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3. REPRODUCTION IN
1
PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 2 3

 Reproduction.-This is the process 3. It brings about formation of Types of reproduction. Disadvantages of asexual reproduction. B. Sexual reproduction- it Disadvantages of sexual
by which organisms give rise to Asexual reproduction- in this type an The undesirable qualities can be passed involves the fusion of male and reproduction.
seeds, spores and larvae which A.
already existing individual develops into a
i.
on to the offspring. female gametes (reproductive
offspring of their kind/species. reduce intra specific new free existing individual and does not 1. It takes a longtime.
involve the fusion ofmale and female ii. There is no genetic variation hence cells) to form a zygote
Importance of reproduction. competition. gametes. offspringmay not be able to withstand (fertilized egg). 2. Harmful characteristics can be
changing environmental conditions. passed from parents to offspring.
Procreation- It increases the Advantages of asexual reproduction. Faster growth and development may • The fusion of male and female
1. 4. It is involved in development iii.
Fewer offspring are produced at a
number of organisms in a species.
i. Good/ favorablequalities/ characteristics result in overcrowding and competition gametes is called fertilization. 3.
of resistant stages in the of the parent are retained. where only a few members survive. time.
Advantages of sexual
2. Quality improvement- It increases lifecycle of some organisms. ii. Plants mature faster/ short life cycle/
faster reproduction.
iv. It reduces the strength and vigour
gradually/ there is no hybrid vigor; reproduction. 4. It involves two organisms that
genetic variety and therefore helps must mate.
iii. It does not depend on two parents/ it does 1. It leads to variation due to
the species to adapt to changing not depend on pollination, fertilization and crossing over which leads to
seed and fruit dispersal.
environmental conditions. hybrid vigor and better
iv. It exploits the parental favorable adaptationsof organisms to the
conditions.
environment.
v. There is large store of food supply.
2. Introduction of useful traits/
characteristics.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

CELL DIVISION.
4 5 6

 This refers to the division or  In the body/somatic cells chromosomes Sister chromatids Types of cell division Stages of mitosis
multiplication of the cells. Cell division occur in pairs hence called homologous
leads to growth and formation of chromosomes (which have the same shape Homologous chromosomes  There are two types of cell division 1. Interphase (I)
reproductive cells/gametes. and size. namely: 2. Prophase (P)
 The cell is able to do all these because it  Along the length of the chromatid there are A. Mitosis.
contains chromosomes found within structures called genes. 3. Metaphase (M)
the nucleus.  Genes are found in the protein molecules B. Meiosis. 4. Anaphase (A)
CHROMOSOMES. called DNA (deoxy ribonucleic acid)
 They are thread like structures found in  Chromosomes are able to form exact copies 5. Telophase (T)
the nucleus of animal and plant cells. of [Link] is called duplication A. MITOSIS.
 It is made up of two parallel strands  There are two types of cells in the human  This is the process in which a cell
called chromatids. body, namely: divides into two daughter cell each
 The two chromatids (pair of chromatids) i. Body/somatic cells. Centromere having the same number of
are connected at a point called ii. Reproductive cells/gametes. chromosomes as parent cell.
centromere.
 It takes place in somatic/body cells.

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Adaptations of insect pollinated 5. Anthers produce pollen grains

(entomophilous) flowers. which are large, spiky/ sticky to
attach/ stick to the insect’s body.
1. The flowers are large, conspicuous
with brightly colored petals, 6. The stigmas are small, sticky and
inflorescence or bracts (modified occur inside the flower so that
leaf e.g. in bougainvillea) to attract pollen grains from the body of
insects. insect stick onto them.
2. They have nectary guides that direct 7. They have special shaped corolla
insects into nectaries which secrete tube to enable insects land.
nectar.
3. They are scented and produce nectar
to attract insects.
4. Anther are located inside the flowers
to ensure that they get into contact
with insect.

55 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 56 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSECT AND WIND POLLINATED

FLOWERS.
58 60

Adaptations of wind pollinated 4. Pollen grains are small, light and

(anemophilous) flowers e.g. maize. smooth and hence can easily be Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
1. The flowers are small with blown by air currents without
inconspicuouspetals,dull coloured sticking together. 1. Flowers are large with brightly 1. Flowers have dull petals.
bracts or inflorescence. 5. The pollen grains are dry so that colored petals/corolla. 2. They are unscented.
They lack nectaries and are not sweet they are easily picked up and They are usually scented.
2.
blown over greater distances by
2.
3. They do not produce nectar
scented, lacking the scent bait to They produce nectar.
attract insects. wind. 3.
4. They have large and feathery
Flowers are irregular in shape 4. They have small and sticky stigma stigma hanging outside the
3. Have stigma which are large, long, 6.
found inside the flower.
feathery and hang outside the flowers with male parts exposed for flower.
to increase the surface area for easy transfer of pollen grains by 5. Anthersare small and firmly 5. Anthers are large and loosely
trapping pollen grains in air. wind. attached to filament. attached to the filament.
7. Anthersare large and loosely 6. Fewer pollen grains are 6. Many pollen grains are produced.
attached to the filament so that produced.
the slightest air movement can 7. Pollen grains are small, smooth
7. Pollen grains are large, heavy and and light so that they float in air.
shake them to disperse the sticky so that they stick to insects.
pollen grains.
© Sam obare 59 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
25-Feb-21

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61 62 63

Features and mechanisms that 3. Protogny- this is a situation where the 5. Dioecism- plants have male and Fertilization in plants.
promote cross pollination/ hinder stigma matures earlier and is readyto female flowers on different plants
self pollination and fertilization. receive pollen grains before the anthers e.g. pawpaw plant.  Fertilization is the fusion of a male
1. Monoecism- plants have the male are ripe enough to shed the pollen 6. Heterostyly- this is where the nucleus and female nucleus to form a
and female flower parts at different grains e.g. maize. stigma is above the anthers so that zygote.
parts of the same plant e.g. maize 4. Self - sterility or incompatibility - pollen grains do not reach them.
 In the male gamete is contained in
plant. This is where pollen grains from the Ways in which plants promote self
anthers fail to germinate on the stigma the pollen grain produced in the
 There are risks of self pollination but pollination.
of the same plant e.g. maize. This anther while the female gamete (egg
they have natural mechanisms of 1. Having both male and female parts
ensures that self fertilization does not cell) is found in the ovules found
preventing self-pollination. on the same flower.
occur. within the embryo sac.
2. Protandry- this is a situation where 2. Anthers and stigma mature at the
the male parts/ stamens mature same time.  The synergids provide nourishment
earlier and anthers release pollen grains to the egg cell.
3. Flowers remain closed and open
before the stigma is mature enough to
after fertilization.
receive them e.g. in sunflower.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare
25-Feb-21
64 65

The process of fertilization in  As the pollen tube continues to  One male nucleus / one of the male Changes /events that take place after
flowering plants. grow downwards, the generative nuclei fuseswith the egg cell nucleus fertilization.
 Pollen grain lands and sticks onto the nucleus divides mitotically into two and forms the diploid zygote. The  The zygote undergoes mitotic division to
stigma. male gamete nuclei. other male gamete nucleus fuseswith from the embryo which differentiates into
 The surface of the stigma producesa  The pollen tube grows through the the two polar nuclei to form a the plumule (which grows to from a
sticky chemical substance which ovary wall, reaches the ovules and triploid endosperm nucleus. The shoot) and radicle (which grows to
stimulates the pollen grains to enters the embryo sac through the processis called double fertilization.
form a root).
germinate and form a pollen tube. micropyle.  The triploid primary nucleus
 At this stage, the tip of the pollen Roles/ functions of pollen tube undergoes mitosis to form endosperm Embryo sac
 The pollen tube grows down the style,
carrying with it the male gametes tube bursts open and the tube 1. It is a pathway through which male tissue for storage of food.
(tube nucleus and generative nucleus) nucleus disintegrates to release the gametes reach the embryo sac to enhance  The fertilized ovary develops into a fruit, the
and it gets nutrients from the two male nuclei which enter fertilization. ovarywall becomes the fruit wall (pericarp).
surrounding tissues. embryo sac.  The ovules develop into seeds.
2. It prevents other pollen grains from
 As the pollen tube germinates, the germinating/ developing into pollen  The integuments form the testa/s eed coat.
tube nucleus occupies aposition at the tubes hence preventing multiple  Style, stigma and stamens dry up and fall off.
tip of growing pollen tube while the fertilization.
generative nucleus follows behind the  The calyx persists or it may dry up and fall
tube nucleus. off.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 66 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 The style leaves a scar on the fruit wall.

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68 69

Study question.  Flower Q produced seedswhile P FRUITAND SEED FORMATION.  The integuments form a
did [Link] for the results. a) Development of the seed testa/seed coat which surround
 The diagram below represents an the cotyledons.
experimental set-up used by  The flower/plant is self  The diploid zygote undergoes
mitosis to form an embryo. The  The testa has a scar called hilum
students to investigate a certain sterile/not successfully self which is the point of attachment
process. pollinated.
embryo has three parts: plumule
(young shoot), radicle (young to the placenta
 The covering prevents root) and one or two cotyledons.  The embryo then completely
pollination in flower P while  The triploid primary endosperm separates from the endosperm by
nucleusundergoes mitosis to a membrane leaving an opening
flower Q received pollen grains called micropyle which allows
from other plants/ cross form the endosperm tissue.
entryof water into the seed.
pollination leading to  The ovule becomes a seed and the  It loses water, dries and hardens
fertilization. ovary becomes the fruit.
ready for dispersal.

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70 72

b) Development of fruit. Differences between a seed Study questions. 2. Name three structures
The ovary forms the fruit. and fruit. that wither off after

1. Name four changes that occur
 The ovary wall develops to form the 1. Aseed is covered by a in the flower after fertilization. fertilization.
pericarp which differentiates into testa/seed coat while a fruit is
epicarp/ exocarp,mesocarp and covered with pericarp.  Ovary form a fruit.
 Petals/ corolla.
endocarp. 2. Aseed has one scar/hilum  Ovule develops into a seed.
 Stamens (filament and
 Some fruits e.g. pineapples and bananas while a fruit has two scars anther).
develop without [Link] is (where it was attached to the  Ovary wall forms pericarp.
called parthenocarpy fruit stalk and style.  Style.
 Integuments form a seed
 Atrue fruit is formed from the ovary 3. Aseed is formed from ovule coat/ testa.
e.g. mangoes and beans. while the fruit is formed from
ovary.  Zygote forms embryo.
 Afalse fruit is formed when other
flower parts e.g. receptacle enlarges and  Primary endosperm nucleus
encloses the ovary or ovaries e.g. apple, develops into endosperm.
pineapple, straw berry.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 71

Coleorhiza
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a) Berry. b) Drupe.
73 74 75

CLASSIFICATION OFFRUITS. b) Drupe- Has thin epicarp,

 They are broadly classified as
fleshy and fibrous mesocarp,
succulent fruits and dry fruits. hard stony endocarp
enclosing a seed/ contain
1. SUCCULENT FRUITS- one seed for example
They are juicy/fleshy. They mangoes, coconut and
include: avocados.
a) Berry- Has fleshy/
succulent pericarp (epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp)
with many/ several seeds e.g.
tomatoes, oranges, mangoes,
bananas, pineapples, passion,
pumpkin, . Seed
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Types of dehiscent fruits.

76 77 78

2. DRY FRUITS- They have low b) Indehiscent fruits-They 1. Legumes/pod- Has two 2. Capsules- Has a dry pericarp and
moisture content. Theyare further do not split open and release lines of weaknesses/sutures dehisces along many lines of
classified into Dehiscent fruits and the seeds even if they are hence split and open into weaknesses/sutures e.g. Cotton,
Indehiscent fruits. dry. two halves e.g. beans, peas, Datura stramoniun, poppy.
a) Dehiscent fruits- They are crotalaria.
dry fruits that split open and
release seeds when mature.

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Types of indehiscent fruits

79 80 81

3. Schizocarp- A ripe fruit 1. Caryopsis- In this the 2. Nuts- A nut is one

breaks up into small one seed coat and the seeded fruit whose
seeded parts/fragments
pericarp are fused to pericarp is stony/hard
called mericarps e.g. castor
oil and desmodium. form the testa e.g. maize and separate from seed
grain wheat grain, rice coat e.g. cashew nuts.
grain e.t.c.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

82 83 84

3. Cypsela- It is one seeded PLACENTATION. 2. Basal placentation-

fruit where the seed is free  This is the arrangement of In this the placenta is
from the pericarp e.g. Black seeds/ovules in the formed at the base of
jack (Bidenspilosa). ovary/seed. the ovary and seeds
 It is produced by many attached to it e.g. in
Types of placentation.
composite flowers. sunflower.
1. Marginal placentation-
 The calyx persists in form of The placenta appears as one
spines or hairs that help in ridge/ridge and the
animal dispersal. seeds/ovules are arranged in
one row e.g. beans in a pod.

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85 86 87

3. Parietal placentation- 4. Axial/ axile placentation- In this 5. Free placentation- In

Seeds are attached to the the seeds/ovules are attached to the
placenta located at the centre e.g. this, seeds/ovules are
placenta on the periphery
tomatoes, oranges, lemons, banana. almost free in the fruit
of the fruit wall e.g.
pawpaw, passion fruits. e.g. tomatoes.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Examples of seeds dispersed by wind.

88 89 90

FRUITAND SEED DISPERSAL. Methods of fruit and seed A. Wind dispersal. 2. Seeds and fruits are small and light
dispersal. In this, wind acts as an agent of fruit (e.g. Nandi flame seed) to be easily
 Dispersal is the process by which seeds 
carried by air currents.
and fruits are spread from parent plant to a  They include: and seed dispersal.
new location. Adaptations of seeds and fruits to 3. Some fruits have open/perforated
A. Wind dispersal. capsules attached on long stalks
Advantages of dispersal. wind dispersal.
B. Water dispersal. which are swayed by wind g. Milk weed seed
1. Some seeds have developed hairy scattering the seeds (e.g. sycamore
i. It prevents overcrowding that leads to Animal dispersal. structures, feather-like
C. seeds).
competition for light, water,space etc. projections (e.g. cotton seed),
D. Self mechanism/self
ii. It ensures that seeds reach new wing-like structures(e.g.
explosive mechanism. Jacarandaseed,Nandi flame
environments which may be suitable for
seed) which increase their
their growth.
surface area to be carried away
Disadvantages of dispersal. by wind/ to be blown about by
 Some seeds/fruits may be dispersed to wind. h. Sycamore seed
areas unsuitable for germination.
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© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Examples of fruits/seeds dispersed by animals.

91 92 93

B. ANIMAL DISPERSAL- 4. Some fruits are brightly colored (e.g. C. WATER DISPERSAL- 3. Some fruits (e.g. water lily)
 Animals are used as agents of dispersal. tomatoes) to attract/be easily seen by  Water acts as an agent of produce seeds whose seed
animals. dispersal. coats trap air bubbles making
Adaptations of fruits/seeds to animal them float on water.
Some seeds have a hard/ tough testa
dispersal. 5.
Adaptations of seeds/fruits
(seed coat) with sticky/ mucoid/ slimy
to water dispersal. 4. Fruits and seeds e.g. coconut
1. Some fruits have hooks/spikes (e.g. secretions (e.g. passion seeds and guava have water proof pericarp and
black jack) to stick/attach to the animal’s seeds) making them resistant to digestive 1. Some fruits and seeds are seed testa respectively hence
body. enzymes hence pass out through the gut Tomato fruit light to float on water. remain afloat without
2. Some fruits are succulent/ fleshy/juicy undigested/pass out with faeces. 2. Some fruits (e.g. coconut) sinking/soaking.
(e.g. tomatoes, oranges) hence they Avocado fruit have fibrous spongy
6. Some fruits have sweet smell/aroma/are
attract animals which eat them and carry scented (e.g. bananas) to attract animals. mesocarps to accumulate/
them away from the parent plant. trap air making them buoyant
3. Some fruits are in clusters (e.g. straw or for floating on water.
berries)/large/ conspicuous ( e.g.
avocado) to attract/be easily seen by
animals. Black jack(Bidens pilosa)
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 Lemon/orange © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS.

94 95 96

D. SELF DISPERSAL  It involves fusion of male gamete/sperm A. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION.  Many/ large number of eggs  The eggs are laid in a jelly like
MECHANISM/ self explosive and female gamete/egg/ovum forming a  It occurs in amphibians (e.g. frogs/ are laid to increase the chances substance which:
zygote/fertilized egg. toads) and fish of survival because some eggs
mechanism/ explosive i) Protects the eggs.
mechanism- Some fruits (e.g.  Male gametes/sperms are formed in the It takes place in [Link] female lays could be eaten by animals of
testes while female gametes/ova are

attacked by bacteria. ii) Prevents the predators from
legumes/pods) have lines of eggs and the male sheds sperms on the feeding on the eggs.
formed in the ovaries. eggs as they are laid to fertilize them.
weakness (sutures) which split open  During mating season in frogs
when dry scattering/ throwing away the
 The nucleusof sperm fuse with the This leads to fertilization outside the and toads, the males croak at iii) Separates the eggs from each
nucleusof ovum to form a diploid zygote. body. night to attract the females. other allowing good aeration.
seeds. This process is called fertilization.
 While mating the males mount iv) Attaches the eggs to water
Types of fertilization. plant and makes them
on female and sheds sperms as
A. External fertilization in amphibians and female lays eggs. This is to buoyant.
fish. increase the chances of
B. Internal fertilization. fertilization.

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97 98 99

B. Internal fertilization. Disadvantages of internal Study questions. 2. Give reasons why frog eggs
 It takes place in reptiles, birds fertilization. 1. Explain why a female frog have the jelly-like substance.
and mammals. 1. Pregnant mother are lays many eggs.  For protection.
 Male and female gametes fuse/ susceptible to predators
 This is to increase the chances of  Prevents the predators from feeding
fertilization takes place inside 2. Mothers may die during
survival because many eggs may die on the eggs.
the bodyof female. giving birth through predation, drying. Some  Separates the eggs from each other
 The female produces fewer 3. The disease affecting the eggs may rot due to bacterial attack
number of eggs than males mother may be transmitted to allowing good aeration.
and others fail to be fertilized.
because there are higher the young ones  Attaches the eggs to water plant and
chances of fertilization as the 4. Young ones may deplete the makes them buoyant.
sperms are deposited into the mother’s nutrients
female body and protection of
gametes and fertilized eggs/
zygotes are higher.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF FEMALE

Differences between external and internal fertilization.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
100 101 102

External fertilization Internal fertilization REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS. c) Viviparity- the embryo develops
 Fertilization occurs internally and within the mother and obtains
1. It occurs outside the body. 1. It occurs inside the body of the egg is either laid or develops nourishment directly from the
female animals. within the female’sbody in the mother’s body. The young ones are
uterus/ womb. born alive e.g. human beings.
2. Many eggs are laid. 2. Fewer eggs are released. a) Oviparity- the embryo develops  In some mammals,embryo
outside the body of females e.g. in develops to a certain stage and then
There is usually less contact 3. There is close contact between released into astructure called a
3. duck-billed platypus.
between males and females. males and females through pouch where it develops fully e.g. in
b) Oviviparity- the embryo kangaroo.
copulation. develops within the female’sbody
4. Fertilized and unfertilized eggs and is nourished by the egg yolk.
Both fertilized and unfertilized The young ones are born alive e.g.
4.
are enclosed hence highly some fish and reptiles.
eggs are exposed to danger e.g. protected inside the body of
predation, desiccation. females.

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105

Adaptations of parts of female 3. Uterus/womb- It has

reproductive system. muscular walls (myometrium)
that contract facilitating
1. Ovary- it has secretorycells that parturition.
secrete female sex hormones e.g.
oestrogen and progesterone.  The muscular walls are also able
to expand as the embryo develops
 It has a germinal epithelium which and return to its original size after
produces the eggs/ ova. birth.
2. Fallopian tube/ oviduct- this is  It has endometrium/inner wall
where fertilization takes place. with dense network of capillaries
 It is funnel shaped to receive the to facilitate implantation and
ovum after ovulation. nourishment of the embryo.
 It has cilia which waft the ovum
moving it towards the uterus.
 It has smooth muscles which contract
to help in movement of the ovum.
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25-Feb-21

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

106 107

4. Cervix- It is a muscular ring Ways in which sperms move within

which close to keep the fetus the female reproductive system.
within the womb. i. Byhelp of a tail in the fluid medium
 It secretes a plugof mucus which of the female reproductive system.
prevents entryof pathogens into the ii. They are attracted by the
uterus during pregnancy. chemical produced by the ovum.
5. Vagina/birth canal and iii. Muscular/peristaltic contraction of
vulva- the vagina is tubular/ uterine walls.
hollowthus allows passage of the
foetus during parturition. Ways in which the ovum moves
within the fallopian tube.
 The walls of vulva have vestibular
glands (Bartholin's glands) i. The cilia beats/waftsthe egg
that secrete mucus when the female facilitating movement.
is sexuallyfor lubrication of vagina ii. Bycontraction of smooth muscles
during copulation. of the fallopiantube. Foreskin Foreskin
Glans
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Adaptations of parts of male

reproductive system
Spermatozoa (sperms)
109 110 111

1. The penis is made up of spongy tissue  The testes also have 4. The Seminal vesicle 6. The Cowper’s gland (located
and blood vessels which fill with blood interstitial cells which (connected to the sperm below the prostate gland) secretes
produce male hormones called
duct a short distance from an alkaline fluid to neutralize the
causing it to erect to facilitate copulation. where the sperm duct acidity along the urethra (caused by
androgens. The main enters the urethra)secretes pH variations of urine).
2. The testes are protected by scrotum
androgen is testosterone. an alkaline fluid which The alkaline fluid and sperms form
and are made up of several and highly 
The Epididymis is highly contains nutrients for the semen.
coiled seminiferous tubules which 3.
sperms.
provide a large surface area for sperm coiled to provide a large 7. The Sperm duct/ vas deferens
surface area for storage of 5. The Prostate gland (is is tubular connecting the
production. located at the junction
sperms. epididymis and urethra and is used
 The testes have sertoli cells that between the sperm duct and for passage of sperms/ acts as
nourish the sperms. The testes are located urethra) secretes an alkaline ejaculatory duct.
fluid to neutralize the
to hang outside the bodyto provide a vaginal fluids and activate 8. The Urethra is tubular to expel
cooler environment for sperm production. the sperms. urine and semen (hence said to
have urino-genital role).

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Ovum/egg cell/female gamete.

112 113 114

ADAPTATIONS OFTHESPERM 4. The longtail which lashes side ADAPTATION OFAN 4. It has large cytoplasm
CELL. by side to propel the sperm OVUM/EGG CELL. which contains stored food
forward. 1. It has follicle cells to substances that nourish the
1. The head containsa large haploid embryo before implantation.
nucleus which carries genetic
nourish the ovum.
5. The shot neck has centrioles for It has cell membrane
material. controllingaxial filaments 2. It has vitelline 5.

membrane which thickens which encloses contents of

2. Acrosome containslytic enzymes, after penetration of the first the egg and allows selective
which digest the membranes of the sperm preventing entry of movement of substances in
egg for the sperm to penetrate and other sperms. and out of ovum.
effect fertilization. 3. It has nucleus which
3. The middle piece contains contains genetic material
and fuses with the nucleus of
numerous mitochondria which sperm to form zygote.
provide energy for the propulsion of
the sperm to reach the egg.
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7 8 9

1. Interphase. Centrioles Nucleolus 2. Prophase. 3. Metaphase.

 This is a resting stage and  The two chromatids shorten  The nuclear membrane
chromosomes are not visible but and thicken, join at the disappears hence
appear as threads called centromere hence appear as chromosomes are free in the
chromatin. visible chromosomes. cytoplasm.
 Homologous chromosome pair  The chromosomes arrange
 Chromosomes duplicate to themselves at the
up.
produce two sister chromatids. centre/equator of the cell.
 The centrioles move to the
 There is synthesis of new opposite sides/ends of the  The chromosomes are attached
organelles e.g. golgi apparatus, animal cell and spindle fibres to spindle fibres at the
centrioles, mitochondria, begin to form. centromere.
ribosomes.  The nuclear membrane begins  This is important to ensure
 There is build up of energy to Nuclear to break down while the even distribution of
use in cell division. Chromatin membrane nucleolus disappears. chromosomes between the
daughter cells.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Early Late telophase

telophase

10 11

4. Anaphase. 5. Telophase.  The chromosomes

 Chromatids separate at  The chromatids collect become less distinct and
the centromere and together at the ends of regain their threadlike
migrate to the opposite the cell and duplicate to (chromatin) appearance.
poles of the cell due to form chromosomes. N/B. In animal cells,
shortening of the spindle  The nuclear membrane division of cytoplasm is by
fibres. forms around each set of constriction of cell
 The spindle fibres begin chromosomes. membrane while in plant
to disappear. cells a cell plate forms
 The cytoplasm divides within the cytoplasm and
 In animal cells the cell into two leading to the grows to separate the two
membrane begins to formation of two cells.
constrict. daughter cells.
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Mature ovum
Differences between the sperm and ovum.
115 117

Development of the ovum.  During puberty primary

 Egg formation in the ovary is
follicles develop into Graafian Sperm. Ovum.
called oogenesis. follicle that contains mature
 Egg formation begins in the
ovum. 1. It has a tail and 1. It lacks a tail and
ovary of the foetus before  Ova are at different levels of acrosome. acrosome.
birth. At birth, there are about development such that one
Graafian follicle matures every 2. It is smaller in size. 2. It is relatively larger in
70,000 potential eggs in the size.
ovary of a baby girl but only month.
3. It has less food reserve.
500 ova eventually develop  At ovulation the Graafian 3. Has more food reserve.
after puberty. follicle bursts to release the 4. It is motile/mobile 4. It is immotile/non-
 At birth eggs are enclosed by a
mature egg surrounded by a
layer of primary follicles which layer of follicle cells. 5. Has prominent nucleus motile
provide nourishment. and negligible 5. Has large amount of
cytoplasm cytoplasm
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 116 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

118

The process of fertilization in man.  The vitelline membrane then

 Fertilization is the fusion of male undergoes a change which stops any
and female gametes and it occursin other sperm from entering the
the oviduct/fallopian tube. ovum.
 When the sperm comes into  Once the head is in the cytoplasm,
contact with the egg, the acrosome it bursts to release the male nucleus
bursts open and releases lytic which fuses with the female nucleus
enzymes,which dissolve the to form a diploid zygote.
vitelline/ egg membrane and also  After ovulation, the ovum can
disperse the follicle cells remain viable for 8-24 hoursbefore
surrounding the egg cell. it dies while the sperms can remain
 The acrosome forms a fine filament viable for 2-3 days within the
that is used to penetrate the egg female reproductive system before
hence head of the sperm entersthe they die.
ovum and the tail is left outside the
ovum.

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121 123

The significance of producing a large Reason why fertilization must Changes that take place after  The attachment of the
number of sperms yet it is only one take place in the fallopian fertilization. blastocyst to the wall of the
that fertilizes the ovum. tube/ oviduct but not in the uterus/endometrium is called
 This is becausemany die before reaching uterus. (a) Zygote. implantation.
the ovum due to:  The ovum can take up to 7 days  It moves along the oviduct to the
to travel through the oviduct to uterus by help of cilia and  After implantation the
1. Inappropriate temperature for blastocyst develops into
production in the testes and storage the uterus. By then it would be contraction of the oviduct smooth
in the epididymis. dead becauseit survives for 8- embryo.
24 hours after release from the muscles.
Inappropriate pH (e.g. acidity) in the ovary.  The embryo uses the villi to
 It undergoes mitotic division
2.
female reproductive tract. absorb nutrients from the
forming a hollow structure with endometrium.
3. Others deplete their energy before several cells called blastocyst.
reachingthe ovum becausethe  The villi and endometrium
distance between the vagina and  The blastocyst develops fingerlike
oviduct is long. projections called villi which attach develop into placenta
4. The egg producesa chemicalthat it to the endometrium.
inactivates the sperms.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 122 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

124 125

 The movement of the zygote from FORMATION OF PLACENTA. 2. Amnion- which surrounds the b) Umbilical artery – which
the oviduct until it is implanted embryo forming amniotic cavity brings blood to the placenta
lasts for about 7 days.  During implantation, the in which the embryo lies.
blastocyst differentiates into 3 from the foetus with high
 Sometimes the zygote fails to layers;  The amnion secretes amniotic fluid amount carbon (IV) oxide and
move down the oviduct to the which fills the amniotic cavity. nitrogenous wastes e.g. urea
uterus but instead gets implanted 1. Chorion- the outermost but low nutrients and oxygen.
into the walls of the oviduct. This membrane which develops 3. Allantois- together with
chorionic villi and endometrium  Carbon (IV) oxide in the foetal
is called ectopic pregnancy chorionic villi which grow blood diffuses across the
which is deadlyif it is not into the endometrium. it forms the placenta which is
connected to foetus by placenta into maternal blood,
surgically removed as soon as it accumulates in the uterine
 During early stages of embryo umbilical cord.
possible. vein which transports it away
development the villi form
(b)Uterus sites for exchange of materials  The umbilical cord has: from the uterus.
 The uterus lining/ endometrium between the embryo and a) Umbilical vein- which carries
thickens. maternal blood vessels in the blood into the foetus rich in
 There is increased blood supply. uterine lining. oxygen and nutrients.

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127 128 129

Role of amniotic fluid. 4. Prevents the foetus from Materials that pass from foetus 3. Vitamins. Role of the placenta Adaptations of the placenta to its
drying. function. / How is the placenta
1. Protects the foetus against to mother. It allows passage of nutrientsfrom the suited to its functions?
mechanical damage/ 5. It ensures constant 4. Mineral salts. 1.
mother to the foetus for growth and
injury/acts as a shock temperature within the 1. Carbon (IV) oxide. development. 1. Has numerous capillaries/highly
5. Hormones. vascularized to increase
absorber. womb. Nitrogenous waste products/ It allows diffusion of gases between the
2.
6. Water.
2. concentration gradient for
2. Provides a medium for 6. Equalize pressure around the mother and foetus. efficient exchange of materials.
urea.
foetus to move about/ foetus. 7. Antibodies and antigens. 3. It secretes hormones e.g. progesterone, 2. It has a thin membrane for faster
suspends the embryo Materials that are not Materials that pass from mother oestrogen, human chorionic diffusion of materials/reduce the
providing it with support. 8. Drugs, alcohol and some gonadotrophin(HCG) distance travelled by substances.
allowed to pass through the to foetus.
3. It is a source of nourishment placenta. chemicals from cigarette. 4. Prevents destruction of delicate blood 3. It has numerous (chorionic) villi
for the foetus within the 1. Oxygen vessels of the foetus and prevents entry to increase the surface area of
1. All blood cells. of pathogens into the foetus. diffusion of substances.
first 3 months of pregnancy. 2. Digested food substances
2. Plasma proteins.
3. Most bacteria. (glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, glycerol)
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130 131 132

4. It has selective membrane Note. 2. It ensures that the foetus delicate TERMS RELATED TO 4. Premature birth: If birth occursafter 6. Siamese twins: these are identical
7 monthsbut before the full term, the twins who develop without separating
which allows selective  The foetal blood does not mix with blood vessels are not REPRODUCTION. birth is called premature birth. completely so that they are born with
diffusion of substances. maternalblood in the placenta destroyed/do not burst by the 1. Gestation period: this is a  The baby can survive if it has attained a some parts fused
high pressure in the mother’s/ certain weight or else it will be cared for
5. It is glandular to secrete because there is no direct period between conception and
in incubators.
7. Dizygotic or fraternal twins:
maternalcirculatory system. These are as a result of simultaneous
hormones e.g. connection between the foetal birth.
Monozygotic or identical twins: release oftwo or more ova, which are
progesterone, oestrogen. blood system and that of the 3. It prevents the transfer of 2. Miscarriage:This is natural
5.
These are as a result of a fertilized egg that fertilized independently.
mother. This is important because: pathogens from mother into termination of pregnancy before divides into two independent parts in the
6. Has counter current flow foetus. early stages of development, which  Such twins may be of the same or of
of maternal and foetal 1. It ensures that no agglutination completion of six months. The proceed to develop into two separate different sex. They are genetically
occursin foetal red blood cells It prevents the transfer of waste baby will not survive. different and have the same degree of
blood to maintain steep 4. embryos.
resemblance asthat of other brothers
concentrated gradient due to incompatible blood products from maternalblood Abortion: Intentional Such twins are of the same sex. They are
3.  and sisters born at different times.
hence efficient diffusion of groups of the mother and foetus, into the foetus termination of pregnancy either genetically identical and are completely
bothABO and Rhesus antigens. alike.
substances. chemically or physically.

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133 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 134 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 135 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

PREGNANCY/GESTATION PERIOD. PARTURITION/BIRTH.

136 137 138

 This is aperiod between conception and birth.  The heart and blood vessels are among the  Progesterone keepspregnancy by  At 9 months, the head is directly above  It is brought about by Dilation of  This is accompanied by some pains
It lasts for 9 months (38-40 weeks). first organs to form in the embryo because maintaining a thickened and highly cervix and strong contractions hence called labour pains.
vascularizedinner lining the cervix/facing downwardsand
blood is needed in all the developing body of the uterus and abdominal  Oxytocin also stimulates milk let down
 The signs of pregnancy include: (endometrium) hence providing dilation of cervix hence a sign of near walls. by the mammary glands.
parts to supply oxygen, nutrients and also nourishment to the foetus.
Laboratory test for the presence of Human parturition. At delivery the pituitary glands also The placenta also secretes Relaxin
1.
remove metabolic wastes.  
Chorionic Gonadotrophin hormone (HCG)  Menstruation should stop during  During pregnancy, the pregnant secrete prolactin hormone hormone prior to labour which causes
in blood.  The corpus luteum (yellow body) in pregnancy to ensure that the inner wall which stimulates the secretion of the ligaments within the pelvic girdle to
the ovary persists and continues to secrete (endometrium) remains intact which is mother should avoid the following loosen, providing a more flexible
milk by the secretorycells of the
2. Failure of menstruation after sexual progesterone during the first 4 months of essential for the development of the which maydamage the foetus: mammary glands. passage for the baby during delivery.
intercourse. foetus. The contraction of the myometrium
pregnancy. i. Vigorous physical exercises.  Towards the end of pregnancy, the


Morning sickness/ nausea/ vomiting.

 If menstruation occurs it will lead to is accompanied bydilation of the
3.
After 4 months, the placenta takes over miscarriage. level of progesterone falls. This cervix, rapture of amnion and

ii. Smoking (cigarette). causes the pituitary gland to
Gradual enlargement of breasts. producing the [Link] even if chorion releasing the amniotic fluid.
4.
 The pregnant mother should have a iii. Intake of alcohol. secrete oxytocin hormone.
the ovariesare removed after 4 months, balanced diet with plenty of proteins
 During this time, the zygote developsinto an Oxytocin stimulates the
there would be no effect on pregnancy. for growth and development of 
embryo and further into foetus (at 3 myometrium to contract providing
embryo, calcium and phosphorus
months when all organs and tissues are for bone formation and iron for the force to expel the foetus from
fully developed), the foetus then develops formation of haemoglobin. the uterus.
into a baby ready to be born.
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ROLE OF HORMONES I N DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY

PARENTAL CARE. SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS.

139 140 141

 The contraction of uterus pushes  After birth, the baby cries  It is the attention given to the new 3. It contains antibodies whichprovide  The presence of vagina and penis is used to 1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- which
passive immunityto the foetus. differentiate between a baby boy or girl. stimulates synthesis and maturation of sperms.
the foetus downwards, headfirst immediately because of fall in body born by providing food/ milk Reduceschancesofinfections since These physical characteristics are called
4. 2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)/interstitial cell
through the widened cervix into the temperature. Crying is important protection and providing favourable primary sexual characteristics.
no preparation is needed. stimulating hormone (ICSH)- stimulates the
birth canal. because it stimulates the breathing conditions for growth.  At puberty (at age of 12 years in girls and interstitial cells to produce male hormones called
 Various stimuli e.g. cry of the baby, 14 years in boys), other features develop androgens and the main androgen is
 After birth the umbilical cord is tied system and expandsthe lungs so  At delivery the pituitary glands also smell, suckling and sight ofthe baby that distinguish males and females. Testosterone.
that the baby starts breathing. stimulates hypothalamusofthe They are controlled by oestrogen hormone Testosterone stimulates the development of
and cut to separate the baby from secrete prolactin hormone which mother to send impulse to the
 
in females and androgens in males hence secondary sexual characteristics which include:
the [Link] placenta is later stimulates the secretion of milk by the pituitary gland which secretes called secondary sexual
oxytocin hormone. a) Deepening of voice.
expelled as after birth. secretorycells of the mammary glands. characteristics.
Growth of beards and hair in pubic area
 Oxytocin hormone stimulates Secondary sexual characteristics in b)
 Incase of difficult in normal  Mother's milk is the best food for the contraction of muscles of mammary males. c) Enlargement of testes and penis.
delivery, surgical operation is done offspring because: glands allowing milk let-down to the  In males secondary sexual characteristics d) Broadening of shoulders.
on the abdominal and uterine walls nipple where the babysucksfrom. begin to show at the age of 14 years. The
1. It does not require mechanical e) Enlargement of muscles around the chest and
Milk let-down is inhibited by sex hormones / gonadotrophins produced shoulders.
for delivery of the baby. This is breakdown for it is in a liquid form

are:
called caesarean delivery. distraction, embarrassment, anxiety f) Production of sperms.
that is easy to swallow. of fatigue.
2. It contains all nutrients required for
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 growth and in the right amounts. © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

B. ROLE OF HORMONES IN MENSTRUATION IN

FEMALES.
142 143 144

Secondary sexual characteristics in b) Follicle stimulating hormone  Gamete production in females is cyclical Role  Oestrogen hormone has the following  Luteinising hormone has the
females. (FSH)- which stimulates the ovary after every 28 days hence called effects:
to release the hormone oestrogen.  After/ at the onset of menstruation, (the following effects:
In females secondarysexualcharacteristics Oestrogen stimulates the menstrual cycle. anterior lobe of) pituitary gland secretes Brings about / causes/ stimulates

development of Graafian follicle in
1)
1) It stimulates the maturation of
begin to show at the age of 10-12 years.  It begins with menses i.e. discharge of Follicle Stimulating Hormone repair and healing of endometrium/ Graafian follicle.
the ovary and development of
The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary secondarysexualcharacteristics. blood and tissue debris from the uterus (FSH) which: uterine lining (after menstruation).
gland to release gonadotrophins which which takes place for 5-7 days. Before 2) It stimulates or causes
 Secondarysexual characteristics in 1) Causes/ stimulates the Graafian 2) Its concentration increases to a level
include: females include: menses the females experience follicle to develop in the ovary. The which stimulates the (anterior lobe
ovulation/stimulates the Graafian
a) Luteinizing hormone (LH)- which i) Enlargement of pelvic girdle. abdominalpain, back pains and nausea. graafian follicle contains the ovum. of the) pituitary gland to secrete follicle to burst releasing the ovum.
stimulates mature Graafian follicle to ii) Widening of hips.  The events of menstrual cycle involves 2) Stimulates the ovary tissues to secrete Luteinizing hormone. 3) It stimulates the remains of
release amature ovum in the process iii) Growth of hair in pubic and armpit the ovaries (ovarian cycle) and in the Oestrogen hormone. 3) Its concentration increases to a level Graafian follicle to form a yellow
called ovulation. regions. uterus (uterine cycle) controlled by which stops further secretion of body (Corpus luteum) in the ovary.
iv) The ovaries mature and start pituitary gonadotrophins. Follicle stimulating hormone.
releasing eggs and the girls begin to 4) It stimulatesthe corpus luteum to
menstruate. secrete progesterone.
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145 146

 Progesterone has the following effects:  Degeneration of corpus luteum  Ovulation and hormonal  The hormone is excreted
It stimulates thickening of reduces the amount of progesterone.
1) imbalance causesa rise in through [Link] presence of
endometrium/ inner lining of uterine  The sudden drop in secretion of temperature during this hormone in urine is used to
wall in readiness for implantation. progesterone causes the
endometrium to slough off/ menstruation. confirm pregnancy during a
2) As the level of progesterone increases it
inhibits the pituitary gland from menstruation [Link] cycle is  During pregnancy the implanted pregnancy test.
secreting follicle stimulating hormone. then repeated.
embryo produce another
3) Further increase in progesterone level hormone called human
inhibits the pituitary gland from
secreting Luteinizinghormone. chorion gonadotropic
4) Further increase in progesterone level hormone (HCG) which is sent
causes the corpus luteum to to ovary to sustain corpus
degenerate. luteum.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 147 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Study question
149 150

 The figure shows changes that take a) Name the hormone whose c) (i) Name the hormone which is d) State the fertile period during the
place during menstrual cycle in concentrations are represented by released by the pituitary gland in menstrual cycle.
humans. curves Fand G. high concentration on the 14th  12th-16th.
F- Oestrogen. day of the menstrual cycle.
 e) State the dietary requirements that
 Luteinizing hormone.
 G- Progesterone. maintain the menstrualcycle.
(ii)State two functions of the Iron for the formation of
a) State the effects of the hormones 
hormone named in (c) (I ) above. haemoglobin.
named in (a) above on the lining of
the uterus.  Causes / stimulates
 Vitamin K for blood clotting to
ovulation.
 Oestrogen-Promotes healing and prevent prolonged bleeding.
repair.  Stimulates graafian
 Vitamin C to heal the uterine wall
follicle to becomecorpus
 Progesterone -Causes thickening and and absorption of iron.
luteum.
increased blood supply
 Stimulates corpus luteum
/vascularisation.
to release progesterone.
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SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES.

1. HIV and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome)
151 152 153

f) State the factors that change the menstrual Symptoms

cycle. a) [Link] by the HIV c) Symptoms. Prevention and control of HIV and 4. Screening of blood before
1. Night sweat. (Human Immunodeficiency AIDS transfusion.
 Change in diet. Random hot flashes during the day.
i. Swollen lymph glands.
2. Virus). Abstaining from sexual Use of antiretroviral (ARV)drugs
 Stress. 3. Changes in mood that shows depression. ii. Diarrhoea, fever, sweating and 1. 5.

 Disease infection. Fatigue.

b) Mode of transmission. body fatigue. intercourse before marriage. by those affected.
4.

 Emotions. 5. Vaginal dryness.  Sexual intercourse with an infected iii. Sudden weight loss. 2. Correct and consistent use of 6. Sex education to enlighten the
Menopause Loss of minerals e.g. [Link] person. male and female condoms. public on socio-economic effects
6.
leads to softening of bone, a condition iv. Persistent cough.
This is the permanent end ofmenstruation Sharing of contaminated needles Have one faithful sexual HIV/ AIDS.
 called osteoporosis.  3.
and fertility. It maybegin between the age of v. Generalized skin infections.
with infected people. partner/ avoid multiple sexual 7. Public health interventions to
40 and 50.
 Blood transfusion with infected partners curb/ stop the spread of HIV.
 It is a gradual processsignified by:
i) Decrease in numberof graafian follicles, blood.
ii) The follicles become lesssensitive to  From infected mother to child
follicle stimulating hormone, during birth or through breast milk.
iii) Secretion of oestrogen declines.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

154 155 156

8. Avoid risky cultural practices e.g. 11. Avoid sharing surgical and piercing Study question 4. Commercial sex/ prostitution dueto b) Offer possible solutions to c) A child born of a HIV
unemployment. these problems. positive mother tested HIV
female genital mutilation, instruments e.g. ear piercing and sharing a) Give the possible reasons
traditional male circumcision and of needles by drug users. why HIV/AIDS is still 5. Pervasive behavior e.g. homosexualityand 1. Avoidbadcompany. positive after birth.
rampant despite a lot of rape. However , after a few
wife inheritance. 12. Promote male circumcision to reduce awareness creation. 6. Longincubation behavior of HIVmakespeople 2. Proper useof leisuretimeby avoiding months the child tested
Use of bottle feeding instead of the risk of contracting HIV. complacent. readingerotic magazines, watching HIV negative. Explain.
9. 1. Many adolescents engage in sexual pornographyand not attendingnight
breast feeding for babies. activity through excitement, wrong 7. Manytraditionalists haveoptednot to believe  At birth,thechildtestedHIVpositive
13. Encourage people to know their HIV HIVhence continuation of wife inheritance, clubs.
advice,peerpressure,orignorance.
traditional circumcision tattooingetc.
becauseof the presence of HIV
10. Enforce laws that make it an status hence minimize the spread. 3. Abstainfrommisuseof drugs/ drug antibodieswhichpassed throughthe
2. Many peopleespeciallyyouths misuse Presenceof quack, bush doctorsand conmen/ addiction.
offence to spread HIV intentionally. their leisuretimethroughengagingin
8. [Link] fewmonthsthe
women who cheat people about curedrugsor antibodiesareremovedfromthe blood
eroticdances, readingand watching miracle cures of HIV/AIDS condition. 4. Publicawarenessof HIV/AIDS e.g. lack
pornography. of cure,nomiraclecureof the disease. hence the child testedHIVnegative.
3. Lack of strict policyondrug abuse. 5. Abstainingfromcommercial/
indiscriminatesexual behavior.
6. Avoidingriskybehaviorse.g. wife
inheritance.
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2. Syphilis. 3. Gonorrhoea. 4. Genital herpes.

157 158 159

 It affects the genital organs of both Symptoms.  It is a disease affecting genital organs 4. Yellow or green discharge in  It is caused by the virus Symptoms.
males and females. caused by the bacterium Neisseria males.
 Caused by the bacterium Treponema
1. Painless sore appearing on gonorrhoea. 5. Tendernessand pain in the
Herpes simplex. 1. Lesions on the skin and
or around the sex organs. mucous membrane of
pallidum. Transmission testicles in males. Transmission.
Transmission. 2. Skin rashes. 1. Sexual intercourse with 6. Inflammation of the foreskin the mouth/ buccal
1. Through sexual intercourse Flu like symptom i.e.
infected person. in males 1. Sexual cavity, vaginal canal and
with infected person.
3.
Fever, sore throat, bone 2. During birth when a mother is Control and prevention intercourse with conjunctiva in females.
2. Transfusion with infected and joints pain.
infected. 1. Public education on dangers of an infected
blood. Symptoms. indiscriminate sex.
person. 2. Painless lesions on the
4. Headache. head of the penis
3. Transmission from infected 1. Pain when passing urine. 2. Use of condoms during sexual
mother to the child during 5. Insanity. 2. Bleeding in between the intercourse. 2. Kissing infected Control and prevention.
birth or through the Treatment using antibiotics. person.
placenta before 7th month Prevention. periods in women. 3.
1. Avoid indiscriminate sex
of delivery i. Avoid indiscriminate sex. 3. Females have unusual 3. Sharing of and contaminated
vaginal discharge which is
ii. Use of condoms. watery, yellow or greenish contaminated needles and syringes.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
in color. © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
needles and syringes. © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

5. Hepatitis B. 6. Trichomoniasis. 7. Candidiasis.

160 161 162

 It is a condition that describes Symptoms.  Caused by a protozoa called Control and prevention.  Caused by a fungus, Candida albicans. Control and prevention.
inflammation of the liver. Loss of appetite. Trichomoniasisvaginalis.
It is caused by a virus which attacks
i.
1. Use protective Transmission. i. Avoid indiscriminate sex.

ii. Jaundice. Transmission methods during sexual
liver cells eventually causing damage in  Through sexualcontact with ii. Using condoms during sex.
the liver. iii. Headacheand muscle ache. i. Through sexual intercourse. intercourse/ avoid infected person. Proper hygiene (e.g. wiping
Transmission. iv. Vomiting. ii. Contaminated clothes or indiscriminate sex. iii.

beddings. Symptoms. oneself from front to back after

i. Sexual contact with an infected v. Dark urine . 2. Avoid sharing linen/ using the toilet, use of pure
person. Prevention. Symptoms. clothes. i. Itching and burning sensation in
the genital area. cotton and loose pants in
ii. Sharing contaminated instruments i. Screening of blood before 1. Yellow smelly discharge in 3. High personal hygiene in females).
used by barbers and dentists. transfusion. females. White discharge from the vagina
Sharing contaminated syringes and the genitals. ii.
Proper treatment using
iii. ii. Avoiding indiscriminate sex. 2. Burning sensation when which does not smell. iv.
needles (by drug addicts). antibiotics.
iii. Avoiding sharing needles. urinating.
iv. Blood transfusion with infected
blood. iv. Using condoms during sexual 3. Itching in the urethra and
intercourse. vagina.
v. Kissing an infected person.
vi. Infected mother to unborn child.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

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14 15

Significance/ importance of B. MEIOSIS Principle of meiosis. 1ST MEIOTIC DIVISION.

mitosis.  This is the process of cell  It consists of 2 successive  It leads to separation of
division which reduces the
1. It leads to growth of an number of chromosomes in a divisions: homologous
organism. cell by half. i. 1st meiotic division- chromosomes.
2. It is the basis of asexual  This forms homologous  The stages include:
reproduction/it is involved in gametes/reproductive cells. chromosomes separate 1. Interphase I.
asexual reproduction.  It involves two divisions from each other.
resulting into four daughter 2. Prophase I.
3. It ensures that the genetic/
cells. ii. 2nd meiotic division-
chromosomal constitution of chromatids separate. 3. Metaphase I.
 It takes place in reproductive
the offspring remains the same organs e.g. testes, ovaries, 4. Anaphase I.
as that of the parent. anther e.t.c. 5. Telophase I.
4. It leads to replacement of
damaged or dead cells.
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16 17

1. Interphase 1 2. Prophase 1  As prophase continues, chromatids

The nucleolusdisappears. of the two homologous
 Chromosomes appear as 
chromosomes coil around each
chromatin and  Centrioles become arranged at the other and remain contact at points
replicate/duplicate. opposite sides of the cell. called chiasmata (singular-
 The cell builds up the  Chromosome condense and shorten chiasma). This is called chiasma
energy used in meiosis. hence become visible. formation.
 There is synthesis of new  Spindle fibres begin to form.  During separation of homologous
organelles.  Homologouschromosomes lie side chromosomes, the chromatids
by side in the process called separate at chiasmata and
synapsis and forming pairs called exchange the genetic
bivalent. [Link] is called crossing
over which leads to variation.

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iii. Metaphase I. iv. Anaphase I v. Telophase I.

 The nuclear membrane has  Homologous chromosomes  The spindle fibres
disappeared and spindle fibres separate. disappear.
are fully formed.
 They move to the opposite  The cell divides into two.
 The homologous chromosomes
sides of the cell due to
still as bivalents arrange  Each cell goes into a
shortening of the spindle
themselves at the centre/ short resting stage
equator of the cell. fibres.
(interphase II) directly
 They attach to the spindle fibres goes into prophase II.
by their centromeres.

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22 23 24

i. Prophase II. ii. Metaphase II. iii. Anaphase II

 The new spindle fibres are  The chromosomes arrange  The sister chromatids
formed. at the centre of the cell. separate from each other and
Chromosomes become visible. move to the opposite sides of
  They attach to the spindle
the poles.
 There is no crossing over. fibres by their centromeres.
 This is due to shortening of
the spindle fibres.

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25

iv. Telophase II.

 The spindle fibres disappear.
 The nucleolus reappears and
the nuclear membrane is
formed around each set off
chromosomes.
 The sister chromatids
duplicate and form
chromosomes. They uncoil
and regain their thread like
form.
 The cytoplasm divides
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 26 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 27 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND

MEIOSIS. Asexual reproduction.
28 29 30

Significance of meiosis. Similarities between mitosis  Asexual reproduction is the 1. Binary fission in amoeba,
1. It leads to gamete and meiosis. Mitosis . Meiosis . production of offspring from a single plasmodium and bacteria.
formation. 1. Both take place in plant and organism without the fusion of  The first step in binary fission is molecular
Two daughter cells are formed. Four daughter cells are formed.
2. It ensures that each gamete animal cells. 1. 1.
gametes. division where there is internal
The number ofchromosomes is retained/ The number ofchromosomes is halved/
has half the number of 2. Both involve division/ 2.

diploid cells are formed.

2.

haploid cells are formed. Types of asexual reproduction. reorganization of the molecules necessary
chromosomes as those found multiplication. for structural construction.
Daughter cells are identical to the mother/ Daughter cells are not identical with the 1. Binary fission.
in the original cell/ it helps 3.

parent cell.
3.

parent/ mother cell.

to restore a constant diploid 2. Spore formation/sporulation.  The molecules are re-aggregated and
chromosomalconstitution in 4. Homologouschromosomesdo not associate 4. Homologouschromosomesassociate with utilized in the formation of the new cell.
with each other. each other. 3. Budding in yeast.
a species after fertilization.  The nucleus undergoes mitotic division to
5. There is no chiasma formation hence no 5. There is chiasma formation hence crossing
3. It leads to new combinations crossing over/variation. over/variation.
give rise to two nuclei with the same
of genes in gamete cells. This Occurs in somatic cells leading to growth. Occurs in reproductive cells leading to gamete
number of chromosomes.
leads to variation due to
6. 6.

formation.  The cytoplasm then starts dividing into two

crossing over. 7. Takes place in only one nuclear division of
cells which separate from each other.
four stages. 7. Takes place in two nuclear divisions each with
four stages.
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2. Spore formation /sporulation.  The horizontal hyphae are called stolons and
 A spore is a small reproductive unit which is the vertical hyphae are called
usually microscopic and unicellular. sporangiosphores.
 The tips of sporangiosphores swell to form
 When detached from the parent organism and sporangia (singular- sporangium).
under favorable conditions, a spore germinates
and grows into new individuals.  Sporangiumcontains many spores and as the
 It occurs in bacteria, fungi (e.g. Rhizopus/ sporangium matures and ripens it turns
Mucor/Mould, yeast, mushroom), mosses and black.
ferns.  When the sporangium is fully mature, it
Note- Sporesare produced in large numbers to bursts and releases the spores which are
increase the chances of survival and growth. dispersed and grows into new mycelium.
 Spores are dispersed by wind, insects and
a) Rhizopus/ Mucor/ Mould.
animals.
 Rhizopus is a saprophytic funguswhich grows on
a substrate e.g. bread, rotting fruits and other
decaying matter.
 The vegetative body/ whole organism is called
mycelium which consists of many branched
threads called hyphae.
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34 36

Process of reproduction in Process of reproduction in Study question. c) State the modeof

Rhizopus/ Mould/ Mucor mushroom. Astudent left a piece of bread on anopen place reproduction exhibited by
accidentally. 3 dayslater he observed some black the organism namedabove.
 The fungus reproduces asexually by  The fungus reproduces asexually by
substancedeveloping.  Sporulation/ spore
sporulation/ producing spores. sporulation/ producing spores.
a) Suggest the identity of the blacksubstance that formation.
 Spores develop from a single cell in  Spores develop in the gill which grew on the bread. d) State the kingdom to which
the sporangium, which bursts on bursts on maturity releasingspores. Rhizopus. the organism belongs.
porangiosphore 
maturity releasing spores. Spores are dispersed by air Fungi
 b) Explain howthe blacksubstance wasformed. 
 Spores are dispersed by air currents/ wind, falling on suitable  Spores of bread moulddeposited on the damp
currents/ wind, falling on suitable medium they germinate to form bread whichgerminated into [Link]
medium they germinate to form new generation. maturethe hyphae grewinto
new generation forming a sporangiosphores. Sporangia developed on
mycelium. the tip of the sporangiosphores containing
the [Link] maturedand dried
up and turnedblack.
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Structure and function of a flower.

37 38 39

3. Budding in yeast. Process of budding/ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS.

reproduction in yeast.  It involves the formation of male and female gametes
 Yeast is an example of a fungus  Yeast reproduces asexually by which fuse to form a fertilized egg called zygote.
budding.
 This is a form of asexual  Gametes are produced in reproductive structures
reproduction in which a new  The parent cell forms an called flowers.
outgrowth/ projection/ bud Parts of a flower.
individual is produced as an followed by division of nucleus
outgrowth (bud) of the parent cell into two.  It is attached to the stem of a plant through the
pedicel/ flower stalk. The top part of the pedicel
and is later released asself  One of the nuclei moves into the is called receptacle. All the floral/flower parts are
new bud which grows and
supporting individual and identical develops into a new cell.
attached to the receptacle.
copy of the parent plant  The flower/floral parts are divided into four groups
namely:
 It occursin yeast under favorable i. Calyx/sepals.
conditions e.g. plenty of sugar, Petals/corolla.
ii.
moisture, oxygen and optimum
iii. Stamens/androecium.
temperature.
iv. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium.

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40 41

FUNCTIONSOF DIFFERENT 2. Stamen/androecium- 3. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium- This is 4. Petals/corolla- Petals

PARTS OFA FLOWER. They form the male part of the female part of the flower. Carpel collectively form the corolla.
the flower. Stamen consists of consists of stigma, style and ovary. They are large and brightly
1. Sepals/Calyx- Sepals Carpelscollectively make up pistil


collectively form calyx which are anther and filament. colored and conspicuousto attract
Stamens collectively form (gynoecium). insects for pollination.
leaf-like structures.
Androecium.  Inside the ovary, there are several
 Sepals protect the inner parts of [Link] egg cell or female gamete is
the flower in the bud/before the  The anther produces pollen formed within the ovule.
flower opens from pest attack and grains which contain male
gametes and the filament holds  The stigma receives the pollen grains.
from drying. The style holdsthe stigma in position.
the anther in position.
 Some flowers e.g. hibiscus have  Note: Calyx(sepals) and
sepal-like structures below the  One stamen consists of 4 corolla(petals) are called non-
sepals that are called epicalyx. pollen containing sacs which essential parts while androecium
are fused to form anther. (stamens) and pistil/ gynoecium
are called essential parts of the
flower.
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Fig. Pistil
Stigma
Pore
Anther Style
Connective

Ovary
Filament

43 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 44 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 45 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Fig. stamen

TYPESO F FLOWERS Epigynous flower/inferior ovary

46 47 48

1. Gamepetalous flower- the Types of unisexual/ incomplete flowers. 5. Epigynous/inferior ovary/flower- the 11. Polycarpous gynoecium/ pistil-
corolla/petals are fused. ovary is located below other floral parts e.g. the pistil has two or more carpels.
a) Staminate flower-has only apple flower. Apocarpous gynoecium/ pistil-
2. Polypetalous- the 12.

corolla/petals are separate. stamens/androecium/male parts only. 6. Hypogynous/superior ovary/flower- refers to polycarpous pistil with free
ovary is located above other floral parts e.g. carpels e.g. rose flower.
3. Complete b) Pistillate/carpellate flower- has hibiscusflower. 13. Syncarpous gynoecuim/ pistil-
flower/bisexual only pistil/carpels/female parts. 7. Perigynous ovary/flower- all floral polycarpous pistil with fused carpels
flower/hermaphrodite parts are located at the same level e.g. rose e.g. hibiscus flower.
flower- a flower with all c) Dioecious plant- plant with flower.
floral parts. 14. Actinomorphic/regular flower-
unisexual flower separately but on 8. Monocarpous gynoecium/ pistil- the a radially symmetrical flower and can
4. Unisexual flower/ different individual plants e.g. pawpaw pistil has one carpel. be divided into two equal halves by
incomplete flower- this is plant. any vertical section through the
9. Solitary flower- flower which occurs centre.
a flower with either male or singly.
female parts only. d) Monoecious plant -plant with 15. Zygomorphic/irregular flower –
10. Inflorescence- consists of flowers that bilaterally symmetrical flower and can
unisexual flower separately but on the grow in clusters. only be divided into two equal halve
same plant e.g. maize plant. only in one particular plane.

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Hypogynous flower /superior ovary

49 50 51

Perigynous flower Monocarpous flower Apocarpous flower Syncarpous flower

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Inflorescence POLLINATION
52 53 54

Solitary flower  This is the transfer of pollen grains from 2. Cross pollination- transfer of
the anther to the stigma of a flower on the pollen grains from the anther to
same or on a different plant of the same
species. the stigma of another flower of
Types of pollination. different plant but of the same
species. This leads to cross
1. Self pollination- transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of fertilization.
the same flower or from the anther of Advantages of cross pollination.
one flower to the stigma of another
flower on the same [Link] leads to i. It causes genetic variation hence
self fertilization. better adaptations oforganisms to
Disadvantages of self-pollination. harsh environmental conditions.
i. Lack of variation.  Pollination is brought about by agents
ii. Loss of hybrid vigor. which include:
iii. Undesirable characteristics are 1. Insects.
retained/ transmitted to the offspring.
2. Wind.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21