having hailed originally from that city.
In another version, it is believed that Oke-Oramfe which is located in Ile-Ife is
the centre from which the world was created. In the paper of Akinjogbin &
Ayandele (1980) Yoruba land up to 1800,give us a full picture of what Oke-
Oramfe’s version is all about. According to the legend, there was a period
when the world was covered by water. The Almighty God then decided to
send some of his messengers to the world and they included Obatala or
Orisa Nla or Orisa Alase [as the leader] and sixteen Oye [immortals]. They
were given fives pieces of iron, a lump of earth tied to a white piece of cloth,
and a cockerel. Somewhere on their way to the world, the leader, Obatala,
got drunk with palm wine. Oduduwa seized the symbol of authority from him
and eventually led the party to the world. The site on which they landed is
traditionally known as Oke-Oramfe in Ile-Ife. On arrival at the site, Oduduwa
set down the five pieces of iron and placed the lump of earth on them. The
cockerel then spread its toes on the earth. Consequently, the earth was
formed and Oduduwa thus became the ruler. It was from this base (Ife) that
he extended his authorities to other Yoruba towns and villages.
However, this traditions of origin fails to explain the actual origin of the
Yoruba race. Recent works indicate that the Yoruba people have been living
in their area for quite number of years and were related with neibours, such
as Nupe (Shaba, 2004) among many others (Smith, 1970s).

The Oyo Empire

Oyo is best known as the major kingdom that eventually emerged as an
empire in Yoruba land. Various traditions believe that Oyo was founded by
Oranmiyan, the son of Oduduwa, who is also credited with establishing the
present Benin monarchy. Oyo Empire was founded in the middle of the
fifteen century. A century later, it became very powerful and prosperous,
extending its authority as far as Dahomey.
Oyo Empire was very unique and exceptional in its system of government.
For instance, in the sixteenth century, Oyo was one of the rare empires that
had in-built checks and balances, and, this contributed to its stability for
centuries. The Alaafin was the head of the empire, and was resident in the
capital. He was also regarded as “Lord of many lands”. The Alaafin was
assisted in his administration by a retinue of officials made up of priests,
officials and eunuchs. He had a well organized court as well. Theoretically,
the Alaafin was the fountain of authority and was therefore regarded as the
“companion of the gods”. Sometimes, he hadan autocratic tendency, but in
practice, his powers were often limited and regulated by the Oyomesi, a
council of seven members headed by Bashorun who acted as the prime
minister. The members of Oyomesi were king makers as well. At the demise
of the Alaafin, they were the ones to select his successor. The Oyomesi also
had the power to remove any Alaafin especially when he appeared dictatorial
or transgressed the laws of the land. Usually the deposed Alaafin was
expected to commit suicide.
Apart from the Alaafin cabinet, members of the Oyomesi cult constituted
another arm of government called the Ogboni cult. It was a very powerful
cult, composed of free and prominent members of the society as well as
members of the Oyomesi. The Ogboni cult had a very vital position in Yoruba
society. It played a mediatory role in any conflict between the Oyomesi and
the Alaafin. It was a kind of counter power to the Oyomesi as well.
The Army was another arm of government in traditional Yoruba society. The
army was very organized. Its head was conferred with the coveted title of
Are-Ona-Kankanfo. It was made up of infantry and cavalry. The Are-Ona-
Kankanfo was expected to live outside the capital. The Army was credited
with performing important functions which included stability of the empire,
expansion, as well as keeping dissident territories in check. Oyo Empire also
had provincial governments. They were modeled after the central
government. They were administered by princes, and bales [provincial
governors]. All of them were subject to the over lordship of the Alaafin. The
provincial governments enjoyed considerable autonomy. But the Alaafin had
personal agents, Ilari, all over the provinces. The Alaafin used the Bere
annual festival periods to acknowledge the renewal of allegiance of the
provincial governors to him.
THE BININ EMPIRE
It is obvious that the Bini, more than any other ethnic group, have played
major roles in the history of Nigeria. For instance, the Bini were the first to be
visited by the Europeans as early as 1472 A.D. According to Hodgkin the
second half of the fifteenth century witnessed the arrivalof the first
Europeans to Benin. For instance, a Portuguese, Ruy de Sequeira, arrived
during Ewuare’s reign in 1472 while Alfonso de Aviero arrived during
Ozolua’s reign in 1484. The Benin Kingdom was also the first in the West
Coast of Africa to exchange ambassadors with a major European power, the
Portuguese. This was between 1481 and 1504.
Just like other Nigerian peoples, the Bini have various traditions of origin.
Egharevba (1968) for instance, claims that the Bini people emigrated from
Egypt and in the course of their journey southward, settled at Ile-Ife before
finally arriving at their present location. Another tradition has it that the Bini
peoples have been living in the area “from the very beginning”. According to
Bini mythology, Bini was the youngest child of Osanobua [the High God]. He
and his brothers, who included the king of Ife, were sent to live in the world.
They were asked by the High God to take whatever they wanted along with
them to the world. While others chose wealth, magical skills and material
wellbeing, the youngest on the advice of a bird, chose a snail shell. On
arrival, they found that the world was covered by water. Following instruction
from the bird, the youngest child over-turned the snail shell, whereupon sand
poured out of it and covered a large part of the water to form land. Thus, the
first ruler of Bini became the owner of the land. Land made him powerful and
wealthy as he had to sell portions of it to his elder brothers who then became
his subjects.
The first period of pre-colonial Bini history is known as the Ogiso era. This is
because their rulers were the Ogisos, which means “kings of the sky”. The
first Ogiso was known as Igbodo. He was succeeded by Erewho is credited
with forming the guild system and laying solid foundation for the kingdom.
Ere was succeeded by Orire, who himself was succeeded by a number of
Ogisos among whom were women. The last Ogiso was Owodo. According to
historical account, Owodo clashed with the nobles and eventually became a
victim of intrigues of his wives. This led to the banishment of his only son
and heir apparent, Ekaladeran. Ekaladeran founded Ughoton, a port-town in
Benin. He later moved to Ife through Erua, where he spent the rest of his life.
Many years later, because of a serious political crisis in Benin, the nobles
sent for him to come back and rule over them. But it was too late.
Ekaladeran was very old and decided to send his youngest son Oranmiyan
[Omonoyan, the pampered child] who came and established the Eweka
dynasty. With the end of Ogiso dynasty, Benin went through a period of
interregnum during which the elders established a form of republican
government headed by Evian who eventually attempted to usurp the throne
by nominating his son Ogiamen to succeed him. However, as Evian was not
an Ogiso, the Benin people rejected his son Ogiamen. This situation led to a
serious political crisis in the Benin Kingdom. During the crisis, two factions
emerged: the pro-monarchy and the pro-Ogiamen [also known as
Republicans]. This stalemate forced the elders to send a delegation to the
Ooni of Ife requesting him to send somebody to Benin to rule over them. The
request was granted and Oranmiyan, one of the Ooni’s sons, was sent to rule
the Benin people. But on his arrival to Benin Kingdom, Oranmiyan found the
Bini people ungovernable. So, he decided to go back to Ife. However, on his
way back, Oranmiyan had an affair with a Bini woman, the daughter of
Enogie of Ego-Erinmwinda. The woman became pregnant and eventually
gave birth to a child who later became Eweka I. He is credited with
establishing the present Bini dynasty.
A recent version of this episode by some Bini elites maintains that
Oranmiyan, who came from Ife to establish the present monarchy, was a Bini
prince. According to them, Oranmiyan was the son of Ekaladeran who had
earlier been banished from Benin and who subsequently settled at Ile-Ife and
eventually became the ruler, Oduduwa. Before Oranmiyan got back to Ife, he
said of the Benin kingdom: “the country is a land of vexation, Ile-Ibinu, and
only a child born, trained and educated in the arts and mysteries of the land
could reign over the people”. It was this son of Oranmiyan born by a Bini
woman who was subsequently “trained and educated in the arts and
mysteries of the land” that eventually ascended the throne with the name
Eweka I. Eweka I thus became the first Oba of Benin and his dynasty still
reigns in Benin till today. The overall position of the Bini elites is that
although Oranmiyan came from Ile-Ife, the monarchy which he established is
indigenous to the Bini because Oranmiyan was the son of a Benin prince, and
his son, Eweka I, was conceived, born and brought up in Benin. There is no
doubt that to them, the present monarchy is indigenous to the Bini. But more
research is still needed to ascertain the veracity of this version.
Coincidentally, Eweka I had a long and glorious reign. He had many children
who were sent to villages as Enogies.
As earlier mentioned, the Benin kingdom was the first in the West Coast of
Africa to exchange ambassadors with a major European power. This was
between 1481 and 1504. At that time, the Benin kingdom was already socio-
politically well organized. Benin kingdom had a unique political system,
which centered on the Oba. He was the head of the kingdom and succession
to the throne was byprimogeniture, that is, the first surviving son succeeded
his father. To Hodgkin, “the Oba was not only the civil head of state; he was
also the religious head as well. He was in fact regarded as a divine person
who,in himself, summed up the whole of the race… In him dwelt the divine
spirit passed on to him from his forebears” (Hodgkin, 1975). The Benin
society was classified into two distinct classes: the nobility [Adesotu], and
the commoner [Ighiotu]. The nobility was organized into three groups of title
holders:
· The Uzama
· The Eghaevbo n’ Ogbe [palace chiefs] and
· The Eghaevbo n’ ore [town chiefs]
The ordinary people too, most especially those within the city, were
organized into a number of guilds. The guilds were professional groups of the
common people. There were a number of them such as those of the carvers,
brass-workers, blacksmiths, doctors, butchers, etc. These guilds, most
especially those that lived in defined quarters in the kingdom, had a system
of administration which was the same as that of the villages.
THE IGBOS
The Igbo people are best known for their segmented or a cephalous way of
life. This is because from the ancient times, they had no centralized states.
Consequently, they operated a kind of government without kings. Generally,
the Igbo are predominantly farmers and traders. Despite some cultural
diversity among them, they do share a common basic culture in their
language with a cluster of dialects that are mutually intelligible. They also
share a common political system based on decentralization of power and
delegation of authority exercised by the holders of the staff of authority, the
Ofo.
The origin of the Igbo people is as controversial as that of the Yoruba and the
Bini. There are so many versions and it is very difficult to say which is the
most acceptable. Some believe that the Igbo peoples migrated to their
present location from either the North or the Middle-east. Others believe that
the Igbo people had been in their present abode from the beginning.
Therefore, Igboland is the original homeland. Professor M.A. Onwuejeogwu
(2000) regards the Nri version as the only authentic version of origin in
existence in the oral tradition of the Igbo. According to Nri version, the
ancestor of the Igbo, Eri, descended from the sky and sailed down the River
Anambra. When he arrived at Aguleri, he met some Primitive people who had
no living memory of their own and settled with them. As their population
increased, some groups migrated to other parts of Igboland to establish their
own settlements.
Another tradition considered Awka or Orlu towns as the center of origin of
the Igbo from where they dispersed to other areas. Some groups such as the
Umunri claim to have migrated to their present location from Idah. The
Onitsha and the Igbo on the other side of the River Niger [Delta Igbo], claim
Benin origin.
One of the most popular versions of the migratory stories of origin of the
Igbo people is the one that points to Israel. This assumption is based on the
so-called similarities between the cultures of the Igbo and the ancient
Hebrew. Some Igbo scholars consider themselves as off-shoots of the lost
tribes of the Hebrews who migrated southward.

The Socio-Political Organization of the Igbo

Unlike other ethnic groups such as the Yoruba and the Bini, the Igbo people
did not build any strong centralized states. This is mainly because Igbo
society had always been fragmentary or acephalous. In traditional Igbo for
instance, the village was the centre of government. This has been described
as direct democracy. The village-centered administration implied that every
linkage for instance, including all male adults in the village, participated in its
political process.
The socio-political organization of the traditional Igbo was fundamentally
based either on the age grades or age and titled societies. Amala Oha was
therefore a form of general assembly in traditional Igbo society. All the male
adult members usually met in this assembly to perform legislative functions.
In ancient times, the Amala Oha’s meetings were held in the open village
square. All the decisions taken during those meetings were absolute and
final. As a democratic society, the life of every individual was highly
respected. More so, the recognition of an individual in the society was based
on individual capability and age rather than family background. The elders
formed the core of village administration. They were highly respected
accordingly. Hardworking and wealthy individuals were respected and given
important responsibilities in the society as well. The youth, middle age or
able bodied men and elders constituted age-sets or age groups. Each age-set
had its own special rights, duties, obligations and responsibilities in matters
affecting the village.
THE KANEM-BORNU PEOPLE
Kanuri is the language that unites the entire Kanem-Bornu people. Kanem-
Bornu ethnic group also has many versions of its origin. But all these
versions are not certain. They are also known to have been exaggerated in
the region North East of the Lake Chad. Some scholars argue that the So
people were the first settlers in Kanem-Bornu. According to them, the So had
developed a sophisticated sociopolitical culture based on agriculture and the
knowledge and use of iron technology. This happened long before the
Zaghawa who later invaded the land.
There is another tradition of the history of Kanem-Bornu, which attributes the
foundation of Kanem-Bornu to the great Arab hero, Saif b. Dhiyazan. This
happened between 9th and 10th centuries A.D. Yazan is also credited to
have established the famous Saifawa dynasty. The Saifawa dynasty was one
of the longest ruling dynasties in the pre-colonial West African Sub-region.

The Kanem-Bornu Empire

It is very important to note that the nucleus of the socio-political organization
of the Kanem Bornu people was based on kinship. The Mai was the central
authority of the state. He had a council of twelve advisers between whom
the principal offices of the state were divided. The councilors were chosen
from members of the royal family and also from among great nobles. Each
councilor was appointed for life and exercised authority over a particular
territory. The most important councilors were the Kaigama (commander in
chief and warden of the south), the Yerima (warden of the north), the
Mestrema (warden of the East) and the Galadima (warden of the West).The
Galadima whose station was at Nguru was a powerful officer. All the offices
except the Galadima lived in the capital so that the king could keep a close
watch over them. They only visited their districts in time of trouble or to
ensure that taxes were collected. Taxes were levied on the products of the
peasants.
The actual administration of the provinces was carried out by governors
chosen from the slaves or humble families who were truly loyal to the Mai.
This was to prevent the development of intrigues and revolts. . The Queen
Mother or Magira was a very important and respected personage in the
Kanem political structure as she exercised great influence in the state. So did
the Megara, King’s official elder sister and the Gumsu, the first wife of the
King. There was a class system with the aristocracy at the top and the slaves
at the base of the social pyramid.
Judicial system was based on Islamic law and enforced by qadis or judges.
The Mainin Kanendi or chief judge and twelve other judges formed the high
court which was held in the capital. A scribe of the high court was next in
importance to the chief judge. These judges advise the Mai on legal and
religious matters. In the large towns local mallams acted as judges. From the
local courts, appeals were made to high court at the capital.
For military purposes, the empire was divided into four regions on the same
lines as its political organization. The regions were under the four military
leaders’ i.e Kaigama, Yerima, Mestrema and the Galadima. Each of these
leaders had under him subordinate commanders in charge of the general
division of the army. There was also a standing army which served as the
king’s body guards.

THE NUPE PEOPLE

Just like the Hausa, the early history of the Nupe people is not much known.
The pre-colonial Nupe people and state developed in the region of the Niger
and Benue valleys of the Nigerian Middle Belt. The Nupe state was located
on the north bank of the Niger at its confluence with the River Kaduna. Nupe
land was located at the cross roads of trade from Borno to Kano axis in the
Northeast, as well as Yoruba land, Ganga and Benin in the Southwest. Gbara
was its capital. It was located on the bank of the Kaduna River and was an
important trading center as well. Gbara functioned as anent report
connecting Benin and Oyo trade with Nupe. Like any other ethnic group in
Nigeria, the Nupe people also have various versions of origin. Some scholars
believe that the early Nupe people originated where they presently occupy.
Other elites argue that the first peoples of the Nupe came from Egypt.
Therefore, Egypt was the origin of the Nupe people. Tsoede or Edegi is
considered by some Nupe people as the founder of their State. And,
according to Nupe tradition, Tsoede might have arrived in the early 16th
century from Idah. He (Trodede) is also believed to have had an Igala father
and a Nupe mother. Historically, Nupe people had at a time paid allegiance
and tribute to the Attah of the Igala state. To them, in the 16th century, a
hero, an Idah Prince known as Tsoede re-established Nupe’s independence
with himself as the “ETSU NUPE” king of Nupe land.

Nupe Kingdom
The Etsu Nupe was known as the head of the Nupe Kingdom. He operated a
two–level administration: central and provincial. Historically, the Etsu Nupe
enjoyed a divine status and people worshipped and respected him. His word
was law. But the Etsu Nupe was not always absolute because his power and
actions were regulated by a body of traditions and taboos. Besides the Etsu
Nupe, there was a class of powerful gentlemen called nobility. Its main task
was to help the king in carrying out his duties as leader. There were
nobilities such as the Shaba, Kpotuh and Maku. In traditional Nupe land, each
village was headed by the Zitzu. He was an appointee of the Etsu. The Zitzu
was in turn assisted by a council of elders. The Zitzu always pays tribute to
the Etsu in recognition of his authority.

THE JUKUN (KWARARAFA) PEOPLE

Again, like other ethnic groups in Nigeria, the origin of the Jukun people is
not fixed. The Jukun are also known as the Kwararafa. They are believed to
have occupied the area between the River Benue and the River Ibi in
Gongola state. Wukari was also known as the principal town of the Jukun
people, and it is in that town that their King resided. The Jukun State was
large. The Kano chronicle version was the most authentic source that could
say something convincing about the Jukun history of origin. According to
records from the Kano Chronicle, the Jukun people raided the Hausa land and
Bornu in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This shows that although
the origin of the Jukun people was almost unknown, they were at least in
existence before the sixteenth century or thereabouts.

The Jukun State

As said earlier, the Jukun state was certainly not a small state. This is one of
the reasons why Jukun was seen as a confederation of peoples who
recognized the religious supremacy of the AKU UKA. At the end of the
seventeenth century, the Jukun had been well established in the middle
Benue region. The Jukun people operated a theocratic system of
government. AKU UKA was the head of any effective Jukun state. He was
believed to be spiritually appointed and was regarded as the representative
of the gods on earth. Although AKU UKA was very powerful, his system of
government was not despotic. He had no absolute power over his people.
There were many ways of regulating his power. According to Jukun tradition,
AKU UKA was judged, for instance, by his performance (result). Since he was
the symbol of the Jukun existence, a good harvest could bring in more
prestige while a bad harvest could result in serious calamity, and thereafter,
his unpopularity and downfall. Also, there were many taboos which acted as
checks on his royal power as well. Even as the head of the executive,
legislative and judiciary, AKU UKA also ruled with the advice of his nobles
and subjects. Public opinion was respected in Jukun pre-colonial
administration. Achuwo was the head of Aku Uka’s Council of nobles. He
functioned as the Prime Minister. He was seconded by the Abo Zike, Kinda
Achuwo and the Aku Nako. These nobles were representatives of their
lineages as well.
THE HAUSA PEOPLE
The Hausa people represent one of the important and politically dominant
groups in Northern Nigeria. By the year 2000, the Hausa population was
estimated at about twenty million. They are also one of the largest linguistic
groups in the whole of Africa. Just like other major ethnic groups in Nigeria,
the Origin of the Hausa people is not very certain. Most scholars agree that
the Bayajidda story is the most authentic oral tradition in Hausa land that
attempts to explain the origin of the Hausa states. According to the legend,
Abu Yazid (Bayajidda) son of the king of Baghdad had quarreled with his
father and fled. He journeyed to Bornu and thence to Hausa land in present
Nigeria. Historically, Bayajidda married the daughter of the Mai of Bornu by
whom he had a son at Biran. After a while, Bayajidda left Biran to Daura.
While in Daura, he helped to kill a snake, which had for a long time
prevented the people from drawing water from a well. According to the
legend, the queen of Daura was so pleased with his courage and bravery
that she decided to marry him. They later had a son named Bawo. Bawo had
seven sons who founded the seven Hausa states called Hausa Bakwai:
Daura, Kano, Rano, Zaria, Katsina, Biram and Gobir. Later, seven more states
were founded by those sons who Bawo had with another woman; hence
these were called Banza Bakwai: Zamfara, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri,
Kwararrafa and Ilorin. This tradition is common all over Hausa land, probably
its objection is to create a myth of the racial and cultural unity of the Hausa
speaking people.

The Socio-Political Organization of the Hausa

The Hausa people were originally pagans, but in the 14 th century during the
reign of Sarki Yaji Ali (1349-1385), Islamic scholars from Mali came to Kano.
Yaji and many of his subjects accepted Islam and a mosque were built in
Kano. In the course of time, Islam spread to other Hausa states. Katsina was
the last to accept Islam and it was converted by Muslim scholar from Egypt
in 1493. But Islam was slow to take root among the people. For often the
rulers and their subjects went back to their old pagan practices. It was in the
19th century during the Sokoto jihad that paganism was swept away and
Islam became deeply rooted in Hausa land. The introduction of Islam
profoundly influenced the government, social and cultural life of Hausa land
and gave the people the Arabic alphabet with which Hausa was reduced to a
written language and helped in the spread of the religion.
The Hausa states from the early times developed an efficient system of
government. The state usually took its name from its capital town. This
suggests that the state developed out of the gradual expansion of the capital
town through absorption or conquest of outlying territories. Thus the chief of
the capital town became the Sarki or king of the state while the heads of the
conquered villages became subordinate chiefs. Religion played a vital role in
the political life of the states. The political power of the Sarki was bested on
it, for he was not only the secular head but also the chief priest of the town’s
deities. It provided spiritual bond which strengthened the political unity of
the state. With the advent of Islam from the 15 th century onwards, the
Islamic system of government and law were adopted by all the states. Under
this system each state was governed by Sarki and assisted by the council of
ministers and territorial officials drawn from the hereditary aristocracy.
Although the Sarki has immense powers but his powers were limited, for he
could not act without consultation and approval of the influential council of
nobles.
Some of the important officials of the central government were the
Galadima, he held the high office of the royal council, the Madawaki or
commander in chief of the army and was next to the king in importance. He
advised the king on the appointment or dismissal of the title holders,
summoned meetings of chief councilors and with them choose a new king
when the office became vacant. In some Hausa states, the Waziri or chief
minister performed these functions. There were also the Magaji or lord of the
treasury, the Yari or head Gaoler, Sarkin Dogarai or head of the king’s
bodyguard, and Sarkin Yandoka or chief of the police who was in control of
prisoners charged with serious offences, inflicted punishment and he also
acted as the town crier and watchman.
Each state was divided into villages and districts for the purpose of local
government. Local administration was carried out through villages and
district heads appointed by the Sarki usually from the traditional rulers of the
area or members of his own or other important families. They enforced the
orders of the king in their localities and collected taxes.
Each district head had a representative in the capital through whom he
reported events to the king. Prior to the introduction of Islam, justice was
administered by the Sarki in the capital and district heads in the villages.
With Islam, the Muslim judicial system was adopted with the king as the
supreme judge of the state. He gave final verdict in important cases
concerning land, murder and man slaughter, but usually with the advice of
the chief alkali and his jury of legal experts. Lesser judicial matters were
handled by alkali and his jury. In the districts there were local courts of
appeals from which cases were referred to the chief alkali’s court in the
capital. In smaller villages, the village head exercised judicial authority on
minor cases. The government of Hausa states was therefore highly
centralized with the king exercising overall control of every department of
administration.
THE COMING OF ISLAM INTO THE NIGERIAN AREA
Hausa land was another area in the present day Nigeria in which Islam
spread. Islam was introduced to this area by the Wangarawa – a group of
Dyula Muslim merchants and teachers from Mali in the 14th century. Islam
was first officially introduced to the Sarkin Kano who in turn appointed
several of the Muslim teachers and preachers to offices where the practice of
Islam was necessary. This included the Imam, the Muezzin and others. Also,
the king ordered all his subjects to accept Islam. After the traditional
religionists had unsuccessfully opposed the new religion, the Kano kings
made it a state religion. Other groups that helped in the peaceful spread of
Islam in Hausa land and Bornu were the Muslim Fulani. The kings of Kano
and Katsina supported the Islamic teachers and preachers, who completely
Islamized these states and other Hausa states like Gobir, Zazzau, Kebbi and
Yawuri.
But later on, the Hausa states began to mix Islam with their local or
traditional pagan practices. Scholars preached for the purification of Islam,
this later led to the 19th century Sokoto jihad of Uthman Bin Fodio which
started in Gobir and spread to all over Hausa states and beyond. The result
of the jihad was a creation of the Sokoto caliphate and the overthrow of the
Hausa rulers, and the installation of Fulani aristocracy. The hegemony of the
caliphate spread far and beyond Hausa land to include areas of the Yoruba
kingdom. But with the establishment of British rule, the whole of the empire
was conquered marking the end of the caliphate power.
Other areas in Nigeria where Islam penetrated before 1800 AD were Nupe
and Yoruba land. As in Borno and Hausa land, Islam came to Nupe and
Yoruba land through trade via Hausa land and Borno trade routes, Nupe and
Yoruba land were linked to the Trans-Saharan trade. Yoruba was connected
to Hausa land and Borno through the same trade routes via Borgu and Nupe.
It was Nupe early trade with Hausa land, Borno, Bendi areas, Songhai and
Mali empires that brought Islam to Nupe. Yoruba historians including Samuel
Johnson believed that Islam came to Yoruba land in the 18th century. But
there are records which suggest that Islam entered the area during the 17th
century, a time when Alaafin Ajagbo was said to have embraced Islam. By
the 18thcentury, Islam had spread to many Yoruba areas including Bagri,
Ketu, Ogbomosho, Owu, Ijara, Igboho, Kisi, Saki, Iseyin and Ikoyi.
Prior to independence, two organized foreign religions were firmly
established in Nigeria i.e. Islam and Christianity. From 1960 onward almost
every Nigerian elite claimed allegiance to either Christianity or Islam. The
presences of Christianity and Islam into an independent Nigeria put the
country in a complex situation. The supreme law under which the country
operated was the Nigerian independence constitution of 1960 as amended
by the 1963 Republican constitution. It was very clear from these documents
that Nigeria was a secular state, that is, the affairs of state must not be
mixed with religion. Religious belief and worship were to remain strictly
personal. Unfortunately this could not hold for a longtime. For instance,
Nigeria’s second Republic was inaugurated amidst certain fears, especially
the fear of religious wars. Nigeria became the battlefield of Christianity and
Islam.
Abuja: “Home for All”
Abuja is Nigeria’s new capital city. It was baptized “home for all” and viewed
as a symbol of national unity. However, the challenge between Christianity
and Islam led some Nigerian scholars to criticize Abuja’s capability to unite
the various peoples and faiths of Nigeria. For instance, according to them,
the main entrances into Abuja have Islamic and not national symbols. The
Presidential villa was equipped with a mosque only. With this scenario, the
feeling is being created that Nigeria is not a secular state. The letter and
spirit of the national constitution are being violated. The usual use of
religion, as a weapon of winning support from majority of the citizenry by
Nigerian rulers without due regard to the consequences for national psyche
is quite alarming. In 1986 for instance, Ibrahim Babangida attempted to
smuggle Nigeria into the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) without
the knowledge of either his Armed Forces Ruling Council or his cabinet.
Although the attempt failed, it did not stop the feeling of “Us versus them”.
Unlike the pre-colonial Nigeria, it is apparent that for modern and
contemporary Nigeria, religious cohabitation seems to be a monumental
failure. Christianity and Islam as the only viable organized religions have
shown themselves incapable of changing the moral tones of the larger
society. It is unfortunate to notice that although average Nigerian elite is an
adherent of one religion or the other, yet he fails to see the relationship
between religious piety and public morality. Hence,the relationship between
Religion and State in contemporary Nigeria is a paradox. It is common in
Nigeria to see that people known to have subverted public morality are
sometimes honored with religious titles. Religious groups are eager to
receive donations from whosoever without investigating the sources of
wealth of the donor, thus making dubiousness an accepted norm.

EUROPEAN CONTACT WITH THE NIGERIAN AREAS AND ITS

CONSEQUENCES
THE CREATION OF MODERN NIGERIA
The British who have often been credited with the creation of Nigeria were
not the first Europeans to land in the Nigerian area. The Portuguese were the
first Europeans to arrive Nigeria through Benin Kingdom. According to
Hodgkin “the second half of the fifteenth century saw the arrival of the first
Europeans in Benin.the Portuguese arrived in 1472 during the reign of
Ewuare and in 1484 at the time of Ozolua’s reign”. The Trans-Atlantic slave
trade was the unfortunate channel that first put the British into contact with
Nigeria. The trade reached its maturity in the 16 th century. For almost three
centuries, relations that existed between the coastal area of Nigeria with the
British was dominated by the trans-Atlantic slave trade. But in the early
decade of the 19th century, the British decided to abolish the trans- Atlantic
slave trade. They did so through the operations of the British West African
Naval Squadron.
After three centuries of dubious slave trade, came the so-called period of
legitimate commerce. Of course, this was another golden opportunity for the
Europeans to get more directly involved in the affairs of the African States.
Europeans first introduced the “Gun-boat” politics. To them, this was
important because some “erring” African states were threatened with attack
and in some cases, were actually attacked. It was under the umbrella of such
happenings that the British first formally annexed Nigerian territory. In 1860,
they took Lagos as a colony. But, the bulk of Nigerian territory was occupied
in the late 19th century. This happened through dubious treaties that were
signed with some Nigerian potentates, and through military conquest of
states and deportation of their rulers. Despite the resistance of some brave
and courageous Nigerians such as Jaja of Opobo, Nana of Itsekiri,
Ovonramwen of Benin and Attahiru of Sokoto, they could not stop the British
usurpation of their independence and authority.
Before the year 1900, all the different parts of Nigeria conquered by the
British were still under their original administration. But by 1903, the whole
Nigeria was under the responsibility of the British Colonial Offices. The May
1906 amalgamation is known as the first ever amalgamation of the British in
Nigeria. British government amalgamated Lagos colony and protectorate
with the protectorate of Southern Nigeria to form the new colony and
protectorate of Southern Nigeria. More so, since the whole of Nigerian
regions were under the responsibility of the British government, they did not
bother to seek the views of Nigerians in the two territories as to whether or
not they supported the amalgamation. Besides, Tamuno (1980) observes
that the primary aim of the 1906 amalgamation was purely economic, that
is, “to use the better financial position of the protectorate of Southern
Nigeria to cover the cost of administration and development in the financially
weak colony and protectorate of Lagos, then saddled with the white elephant
of a railway in need of extension since 1901”.
The second amalgamation was that of 1914. In January 1914, the British
government amalgamated Northern and Southern protectorates. The
principal reason for this was the same as that of May 1906. The Northern
protectorate was not as economically buoyant as the colony and
protectorate of Southern Nigeria. That was why, for the British imperial
offices, since the Southern trade was booming, amalgamation would allow
the surpluses acquired in the south to be used in the North, and this was
expected to reduce British Treasury responsibility. Sir Frederick Lugard (later
became Lord) is best known as the father of the “January 1914”
amalgamation.
It can be argued that even if the initial intention of the amalgamation
process was to make Nigeria a political unit, it practically failed. According to
Hatch (1970) the amalgamation of Nigeria was carried out with many
unanswered questions such as: What would be the effect of uniting the
Fulani emirates – with their comparatively static, traditionalist outlook – with
the individualistic society of the south, now acquiring knowledge from a
growing number of mission schools, which were making available an
expanding clerical class. How would societies that only a few years earlier
had been rival and often hostile states live together under one
administration? Should they form a single nation? If so, how could a single
allegiance be created? In any case, what was the central objective of British
policy? Was it to build an empire permanently subordinate to Britain, to act
as a trustee for some shadowy African future, or to encourage a natural spirit
leading to ultimate self-government?”
Today, it is obvious that the tragedy of Nigeria’s history and its people is not
so much to be found in the diversity of these groups that were brought
together under amalgamation. Rather, the real tragedy is that British colonial
policy in Nigeria after amalgamation tended to be divisive and isolationist in
terms of keeping the peoples of the two main protectorates separate. For
instance, while the 1914 amalgamation gave the northern and southern
provinces a common political head in the person of Lugard, no uniform style
of administration developed in either group of provinces. Despite the
amalgamation of 1914, Nigeria still operated as a federation of two groups of
provinces between 1914 and1939. Later on April 1, 1939, the British
government split the former Southern provinces into Eastern and Western
provinces. This tripartite division of Nigeria remained well into the
independence period, until1963 when the Mid Western region was created,
and the Northern Region was split for the first time in 1967.
We should always remember that colonial rule was forcibly imposed on the
people of Nigeria. As stated earlier, colonial intention has never been for the
benefit of Nigerian people. It was exploitative and this engendered protests
from prominent Nigerians. The pursuit of economic goals was their catalyst.
The British were busy looking for cheap raw materials and creating markets
for the sale of their finished products. In doing so, their objectives became
clear: they pursued policies which in their entire ramification were geared
towards the economic, political and social benefits of the British overlords.
It is obvious that the British colonial rule alienated Nigerians at different
levels. Nigerians became foreigners in their own country! For instance, it
became very difficult, if not impossible, for them to effectively participate in
both the economic and governmental processes of their own country. The
immediate result to such unfortunate situation was the birth of Nigerian
nationalism. Like in other parts of Africa, some brave Nigerians stood up and
decided to champion the cause for reforms in the system. The Nigerian
nationalism was welcome both in the country and abroad. Three major
trends characterized the strength of nationalistic spirit:-
a, The peoples protest against the colonial system in their desire to alter the
existing colonial system so that they could benefit from it,
b. The activities of black diasporas in the New World- the Americas such as
Marcus J. Garvey and Wilmot Blyden who were exponents of the dignity of
the African person, and
c. The presence of an articulate class of Nigerian elites who through their
acquisition of western education were in the vanguard of those agitating for
change in the status quo.
Newspapers also contributed seriously to the emergence of Nigerian
nationalism. Besides, some other factors also contributed to the Nigerian
nationalism: the development of political parties and the election of the
labour party in Britain with its anti colonialism agenda. Nigeria became
independent on October 1st 1960.
The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM): This movement is best known as
the “first true nationalist organization” that emerged in Nigeria in 1936. It
was headed by Samuel Akinsanya, H.O Davies, Ernest Ikoli and Dr. J.C
Vaughan. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiweand Chief Obafemi Awolowo later joined the
movement in 1937.
The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroon’s: This movement
was created on 26th August 1944. It was headed by Herbert Macaulay as
president and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe as its secretary. In 1945, the movement
made one of its aims very clear: “to achieve internal self-government for
Nigeria whereby the people of Nigeria and the Cameroons under British
mandate shall exercise executive, legislative and judicial power”. The Igbo
domination within the party brought in a feeling of resentment. The true
nationalist spirit started giving way to “tribal interest”. On this note, the
Action Group (AG) was founded in 1948 by Obafemi Awolowo to defend the
interest of the Yoruba. A year later (1949) the Northern people’s Congress
(NPC) was formed by Mallam Aminu Kano and Mallam Abubakar Tafawa
Balewa to defend the interests of the Northerners. There is no doubt that the
establishment of these tribal oriented political organizations turned out to be
strong centrifugal forces against Nigerian unity. According to Olusanya
(1980:568) “with the formation of the AG and the NPC ethnic, nationalism
and regional divisions triumphed over the forces of unity in the Nigerian
politics.”
The final declaration of the Nigerian independence on October 1st 1960was
also the result of the major constitutions namely:
· The Richards Constitution of 1946
· The McPherson constitution of 1951, and
· The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954
THE 1954 CONSTITUTION
The McPherson constitution was the most comprehensive and did not live
long. The need for its revision became necessary. The revision led to the
promulgation of the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 that remains the
cornerstone of the Nigerian constitution till date. The 1954 constitution
established a federal system of government for Nigeria. It is also believed
that the 1954 constitution marked the end of nationalist struggle for
independence. You should also remember that even when Nigeria attained
her independence, there were still deep fissures within the structure.
Ethnicity and tribalism were the most prominent, along with the feeling of
marginalization by minority groups in different areas. Bearing the socio-
historical evolution of Nigeria in mind, the question whether Nigeria is a real
political unit cannot receive a complete “no” or“ yes” answer. The answer
will depend on the person’s angle of analysis. For some scholars, the
Federation of Nigeria is a mistake. They argue that Nigeria is a conglomerate
of various ethnic groups. And, during the pre-colonial period those ethnic
groups never interrelated. So it was futile to put such people together.
Therefore, the unity of Nigeria is just a mere concept or a slogan. Although
there are some elements of truth in this thesis, some scholars still argue the
opposite. According to Ikime (1985) and Ajayi and Alagoa (1980) Nigeria can
be seen as a real political unit. They argue that there were fruitful inter-
group relations between the people of Nigeria before colonial rule. They also
argue that the common experience of colonial rule by the peoples of Nigeria
provided good grounds for building a nation.
EDUCATION AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HISTORY
The strong relationship between education and development cannot be
overemphasized. We can even say with confidence that education is to a
nation what the mind is to the body. This is not only true for Nigeria alone
but is a fact worldwide. Even in ancient Greece, best known as the cradle of
Western scholarship, education was the backbone or a searchlight boomed
on society. In ancient Greece, for instance, education was a standard bearer
and a blender of minds, behavior and cherished values. Greek social order
and institutions were centered on the philosophy of great educationists of
the kind of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. However, education also followed
the life cycle system. Onovbaydedo (1995) puts it better in this way: the
journey of reason and western learning from the ancient; through the
classical to the modern world are eventful. They were “exorcised” by the
medieval Church of perceived traces of heresy and tinted with Christianity.
They experienced a rebirth in the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th
centuries and in turn gave birth to the Enlightenment in which educational
structures were modernized. Even in Europe, although modern educationist
forms were taken a field by the missionaries and various agents of
imperialism, they nonetheless successfully engendered the industrial
revolution and breath-taking development. But what happened in the
Nigerian case? It is obvious that the type and level of education have to be in
line with the needs of society. But this world-wide fact is not in line with the
Nigerian situation.
In pre-colonial era, most Nigerian communities were small, largely rural and
self- sufficient. Not only that the system of education was informal and non-
literate, it was not specialized at all. It was only in the northern part that the
art of writing developed early due to the introduction of Islam. And the Ajami
alphabets were used to write in Hausa and Fulfulde language, and Arabic.
Western Education in colonial Nigeria was nothing more than schooling.
Before independence, Nigerians were schooled to accept the society
designed for them by the colonialists. This seriously contradicts Jane F.
Doyle’s understanding of education. According to her, education must
engender in the individual a disposition of personal autonomy, responsibility
and a mastery of relevant forms of life, thought and action. A good education
should be free from moral indoctrination, but rich in moral training.
Education indefensibly becomes indoctrination when a person is
indoctrinated under the pretence of being educated (Doyle 1973).
As stated earlier, the type and level of education have to be in line with the
needs of the society. So as soon as Nigeria became independent, the
functional inadequacies of education in the nation’s schools became glaring
as well. As a Republic, Nigerian government became a complex and a
complicated one. Therefore, the need to fashion out an educational system
that would fit the new mood and the development needs of the nation
became obvious and pressing. For instance, the government needed a good
number of qualified individuals in almost every sector.
The year 1969 witnessed the first independent National Educational
Conference on curriculum development in Nigeria. The Nigerian Educational
Council organized it. The overall aim of the conference was to set a new
policy of education for Nigeria. For that reason, it was not limited only to
experts and professionals. It was a conference of the people of Nigeria. It
was made up of representatives drawn from across-section of interest groups
such as trade unions, farmers unions, religious bodies, women’s
organizations, teachers association, university teachers and administrators,
professional organizations and ministry officials. One of the conference’s
main tasks was to review old goals and identify new national goals for
Nigerian’s education. The findings and decision of the 1969 conference
became the cornerstone in the formulation of a national policy on education
in 1977. These are some basic tenets:
· The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of
the individual and the Nigerian society;
· The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around; and
· The acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities both mental and physical as
equipment for the individual to live in, and contribute to the development of
his society. The success of the national policy on education of 1977 was
unprecedented. Available statistics indicate a tremendous expansion in the
country’s educational system both in terms of number and variety of
relevant institutions. According to Imogie (1999), the enrolments in schools
as at December 1996 were as follows:
· 37 universities with a student enrolment of 236, 261
· Specialized technological institutions with enrolment of about 2,161
students
· 45 polytechnics with student enrolment of 140, 953 students
· 62 colleges of education with a total student enrolment of 89, 242
· 7,222 secondary and technical schools with student population of
4,503,552
· 48, 242 primary schools with a total enrolment of 16,761,519
Is Nigerian Education System a Failure? The answer to this question from a
historical perspective cannot be a fixed one. History being a process, some
scholars advocates the “no” answer while others advocate the “yes” option.
The “No” Answer Primary and Secondary Levels. In 1976, the Nigerian
government introduced the Universal Basic Education Programme (UBE).
This favoured the increase of the number of schools along with an impressive
increase in enrolment. By December 1996, primary schools enrolment figure
was about 17 million. In the south and parts of the middle-belt regions, over
90 percent enrolment of children of school age was recorded (Imogie 1999).
But according to Imogie, enrolment and transition rate from primary to
secondary schools was still very low in a country with a population of over
100 million people as at that time.
The Tertiary Level: In 1981, the tertiary education witnessed a tremendous
improvement with the adoption of the 6-3-3-4 system. This system was the
making of Shagari’s administration. The main aim was to train Nigerians that
would lead the country on the part of industrial and technological
advancement. The 6-3-3-4 system was very much welcomed by many
Nigerian scholars. To accomplish this goal, the government decided to
increase the Federal Universities from 13 to 21 out of which nine Universities
of Technologies were established and located in the main geo-political zones.
For some scholars, the Nigerian educational system has been a failure. They
claim that the theoretical frame under which these programmes were
cultivated was perfect on paper but the government lacked the will, the ways
and the materials to see them through. At least two reasons have been put
forward by them. According to G.N. U Uzoigwe (1989), “one of the dominant
factors that slows down the growth and productivity of the Nigerian
education system is the persistent conflict between foreign intellectual
traditions and the African tradition. The result is that the educated Nigerian
is thrown into the morass of moral and intellectual confusion. He has neither
assimilated the Christian or Islamic traditions fully nor abandoned the
Nigerian varied traditions. According to the scholars of the “Yes” answer, one
of the major reasons for the failure of the Nigeria Education system is that of
the “Nigerian factors”. It is unfortunate that many of those who established
the Nigerian educational facilities did it for monetary purpose. The end-use
of these facilities had never been their intention. They were concerned only
with accruable monetary rewards through fat contract settlements. The
consequences nowadays are the production of graduates who carry
certificates without the knowledge. They constitute a great danger to the
society. Indeed, they have acquired nothing and they have nothing to lose.
As seen earlier, it is not easy to say with accuracy the exact period when the
standard of education started to decline in Nigeria. It is also obvious that
there have been some successes and failures. Since failure seems to be
higher than successes, my aim in this section is to see what to do about it.
These following are some policies the Nigerian education system needs to
pursue:
· Private schools should regain their autonomy
· Government-owned schools should be privatized
· The government should content itself solely with education policy making
· Government policies must be made to ensure that the well-known
paradigms for measuring school standards are maintained.
· Government should carry out a clean inventory of existing and private
schools with the view to separating the chaffs from the seeds.
MORAL OBLIGATION OF CITIZENS IN THE SOCIETY
Moral obligations are duties or responsibilities someone feels honoured and
bound to perform because of personal beliefs and values. This concept is
explored in fields like philosophy, ethics, and psychology, where people are
interested in the origins of human behaviour and the roots of the decision
making process. Some scholars suggest that such obligations are the result
of external factors and pressures on the individual, while others feel they are
internal, and some think a mix of both is involved.
Meaning of obligation and citizenship
1. Obligations are the responsibilities that the citizens most have or do
note only to the state, but also to themselves for effective functioning of his
or her country. The rights of the citizens go with the responsibilities, that is,
to say, wherever there is right there is a corresponding duty attach to it. This
therefore, implies that every right or privileges involves responsibility on the
part of the citizens. Obligations are like duties expected from citizens,
though obligations are not impose by law; they are the expectation dictated
by conscience to contribute immensely or positively to the development of
community, state or nation in general. A common example of moral
obligation is the act of charity. Generally, people are not legally required to
give charities but they may feel a personal obligation to do so because they
believe it is the right things to do.
2. Citizen is an individual that has full political and legal rights in a state. It
is a person that belongs to and gives his loyalty to a particular country and
expects security and protection from the country. The negative attitudes and
conduct of some Nigerians have continued to pose serious problems to the
nation’s march towards industrial and technological development. The
country is now faced with the problems of cultism, drug abuse, examination
misconduct, armed robbery, sexual laxity, arson and so on. Every individual
has a role to play in a society. Whether each member gets more or less than
he/she contributes depends on the way the society is organized and one’s
place in it. It is not difficult to point out the moral obligations of the citizens
to the government. With the emergence of modern
state, virtually all rights which were prevalent in Europe in the 19th Century
were lost and only obligations were obvious. Thus, the gradual and painful
struggle for freedom was concentrated on identifying and enumerating the
rights, and not the moral obligations. The cumulative result is that citizens of
today are keenly aware of their rights and are quick to assert them, but are
sadly lacking in the knowledge of their own side of the social contract: their
duties as citizens.

The Pattern of Citizenship Acquisition

Citizenship can be acquired through the following ways:
1. Citizenship by Birth: When one is born into a country of which both
parents are members, automatically one becomes a member of that country.
2. Citizenship by Registration: A person can become a citizen of another
country by registration by going through the guidelines stipulated by the law
of the land. For example, in Nigeria any woman who is married to a Nigerian,
those born outside Nigeria but whose grandparents are Nigerians and any
person born outside Nigeriabut whose parents are Nigerians can apply for
citizenship through registration. This, however, is predicated on
government’s approval of such an application.
3. Citizenship by Naturalization: One can become a citizen of another
country through naturalization. Before this can happen, there are certain
conditions that one must have fulfilled in that country before applying to
naturalize.
4. Honorary Citizenship: The government of a country can honour
distinguished eminent personalities with the rights of citizenship.

The Role of Citizens In Nigeria

1. The Duty of Political Participation
Some philosophers believe that the highest duty of a citizen is that of
political participation, for this is what will preserve political rights and keep
the system going. If the citizens refuse to participate, or leave everything in
the hands of a law, then they are giving up their rights, and also slowly killing
the system. For instance, in democracy, it is the duty of the citizens to
register as voters, and also to come out and vote on Election Day.
Furthermore, it is their duty to scrutinize the party manifestoes and
programmes, and also the personality of the candidates. It is also their duty
to monitor the performance of their elected representatives and apply
sanctions where necessary. Failure to do this will turn the system into a joke.
Political participation can go beyond this and extend to actual formation of
parties and standing for elections. Clearly, therefore, the right of political
freedom goes with the duty of political participation.
2. The Duty of Economic Productivity
Every citizen has the duty to be economically productive within his/her
ability. The wealth and prosperity enjoyed by any country depends on the
productivity of the population. This wealth is also the main determinant of
what the government can do for the citizenry. Yet, the total productivity of
the population is made up of the industrial contributions of citizens. Now in
any country, there is a sizeable proportion of the population that is not
productive. This includes the very young, the old, the infirm and the
unemployed. All of them must eat, clothe and get medical care and shelter.
The burden for all these rests on the shoulders of those who are productive.
They must provide for themselves and for the others, either directly or
indirectly. Thus it is the duty of all who are within the productive bracket to
produce to the maximum of their ability. It is their duty to make the effort to
find something to do, and not to become a burden upon others. Sometimes
they may be idle through no fault of their own, but the important thing is to
make a genuine effort to be productive.

3. The Duty to Pay Tax

In Nigeria today, taxes form only a minute proportion of government
revenue. Even within direct taxation such as import tariffs and VAT, the total
amount realized is small compared to the scale of government expenditure.
Certainly, the total contribution of taxes to the revenue of Federal, State and
Local Governments is less than five percent (5%). This is not a normal
situation. This state of affairs has been created by the large amount of
revenue accruing from the petroleum sector. In a normal situation, all or
most of government revenue comes from taxes. Indeed, before the oil boom,
this was the situation in Nigeria. It has, therefore, always been considered
that the payment of taxes is one of the most important duties of the citizens.
It is also the main base of their freedom and the justification of their
rights .Tax evaders are regarded as parasites who enjoy benefits at the
expense of others than the contributors.
4. The Duty to be Responsible
This involves a lot of things, ranging from leading a good and exemplary life,
sending children to school to prepare them for serving the country, being
honest in whatever capacity people find themselves, defending the nation’s
good name in words and deeds. These are normal duties, the discharge of
which depends on one’s upbringing, perception and conscience.
5. Sundry Duties
Apart from the specific duties enumerated above and others that have not
been mentioned due to lack of space, there are duties that may arise from
time to time, and others that are too general to draw special attention. For
instance, it is the duty of citizens to give evidence in cases where they have
information. It is also a matter of duty to inform the relevant authorities
whenever one becomes aware of criminal activities or the activities of spies
and soon. Similarly, it is a duty to cooperate with authorities in the
prevention and detection of crimes, and in the implementation of national
policies. In times of war, it is the duty of citizens to join the fighting forces
whenever they are called upon to do so, and also to help the national pride
in all ways possible. All these are sundry duties which a citizen has in his
country. The knowledge of the right and duties of citizens is so important
that it should be made a compulsory part of all school curriculums. A nation
in which the citizens are ignorant of their rights and duties cannot be
expected to make much progress. Therefore, it has to become one of the
important functions of government and nongovernmental organizations to
try and embark on enlightenment campaigns aimed at educating the people
on their rights and duties. All too often, non-governmental organizations
concentrate on defending the people’s rights. This is not bad, but it is not
good enough. The people should also be mobilized to perform their duties.
Indeed, it is when they perform their duties well that they will find that the
authorities are compelled to respect their rights. The high level of illiteracy
and ignorance in Nigeria is largely responsible for our ignorance of our rights
and duties as citizens. The present drive for formal and non-formal education
should, therefore, continue to be pursued with great vigour so as to address
the situation. Moreover, the following are also some of the voluntary duties
of Nigerian citizens:
1. Helps in exposing crimes and criminal activities.
2. Participate in community and communal efforts
3. Respect for elders and sympathy for both physically and mentally
challenged citizens.
4. Non-interference in other people business.
5. Voluntary participation in community work and other social services such
as:
a. Community development
b. Road Safety
c. First aid
d. Helping accident victims
e. Protection of life and property etc.
The Right of Nigerian Citizens
1. Right to life
2. Right to dignity of human persons
3. Right to personal liberty
4. Right to fair hearing
5. Right to education
6. Right to freedom of movement
7. Right to private family life
8. Right to freedoms of speech/opinion
9. Right to vote and be voted for during election

THE RE-ORIENTATION OF OUR MORAL AND NATIONAL VALUES

The policy of national ethics provided that citizens should be disciplined,
patriotic, self reliant, and tolerant. They must also be able to show respect
for dignity of labour and social justice. Nigerians are by this policy enjoined
to abide by the demands of their duties in order to attain the national goals
and objectives. Perhaps, it is the need to strengthen this state policy that
made Alhaji Shehu Shagari, Nigeria’s President in the Second Republic to
come out with what he called “ethical revolution”. Similarly, Major General
Muhammad Buhari’s regime also waged ‘War against Indiscipline’. Similar
programmes were introduced later by subsequent governments, all of which
were aimed at bringing about some form of sanity and discipline to our
corrupt and undisciplined society.
Moral Orientation and National Values
Lack of tolerance, respect for elders, patriotism, and social justice are still
prevalent in Nigeria. Even then, there is still room for correcting this
behaviour. What Nigerians need to do is to change their attitudes? In
particular, the formula of state policies and implementers should start the
battle by adhering strictly to what they put on paper. In fact, members of the
National Assembly (the Senate and House of Representatives) ought to be
objective and firm in their policy formulations. The Presidency and all
agencies and parastatals under it should have a human face and be patriotic
in the implementations of national policies and programmes. The judiciary,
as a matter of urgency, be reorganized and members re-oriented in the
areas of human dignity and feelings. Above all, every Nigerian must wake up
and answer the call for patriotism and nationalism. We have to accept the
slogan, “Nigeria is our country and we must do all to make it survive” We
must be seen to be fair and just in our dealings with government, friends,
leaders, relatives, enemies, neighbours etc. In fact, justice and fair play are
the fundamental laws of nature. These are the birth rights of every citizen in
Nigeria, whether rich or poor, black or white. When exercising powers as
President of Student Union Government or as President of the country, we
must allow justice and fair play to reign supreme. The last hope of the
oppressed is justice. Justice must not only be seen to be done, it must be
done, as justice delayed is justice denied. Therefore, if you want social
justice do social justice to others. There is the need for all Nigerians to
respect one another and those in authority. All Nigerians should respect laws
of the land, institutions, organizations etc. It should be noted that no
leadership can administer successfully in a confused and chaotic situation.
And no citizen will enjoy his freedom if government fails to enforce laws.
Besides, Nigerians should be accountable for their actions and inactions.
Leaders should adhere to the principles of social justice and accountability.
For a nation to prosper and be economically viable, it must have patriotic,
disciplined and dedicated citizens. We must tolerate one another in all areas
especially our customs, traditions etc. Nigerians must be seen to be honest
and dedicated to their duties. In fact, honesty is the best policy. Any person
with honesty of purpose shall last, triumph, and succeed in all his
endeavours. A society cannot survive if its citizens are dishonest in all their
dealings. Loyal service and honesty require self sacrifice, self-dedication and
discipline.

NEGATIVE CONDUCTS AND ATTITUDES

From all perspectives, the negative conducts and attitude of some Nigerians
has continued to pose some serious threat to national unity and the security
of individuals. This problem has perhaps explained the reasons why the
Nigerian society is lacking proper organization as well as good moral values
and behaviour. It is also morally to point out that the negative conducts and
attitudes has continued to generate matter of serious concern because of its
effects on developmental aspect and security challenges in the country.
Factors influencing Negative Conducts and Attitudes
Drug Abuse: drug abuse is a public health problem that affects almost
every community and family in some ways. Each year drug abuse causes
millions of serious illness or injuries among Nigerians. An abused drug
includes.
i. Amphetamines
ii. Anabolic steroids
iii. Club drugs
iv. Cocaine
v. Heroin
vi. Inhalants
vii. Marijuana
viii. Prescription drugs etc.
The use of these drugs is common among youths in Nigeria most especially
youths from broken home, youths that lack proper socialization and good
parental care and control cane asily fall into such behaviour. And the use of
these drugs can lead people to lack of respect, criminality, Delinquency,
psychological disorder and constraints among others.
Examination Mal practice: examination malpractice shall be defined as all
forms of cheating which directly or indirectly falsify the ability of the students
outside an examination hall and any involvement in all illegal examination
related offences within and outside the examination hall.
As a result of examination malpractice, the educational sector in Nigeria is
characterized by serious crises and contradiction because the output is
qualitatively poor and quantitatively high. And this process of cheating in
examination destroys the relationship between teachers and students on
which the good moral teaching depends. Much emphasis and concentration
was also given to paper qualification without having much regards to the
skills obtained.

Factors Encouraging Examination Malpractice

The following are some of the factors that encourage examination
malpractice:
i. Lack of arrangement for examination
ii. Coping from one another or exchanging questions or answer sheet.
iii. Bringing in prepared answers, coping from textbooks, notebooks,
laboratory specimens or other instructional aides smuggled into the
examination hall.
iv. Overcrowding in the examination hall.
v. Collaboration with an invigilator or lecturer where it involves the lecturer
providing written or oral answers to students in the examination hall.
vi. Poor School facilities.
vii. Oral written or communication between or among students
viii. Entering into the examination hall with handset or mobile phone.
ix. Refusal to stop writing at the end of the examination
x. Manipulation of registration forms or identification number in order to sit
for an examination for which the student is not qualified.
Consequences of Examination Malpractice
i. It leads to Poor Manpower
ii. It lead to loss of credibility and the certificate obtained will not be a
reflection of knowledge and competent.
iii It discourage students from studying or reading hard for their
examinations
iv. It leads to production of unqualified and unprofessional graduates
trainees.
Bribery and Corruption: Bribery and corruption has long being perceived
as a major obstacles for socio economic development distorting national and
international economic relation of every country. Many Nigerian’s involve in
bribery and corruption and it has become a matter of serious and great
concern because the act of bribing and corruption has become a process in
which both the giver and the receive rare guilty of acts.
Effects of Bribery and Corruption
1. It undermines the rule of law
2. It involve loss of resource and unwanted criminality
3. It poses a serious threat to economic development of the country.
4. It undermines the legitimacy of government.
Political Thuggery: political thuggery and electoral manipulation have
become so prevalent in democratic dispensation in Nigeria. The social,
political and economic power of those involved made it both national and
international concern. These categories of people who possess these powers
are the potential ruling elites, and their activities have been institutionalized
to the point of subverting the constitution for their selfish and economic gain.
According to Gboyega (2004) observed that political godfathers are design to
go against the law of the land including the constitution. They and their
thugs can carry arms without hindrance. They are entitled to police escorts
and are immune to the crime of abduction, harassment, and vandalism. Most
of these thugs are recruited and trained for various political purposes such
as intimidation, harassment, violence, assassination and rigging during
election or even snatching of ballot boxes. Some of them are placed under
salaries with remuneration. Similarly, some of them are employed as special
advisers, special assistants, while those who do not fit in for the positions are
possibly made as contractors to the government at federal, state or local
government area.
Indecent Dressing: Indecent dressing is a social malady that cuts across
many countries in the world. Indecent appearance is highly pronounced in
higher learning in Nigerian most especially female youths in Nigeria
institutions. There is hardly any higher institution of learning in this country
that is free from this nauseating problem. The way students on campuses
dress particularly the females, they dress seductively leaves much to be
desired. What the girls call skirts that they wear is just “one inch” longer
than their inner wears. When they ‘put on such dresses, they struggle to sit
down , finding difficulty in climbing machines or any long property or
materials, finding difficulty in crossing gutters, as well as picking anything
from the ground. Apart from the skimpy and tight fitting nature of dresses,
they are again transparent; revealing certain parts of their bodies that under
normal dressing ought to be hidden away from the glare of people. In the
case of boys, their pattern of dress is different. It make them to look so dirty
and very unattractive with un kept hair and dirty jeans having pocket of hole
deliberately created around the knees and lower part of the trousers allowed
to flow on the ground because they go through their heals into their legs as
socks.
However, the use of Western culture has reinforced moral laxity in our
society. It is believe that some youth see indecent dressing as a fashion, but
in a real sense, it is an abuse of morality because it reduces the personality
and respect of an individual. The society becomes morally bankrupt
especially with the emergence of internet where some channels offer free
pornographic sites and to some channels in the DSTV also teaches immoral
fashion dressing.
Criminal Activities: by the way of definition, crime is the violation of norms
and values thought to threaten a society. Crime is the universal phenomenon
and differs only in degree among the various nation of the world. The
Nigerian crime problem is multidimensional and is capable of undermining its
corporate existence as well as efforts towards sustainable development. It is
believe that desire and opportunity makes people to commit crime, and it
also varies from frequency duration, preponderance, propinquity and priority.
Sociologist, Durkheim pointed out that where ever there is crime there must
be punishment. Because punishment according to him is an act of
vengeance and what are avenge is what criminal expect as outrage of
morality. The socialization process prevent most deviant behaviour those
who are interested in moral norms of society cannot crime because self-
conscience will not permit them to commit crime only the associate
individual feel the moral classification of criminology.
Causes of Crime
1. Poor socialization and poverty
2. Lack of education and over population
3. Unemployment among youths and racism
4. Broken Homes
5. Drug addictions and violence.
Solutions to Crime
1. Provide job opportunity
2. Improve standard of living and proper socialization should be made
available in the society
3. Enough access to education and quality life
4. Need for adequate skills in training for business and other hand work
should be made available in the society.
Cultism: Some Nigerians are members of secret cults. General Yakubu
Gowon, onetime Nigeria’s Head of State, on one occasion remarked that
cultism in our tertiary institutions is a threat to peace and national security
(Gowon, 1998). There are many cases of cultism in Nigerian higher
institutions. We should be aware that cultism, is an evil association engaged
in negative activities that can destroy one’s career and can also ruin one’s
life. Not only that, cultism can be a stumbling block to Nigeria’s quest for
peace and prosperity. Besides, the idea of a secret cult is falsehood and
avant-garde.
NIGERIAN LEGAL SYSTEM
Justice and Social Justice
Justice is not a simple word; it is a way of life as well. In English, for instance,
the word “justice” is mostly limited to its judicial and administrative
contexts, while in ancient Greece “justice” was something more than that.
Apart from the administrative and the judicial usages, justice has an ethical
meaning as well (Orieso, 1996: 29). For Greek philosophers and thinkers,
justice was equated with morality. For Socrates and especially Plato, justice
is a part of human virtue. It made man to be good. Accordingly, to Plato,
justice was one of the virtues apart from wisdom, courage and temperance
that made a good individual. In Plato’s thought, justice was designed for the
amicable relationship of man in society. Consequently, “social justice” was
seen as restraint on the individual’s capacities from doing things that lacked
virtue or that made him a bad person. Simply put, social justice was the
quality which men possessed that enabled them to enter into potential
relation with each other. You should also remember that the term “social
justice” was synonymous with “human rights.”
Individual and Social Justice in Nigeria
Every country or nation is an aggregation of individuals. But the individual,
being the sole creative and the prime mover in all activities, is considered a
vital key to human development. Since the end result of every country or
nation is general harmony, then, the individual must impose some degree of
restraint on himself for the country to achieve the needed harmony. He must
allow his ability to be regulated by law. In Plato’s understanding, for
instance, the rules that make society possible also make men good. Social
justice is the cornerstone of other virtues of the state. Without social justice
the state cannot be harmonious. You should know that in Nigeria there is yet
no general harmony. There is no check and balance between the individual
and the State. In the Nigerian context, some conditions need to be fulfilled:-
· Full employment for all citizens;
· A national minimum wage compatible with descent living and economic
well-Being;
· Free education at all levels;
· Modernization of agriculture;
· Rapid industrialization;
· Improvement in infrastructural facilities;
· A comprehensive social insurance scheme; and etc.
It is only under these conditions that the individual as the sole creative and
propelling force of development could be optimized.

DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL JUSTICE IN NIGERIA

The concept of “development” does not have a universal definition. Each
scholar defines it according to his school of thought. In this section
development will refer to a change, or a transformation into a better state. In
this way, you see that development is a process. As stated earlier, social
justice and human rights are interrelated. The question of development and
human rights are being tackled both at the international and national levels.
At the international level, with the adoption of the African Charter, there is
now an African perspective to human rights or social justice. But you should
also know that the African Charter or UN Commission on Human Rights
cannot effectively enforce measures against human rights violations. It is
only at the national level that this can be effectively done. Every nation must
consider the right to development as an inalienable human right. And so, the
violation of the right to development must be considered as a serious social
injustice. Besides, you should always remember that for now, the African
continent has the highest concentration of the least developed nations of the
world. This is much disturbing as well as challenging.
Historically, the problem of social justice in Nigeria can be traced back to the
first amalgamation of 1914. It is recorded that since that period, the Nigerian
experience with social justice has never been a pleasant one at all. Nigerian
people have been suffering from oppression and repression ever since. The
post-independence era represents another period. You should know that
even after the official handover of power in 1960 social injustice did not stop
in Nigeria. Till date, the question of social injustice is so glaring because
Nigeria as a country is still characterized by:
· Unbalanced units of the federation;
· Gross incapacity and utter lack of honesty and comprehension on the part
of those who direct the affairs of the Federal Government;
· Tenacity of power, that is, an over-powering and obsessive desire on the
part of our political leaders to stick indefinitely to public office by all means,
fair or foul;.
· Promulgation of unjust laws by undemocratic regimes;
· Travesty on the rights of individuals, For example, unnecessary detention of
members of opposition groups without trials;
· Discrimination in allocation of resources amongst the states of the
Federation;
· Inequality of rights and privileges;
· High degree of corruption, high spate of poverty, unemployment, and so on.
However, you should also know that social injustice is not a permanent
condition; it cannot reign forever. Therefore, it is possible to reverse the
policy of “social injustice” which seems to be a “permanent” feature in
Nigeria. This can be done only and only if the Nigerian government is ready
to listen to all shades of opinion because VoxpopuliVoxdei, i.e. the people’s
voice is God’s voice as well.