Lecture Note: Week 2: Nigerian History, Culture and Art up to 1800 (Other

Minority Ethnic Groups)

GST: 112
Nigerian peoples and culture

The Igbo Ethnic Group

The Igbo people constitute one of Nigeria's major ethnic groups, predominantly
inhabiting the southeastern region of the country across states like Abia, Anambra,
Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo (Uchendu, 1965). Their social organization is notably
democratic and egalitarian, lacking centralized authority structures that characterize
many other African societies. Instead, decisions traditionally emerge through
consensus-building in village assemblies, with titled elders and age-grades sharing
governance responsibilities (Afigbo, 1981).
Marriage among the Igbo involves elaborate ceremonies including bride-price
negotiations, wine-carrying rituals, and community celebrations. Polygyny was
historically practiced, though monogamy has become increasingly common (Basden,
2006). Their cuisine centers around yam, cassava, and cocoyam, with signature dishes
including ofe akwu (palm nut soup) and ji mmiri (pounded yam) (Onwuejeogwu,
1981).
The New Yam Festival (Iriji) stands as their most significant cultural celebration,
marking the harvest season with masquerade performances, music, and communal
feasting (Achebe, 1958). Igbo craftspeople excel in woodcarving, bronze-casting, and
textile production, with the intricate uli body painting tradition representing spiritual
symbolism (Willis, 1998).
Religious practices traditionally centered around numerous deities and spirits, with
the Ala (earth goddess) being particularly revered. Diviners and ritual specialists
mediate between communities and spiritual forces (Isichei, 1976). Economically, the
Igbo practiced mixed farming supplemented by specialized crafts and robust trading
networks that predated European contact (Equiano, 1789).
The Arochukwu oracle historically wielded major influence across Igboland, serving
judicial, religious, and political functions until British colonial intervention

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diminished its authority in the early 20th century (Dike & Ekejiuba, 1990). The Igbo
traditional dress includes the "Isi Agu" (lion head) patterned fabric for ceremonial wear. Men don

flowing jumpers with wrapped cloth over one shoulder, complemented by coral beads and red

caps for titled men. Women wear two-piece wrapper sets with elaborate headgear and jewelry.

The Tiv Ethnic Group

The Tiv people primarily inhabit Benue State in Nigeria's Middle Belt region, with
significant populations also found in neighboring Taraba and Nasarawa states
(Bohannan, 1954). Numbering approximately 7 million, they constitute Nigeria's
fourth-largest ethnic group (Ayoade, 2019). Their territory borders the Jukun to the
east, Idoma to the south, Igala to the southwest, and various Hausa-Fulani groups to
the north (Makar, 1994).
Historically, the Tiv demonstrated remarkable resistance against northern Islamic
expansion, successfully preventing the Sokoto Caliphate's southward advance during
the 19th century jihad movements (Tseayo, 1975). Their warrior tradition and
decentralized political structure made conquest difficult, preserving their cultural and
religious autonomy (Avav & Myegba, 1992).
The Tiv homeland spans approximately 30,000 square kilometers, divided by two
major rivers the Benue and Katsina-Ala which create natural boundaries and fertile
floodplains (Bohannan & Bohannan, 1968). The territory encompasses two distinct
vegetation zones: the southern guinea savannah and the northern sub-Sudan savannah
(Gbenda, 2005).
Agriculture forms their primary economic activity, with yam cultivation holding
particular cultural significance alongside sorghum, millet, and cassava production
(Hagher, 2015). Secondary economic pursuits include fishing along the riverine areas,
hunting, and craft production including pottery and weaving (Bohannan, 1968).
Commercial fruit production has gained importance in recent decades, with citrus,
mango, and cashew cultivation contributing significantly to household incomes and
regional trade networks (Agber et al., 2013). The Tiv people are known for their
distinctive "Anger" cloth, with black and white geometric patterns. Men traditionally

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wear a tunic with embroidered necklines over trousers, while women wear wrapped
skirts with matching blouses and headties. The "Gbagir" cap is a male status symbol.
The Jukun Ethnic Group
The Jukun ethnic group is located in the North-East geo-political zone of Nigeria.
They are found mainly in Taraba, Benue, Plateau, and Nasarawa states. They are
historically renowned for establishing the powerful Kwararafa Kingdom, one of pre-
colonial Nigeria's most significant political entities (Meek, 1931).
Kwararafa is the Hausa name given to the Jukun state, which was founded around the
9th century CE according to oral traditions, though some scholars place its origins in
the 13th century (Akinwumi, 2006). At its peak between the 16th and 18th centuries,
the Kwararafa Kingdom emerged as a formidable military power, conducting
successful raids against the Hausa states, Bornu Empire, and even threatening the
Songhai Empire's eastern territories (Isichei, 1997).
The Kwararafa Kingdom established several capitals throughout its history. The
original headquarters was likely at Biepi near modern Wukari, though the kingdom's
center shifted multiple times, including periods at Uka (near Pindiga) and eventually
settling at Wukari in present-day Taraba State (Atohinko, 2011).
When British colonial forces arrived in the late 19th century, they found the once-
mighty kingdom significantly diminished but strategically aligned with the Jukun
nobility, implementing indirect rule through traditional structures. The British
acknowledged the historical significance of the Jukun state, documenting its past
military prowess and extensive territorial control that had previously challenged the
Kanem-Bornu and Hausa states (Webster, 1993). Traditional Jukun dress features
hand-woven cotton fabric with intricate indigo dyeing. Royal attire includes elaborate
beaded crowns and regalia. Men wear loose-fitting tunics with trousers, while women
favor wrapped skirts with embroidered blouses. Ceremonial attire often incorporates
cowrie shells and brass ornaments.
The Ijaw (Ijo) Ethnic Group
The Ijaw (Ijo) constitute Nigeria's ethnic group, predominantly inhabiting the Niger
Delta region. Their origins remain contested among scholars, with some linguistic

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evidence suggesting autochthonous development within the Niger Delta itself rather
than migration from elsewhere (Alagoa, 1972).
During the Atlantic slave trade era, noteworthy population movements occurred as
Ijaw communities sought refuge from coastal raids, with many relocating deeper into
the mangrove forests and creeks (Dike, 1956). The Kingdom of Bonny, originally
called "Okoloama" (town full of birds), emerged as a prominent Ijaw polity. Its
foundation is attributed to Alagbariye, who established the settlement on what was
initially an uninhabited island sanctuary (Alagoa, 1971).
While some traditions suggest Benin origins for certain Ijaw subgroups,
archaeological and linguistic evidence increasingly supports the theory that the Ijaw
developed in situ within the Niger Delta over millennia (Jones, 1963). This
perspective challenges earlier colonial-era assumptions about necessary migration
from "civilization centers" and recognizes the delta's capacity to sustain indigenous
cultural development (Owonaro, 1949; Horton, 1997). Ijaw traditional clothing
features hand-woven cotton with intricate patterns. Men wear wrapper cloths around
their waist with sleeveless tops, while women don double wrappers with fitted
blouses. Ceremonial attire incorporates beads, shells, and raffia accessories, reflecting
their riverine culture.
The Ibibio Ethnic Group
The Ibibio people primarily inhabit South-south Nigeria Akwa Ibom State, (Essien,
1990). Often erroneously conflated with the Efik, they actually represent distinct
though related ethnic identities that share linguistic and cultural similarities (Aye,
1967).

The Ibibio consist of six major subgroups: the Ibibio proper, Annang, Enyong, Eket,
Riverai, and Andoni-Ibeno, each with distinctive dialectal and cultural variations
(Ukpong, 2007). The Efik, originally from the Ibibio heartland of ancient Ibom,
migrated first to Uruan and subsequently to Creek Town (Ofiong Eyo) along the Cross
River, establishing major settlements at Ikpaene before their final migration (Latham,

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1973).
Archaeological evidence suggests early contact between Efik and Igbo communities
through established trade networks that predated European arrival, with exchanges of
palm products, seafood, and crafts (Ekpo, 1982). These interactions influenced both
groups' cultural development while maintaining their distinct identities.
Economically, the Ibibio traditionally engaged in farming, fishing, and trading, with
women engage in local commerce (Noah, 1980). The Ibibio language belongs to the
Lower Cross group of the Niger-Congo language family and exhibits significant
dialectal variation across its subgroups despite maintaining mutual intelligibility
(Essien, 2001). Ibibio traditional dress includes hand-woven Ukara cloth with nsibidi
symbols. Men wear wrapper cloths with shirts and ceremonial caps, while women don
double wrappers with decorated blouses and elaborate headties. Ceremonial attire
features extensive beadwork, particularly for royalty and masquerade participants.

The Itsekiri Ethnic Group

The Itsekiri live in present Edo State, they inhabit the Warri area of Delta State in
Nigeria's Niger Delta region, occupying riverine settlements along the Benin River,
Escravos River, and Forcados River (Ikime, 1969). They established themselves as
formidable traders, serving as vital middlemen between European merchants and
interior communities during the pre-colonial era, trading palm oil, slaves, among
others and later pet (Lloyd, 1957).
The Itsekiri language, though classified within the Yoruboid branch of Niger-Congo
languages, exhibits substantial influence from Edo and Portuguese, reflecting their
historical interactions (Williamson & Blench, 2000). Their cultural practices and royal
traditions show strong Benin influences, particularly in court protocols and regalia
(Omoneukanrin, 1942).
Origins of the Itsekiri remain contested among scholars. Some traditions trace their
descent from Ode in Ijebuland, while others emphasize Benin origins (Moore, 1970).
However, indigenous accounts insist they have always occupied their current territory,

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descending from Uma Ale, the man called Itsekiri who granted land to Ginua, a Benin
prince, to establish his capital (Ayomike, 1988).
This settlement, Ode-Itsekiri (Big Warri), became the capital of the Warri Kingdom,
with other major settlements including Ugborodo, Omadino, and Koko developing as
important trading outposts (Ekeh, 2007). Itsekiri traditional clothing shows Benin and
Portuguese influences. Men wear colorful wrapper cloths with flowing agbada-style
tops and coral beaded necklaces. Women don elegant wrapper sets with fitted blouses,
accessorized with coral beads and gold ornaments. Royal attire includes distinctive
beaded crowns and staffs.