BIOLOGY

FORM 1

NOTES
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1. a) Define biology

a. the study of life/living things

b.
b) List the branches of biology

- Zoology (study of animals)

- Botany (study of plants)
- Microbiology (study of microorganisms)

c) Explain the importance of biology

- helps to solve environmental problems

- Helps to learn scientific skills
- For entry into other professions/careers
- To apply knowledge to everyday life situations
- To classify organisms into their right groups
- understanding living organisms

d) State the characteristics of living organisms

- feeding/nutrition
- Growth and development
- respiration (to produce energy)
- sensitivity/irritation/response
- excretion (getting rid of metabolic waste material)
- movement/locomotion
- reproduction

e) State the main differences between plants and animals

Animals Plants

Specialized excretory organs No specialized excretory organs

Respond to stimulus quickly Slow respond to stimulus

All body parts grow equally(intercalary) Grow at shoot tip and root tip only

Move around to look for food Stationery

Heterotrophic Autotrophic

Cells have no cell walls Cells have cell wall made of cellulose

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No chlorophyll Contain chlorophyll
Give parental care to young Plants don’t care for their young

2. a) i) What is a hand lens?

- Convex lens mounted on a frame and used to magnify small objects for viewing.
-
ii) How is a hand lens used?

- place the lens a short distance from the eye

- Bring the object to be viewed near the lens until an enlarged and clear image can be seen.
-
ii) When is a hand lens used?

- For reasonably sized objects such as insect wing, leg, flower parts. -
Cannot be used for small objects such as cells, stomata.
-
iv) Explain how to calculate drawing magnification

- drawing magnification equals to length of drawing divided by length of object or image length divided
by actual length i.e. length of drawing or image length
Length of object actual length

b) i) what is classification?

- Orderly arrangement of living organisms into various groups according to their similarities.

ii) List the external features used to classify plants

- rhizoids(e.g. mosses)
- frond (e.g. ferns)
- roots e.g. taproot, fibrous roots, modified roots
- flowers - leaves
- buds
- seeds
-
iii) List the external features used to classify animals

- horns e.g. cattle, goat, sheep, deer, gazelle etc

- hooves e.g. cattle, sheep, donkey
- mammary glands e.g. cattle, dog, sheep, cat
- hair e.g. human, cat
- Shell e.g. snail, Tortoise
- spines e.g. hedge hog, porcupine
c) Give the reasons why classification is important
- Placing/grouping living organisms into correct groups called taxa
- Identification
- arrange information about living organisms into orderly and sequential manner i.e. it is easy to study
organisms in groups
-helps in understanding evolutionary relationships
- monitoring disappearance and appearance of organisms i.e. predict characteristics of organisms

d) i) Name the taxonomic units of classification in descending order

- Kingdom (largest unit)

- Phylum (animals)/division (plants)
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species(smallest unit)
-
ii) What is a species?
- all organisms which can interbreed and give rise to fertile (viable) offspring

iii) Name the major kingdoms used in classification

-monera
-protoctista/protista
-fungi
-plantae
-animalia

e) i) Define the term binomial nomenclature

- a scientific system of naming organisms using the generic/genus and specific/species names -
e.g. for humans, Homo sapiens

ii) State the principles followed during binomial nomenclature

- the first (generic) name should begin with a capital letter while the rest are small letters
- the two names are printed in italics and if handwritten should be underlined each separately
-
iii) Give the advantages of using binomial nomenclature

- no confusion about which organism is referred to

- names are internationally accepted regardless of language
- shows evolutionary relationship hence easy to understand
- useful in naming many species unlike use of common names

iv) Name the types of classification

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- traditional (using common names)
- scientific(using binomial nomenclature)

3. a) i) Define the term cell

- it is the basic unit of organization of an organism i.e. the basic functional and structural unit of an
organism.

ii) What is cell biology?

- study of structure and functioning of a cell

- also called cytology

b)i) What is a microscope?

- an instrument used to magnify objects and make them appear bigger.

ii) Name the types of microscope

- the light microscope

- the electron microscope
-
iii) State the purpose of using a light microscope

- it magnifies and reveals the structure details of tiny objects such as the cell, that cannot be seen by
the human eye directly
-
iv) Draw a labeled sketch of a light microscope
v) State the functions of the labeled parts

a.) Eyepiece used to look through and to magnify the object

b.) Course adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube and focuses object roughly
c.) Fine adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube by small distances to bring image into fine focus
d.) objective lens brings image into focus and also magnifies
object/image stage is a platform where object or specimen on slide is
placed mirror reflects light through condenser and directs it to
objective lens clips hold glass slide in position
body tube holds eyepiece and revolving nose piece which has objective lenses
limb or base support whole instrument

arm for holding when carrying instrument

revolving nose piece holds objective lens in place enabling change from one objective lens to another

e) i) Explain the procedure followed when using a microscope

- put the microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from you (viewer)
- turn the lower power objective to click in line with the eyepiece
- Ensure that the diaphragm/iris is fully open
- Adjust the mirror until the stage is illuminated with enough light - Place the slide containing the
specimen on the stage for magnification - Draw the image and indicate magnification of the drawing.

ii) State the precautions that are necessary when handling a

microscope always use two hands when carrying it
never place a microscope too close to the edge of the bench or table
do not touch the mirror and lens with wet or dirty hands clean dirty
lenses using a special lens cleaning cloth clean other parts using a
soft cloth or tissue paper low power objective must click into
position before and after use.
Do not wet any part of the microscope
Clean and store well after use

d) i) What is magnification?

- The power of making an image larger

ii) Give the formula used to calculate magnification in a light microscope

eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification

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iii) Give the reasons for each of the following steps when preparing a cross-section of a stem or
leaf for examination under the microscope

cutting very thin sections thin sections allow light to pass through making it
easy to observe the tissue Using a sharp razor blade during the cutting

sharp blade does not damage, deform, destroy or distort the surface of cell or tissue it
makes thin sections

Placing sections in water to maintain turgidity hence

maintain shape of cell it prevents drying of the
section

Staining the sections with iodine before observing

To make chloroplasts, starch containing structures, granules or plastids distinct.

e) i) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under a light microscope

a cell
membrane
b cytoplasm
c cell
wall e
nucleus
d vacuole

ii) Draw the general structure of a plant and animal cell

iii) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under an electronic microscope and state the
functions of each part.
Cell wall found in plant cells in addition to cell
membrane made of cellulose which makes the
plant tough
allows gases, water and other substances to pass through

Cell membrane
permeable/selective to control movement of materials in and out of cells bound/encloses
the cell contents
also called plasma membrane or plasmallema

Cytoplasm fluid medium where chemical reactions

occur also where cell organelles are suspended

Nucleus controls cell

activities

Nucleolus synthesizes
DNA

Vacuole sacs filled with fluid

called cell sap large in plants but
small in animals
act as reservoirs for food and harmful wastes which would otherwise interfere with the
metabolism in cytoplasm

Lysosomes store hydrolytic

enzymes
destroy worn out cell organelles, cells, pathogens
digestion of food in unicellular organisms autolysis

Golgi apparatus processing/packaging of

synthesized materials
transporting/secretion of packaged materials/cell materials e.g. glycoproteins and mucus production
of lysosomes

Ribosomes where protein synthesis takes

place

Mitochondrion synthesis of
ATP/energy

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Chloroplasts where photosynthesis
takes place

Endoplasmic reticulum
transport of cell secretions
can be rough or smooth

iv) State the functions of cell sap

stores chemical substances, sugar, salts

maintains shape of the cell/provides mechanical strength
plays a role in osmoregulation by creating an osmotic gradient that brings about movement of water

e) Compare plant and animal cells plant cells have

chloroplasts lacking in animals
animal cells have many small vacuoles while plant cells have a large central vacuole plant
cell have cellulose cell walls lacking in animal cells
cytoplasm in plant cell is in the periphery but in animal cell it is centrally placed
plants store starch, oil and protein while animals store gats and glycogen animal
cells have centrioles which plant cells do not have

f) Explain the meaning of each of the following

i) Cell

- Basic unit of organization in an organism

- Specialized animal cells include sperm, ovum muscle
Specialized plant cells include epidermal, guard cell and palisade cell

ii) Tissue these are cells of a particular type grouped together to perform a certain
function animal tissues include epithelium, blood, nerves, muscle, skeletal and
connective tissues plant tissues include epidermal, photosynthetic, vascular,
strengthening tissues

iii) Organ tissues combine together to form organs

an organ is a complex structure with a particular function animal examples include heart,
liver, kidney, lungs, brain, blood vessels, muscles, skeleton Plant organs include leaves,
roots, flowers, and stem.

iv) Organ system organs are grouped together to form systems also called organ
systems animal systems include excretory, digestive, respiratory, nervous,
circulatory, endocrine(hormones/glands), skeletal systems
plant systems include transport system

g) i) Name the structures which are present in plant cells but absent in animal cells -
Chloroplast
- Cell wall

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ii) Name the structures which are present in animal cells but absent in plant cells
Lysosomes
Centrioles
Pinocytic vesicles

h) Explain how to estimate cell size

i) Materials cell sizes are measured in units known as

micrometers (my) required is a transparent ruler marked in
millimeters
1mµ = 1 mm
1000

ii) Procedure
- Click to low power place transparent ruler with its
millimeter marks on the stage focus so that the millimeter marks
can be seen as thick dark lines
estimate the diameter of field of view by counting the one millimeter spaces between the first
mark and the last one across the field of view as shown below

the diameter of the field of view above is estimated as 3.2 mm convert the diameter of the field
of view from millimeters to micrometers i.e. 3.2/1000 Estimate the fraction of the field of view
occupied by the cell. This is done by estimating the number of cells places end to end that would
fill the diameter of the field of view as shown below

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in the figure above, it is estimated that approximately six cells will occupy the diameter of the
field of view
therefore, one cell will occupy 1/6 of the field of view
its diameter is calculated as 1/6 times the diameter of the field of view

i) i) In a drawing of a giraffe, the height of the head from the ground was recorded as
10cm.
the drawing also showed a magnification of 0.02. calculate the actual height of the giraffe

Drawing height = 10cm = 500cm

Magnification 0.02

ii) In a class experiment to estimate sizes of cells a student observed and obtained millimeter
marks on the field of view of a microscope as shown in the diagram below.

Millimeter marks

- If the student counted 40 cells on the diameter of the field of view, what was the approximate size of the
each cell in micrometers?

Diameter of field of view = 3 x 1000 = 75 mµ

Number of cells 40

iii) Under which of the following light microscope magnifications would one see a larger part
of the specimen? X40 or x400? Give a reason

x40
Smaller magnification gives a wider field of view hence a larger part seen.
e.) a) i) Define cell physiology
the study of the functions of a cell in relation to their structure

ii) State the functions of the cell

exchange of materials between the cell and the external environment

physiological reactions e.g. photosynthesis
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production of energy through mitochondria

b) i) Describe the structure of cell membrane

- made up of three layers

- Lipid portion sandwiched between two protein layers
- Lipid portion enhances penetration of oil soluble substances
Pores present to facilitate inward and outward movement of water soluble substances

iii) Give the properties of cell membrane

semi-permeable sensitive to changes in

temperature and pH Possesses electric
charges.

c) i) What is diffusion?

movement of substances/molecules/particles/ions from a region of high concentration to a region of

low concentration (until equilibrium is reached)

ii) State the factors affecting diffusion

diffusion gradient/concentration gradient surface

area to volume ratio temperature size of
molecules state of the diffusing substance
thickness of membrane and tissues

iii) Explain the roles of diffusion in living organisms gaseous exchange

absorption of digested food in intestines movement of salts
in plants movement of materials between blood capillaries
and tissues removal of waste materials from bodies of small
organisms air movement in intercellular spaces in plants

iv) Suggest an experiment to demonstrate diffusion

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to a beaker of water, drop crystals of potassium permanganate or copper sulphate
leave to stand in a place without disturbing observe the spreading of molecules
liquid is coloured uniformly due to diffusion

d) i) What is osmosis?
Movement of water or solvent molecules from a dilute/hypotonic solution to a more
concentrated/hypertonic solution across a semi-permeable membrane.
OR
movement of solvent molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane

ii) State the factors affecting osmosis

concentration of the solution

concentration gradient temperature

iv) Explain the roles of osmosis in living organisms

helps to draw water into roots of plants

helps in the passage of water from one living cell to another in the plant
helps to keep plant cells turgid increasing support
Helps in opening and closing of stomata.
Folding of leaves in Mimosa pudica when touched
Feeding in insectivorous plants

v) A group of students set up an experiment to investigate a certain physiological process.

The set up is as shown in the diagram below.

After some time they

observed that the level of sugar
had risen.
What was the physiological process under investigation?
Osmosis

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Why was there a rise in the level of sugar solution?
sugar solution is more concentrated than cell sap osmosis
those cells become more concentrated and therefore draw water from neighbouring cells this
process continues until the cells in contact with the water in the container draw it up causing a rise in
the level of the sugar solution

Suggest the results that the students would obtain if they repeated the experiment using cooked
potato
The level of sugar solution will not rise.

What is the reason for your suggestion?

boiling kills/destroys cells making them osmotically inactive
vi) Explain the following terms

Hypnotic a solution whose concentration is lower than that of the

cell

Isotonic a solution whose concentration is the same as that of the

cell

Hypertonic a solution whose concentration is higher than that of

the cell

Turgor pressure
As a cell gains water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward pressure called turgor pressure.

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Plasmolysis if a plant is placed in a hypotonic solution
if loses water
the protoplasm shrinks to an extent that it pulls away from the cellulose cell wall

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Wilting when a plant is turgid it can
stand upright
however, if the cells lose a lot of water, turgidity is reduced
the plant then droops because the cells are flaccid the plant
is said to wilt

Haemolysis if red blood cells are placed in distilled water, the cells take up water by osmosis,
swell and burst this is because it does not have any mechanism like the cellulose cell wall to
prevent overstretching nor any means of removing excess water this is called haemolysis

e) A form one student placed red blood cells in different salt concentrations and obtained
the following results:-
There was a gain (+) no change (0 zero) and a loss
(-) in the volume of the cells as show below:- Briefly
explain the results of the experiment in the first
solution , red blood cell absorbed water by
osmosis, swell and burst (haemolysis) hence the
solution is hypotonic
in the second solution, there was no change
in size or structure as it was isotonic hence no
osmotic gradient

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in the third solution the red blood cell lost water to shrink hence became crenated as the solution was
hypotonic to the cell cytoplasm.

f) i) What is active transport?

movement of molecules and ions against a concentration gradient

the substances move from a lower to a higher concentration gradient by use of energy

ii) State the factors affecting active

transport oxygen concentration
temperature change in pH glucose
concentration
enzyme inhibitors

iii) Why is oxygen important in the process

of active transport?
- Oxygen is required for respiration, which produces energy necessary for the process to occur.

2.0 ) the factors that affect the rates of the following process in living organisms.

a.) DIFFUSION.

- Diffusion gradient which refers to the difference in concentration of molecules between the region of
high concentration and the region of low concentration. Increasing the concentration gradient causes an
increase in rate of diffusion and vice versa.
-Surface area to volume ratio .is the ratio of total surface area exposed by an organism compared to its
body volume. Small sized living organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. The larger the
surface area to volume ratio ,the high the rate of diffusion and vice versa. Small organisms like amoeba
and paramecium can hence rely on diffusion for transport of substances into and within its body and
removal of waste products
-thickness of membranes. Molecules take longer to diffuse across thick membranes than across thin
membranes hence the thin the membrane the higher the rate of diffusion.
-Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of diffusing molecules making them
to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa
-size of molecules/molecular [Link] sized molecules/molecules of low molecular weight
move/diffuse faster hence the rate of diffusion is high where the molecules involved are small or have low
molecular weight and vice versa.

B.)OSMOSIS

-Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules making them to spread
faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of osmosis and vice versa

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-concentration gradient/diffusion pressure deficit. Refers to the difference in concentration on either
side of a semi-permeable membrane. The higher the osmotic pressure difference the higher the rate of
osmosis.

C.) ACTIVE TRANSPORT

OXYGEN CONCENTRATION. It is required for respiration/to oxidize respiratory substrates to release

energy required for active transport. an increase in oxygen concentration causes a simultaneous increase to
the rate of active transport upto a certain level.
PH Enzymes being protein in nature are PH specific. Extreme change in PH affect the rate of respiration
which is controlled by enzymes and may denature the enzymes reducing the rate of active transport. -
GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION. is the main respiratory substrate for energy production. An increase in
glucose concentration in cells increase the rate of respiration and hence the rate of active transport is
increased upto a certain optimum level beyond which any additional increase in glucose concentration has
no effect.
TEMPERATURE. The process of respiration by which energy for active transport is generated is
controlled by enzymes. Enzymes work best at temperatures of between 350c-400c,usually called optimum
temperature ranges. At very low temperatures enzymes are inactive lowering the rate of respiration hence
low rates of active transport . increase in temperature above optimum ( above 400c)denatures enzymes
slowing down respiration and ac tive transport until it finally stops.
ENZYMES INHIBITORS. They are substances which slow down (by competing with the enzyme for
the active sites in the substrate) or stop ( by blocking the active sites of the enzyme) the activity/funtioning
of enzymes .this slows down or stops respiration and so is active transport.
CONCENTRATION OF CARRIER MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE. They are
substances that bind to the ions being transported actively and carrying them across the membrane .
increase in concentration of carrier molecules increases the rate of active transport upto a certain level and
vise versa.

4.) explain briefly the role of osmosis in living tissues.

In plants:
Osmosis facilitates the absorption of water from the soil by plant roots, water is required for the process of
photosynthesis.
Turgidity of cells contributes to support in herbaceous plants and helps plant to maintain shape.
Helps in closing and opening of stomata regulating the process of gaseous exchange and transpiration.
It facilitates feeding in insectivorous plants like venus fly trap.
In animals:
Enables reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules back to blood stream facilitating the process of
osmoregulation.
It enables organisms in fresh water bodies like amoeba to absorb water. it
is applied in food preservation.

5.) explain what happens when plant and animal cells are put in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions.

a. i)plant cells in hypotonic solution.

The concentration of the plant cell sap is hypertonic to the solution/water medium. the cell draws in water
by osmosis through the cell wall, cell membrane into the cell cytoplasm. Water enters the cell vacuole by
osmosis; it enlarges and exerts an outward pressure on the cell wall called turgor pressure. Increased turgor
pressure pushes the cell cytoplasm against the cell wall until the cell wall cannot stretch any further. The
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cell becomes firm or rigid and is said to be turgid. As the cell wall is being stretched outwards, it develops
a resistant inwards pressure that is equal and opposite to the turgor pressure and this is called wall
pressure.

ii.) Plant cells in hypertonic solution.

The plant cell sap is hypotonic to the solution medium. Water molecules are drawn out of the plant cells
by osmosis into the hypertonic solution through the semi-permiable membrane of the plant cells. As a
result the plant cell will start to shrink/less rigid and become flabby. The cell membrane/plasma
membrane is pulled away from the cell wall and the cell is said to be flaccid. this process by which a plant
cell lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called plasmolysis. However the shape of the plant cell is
maintained by the tough rigid cellulose cell wall which prevents crenation in plant cells.

b.i) Animal cells in hypotonic solution.

The concentration of water in the cytoplasm of the plant cells is hypertonic to the solution medium in the
test. Water molecules are then drawn into the animal cell cytoplasm from the surrounding medium by
osmosis through the semipermiable membrane. the cell swells as water is drawn into them by osmosis .as
water continues to enter into the cell,the weak animal cell membrane bursts a process called lysis. in red
blood cells this process is called haemolysis. However in unicellular organisms like amoeba and
paramecium,bursting of their cells does not take place because they have specialized organelles called
contractile vacuoles for removal of exces water out of their bodies/cells.

ii.) animal cells in hypertonic solution.

The concentration of the animal cells cell cytoplasm is hypotonic to the solution medium in the test. the
surrounding hypertonic solution will draw water out of the animal cells by osmosis through the semipermeable
membrane. Continued loss of water causes the cells to be smaller in size and their membranes become wrinkled.
This process will continue until the concentration of the cell sap and the surrounding medium is equal i.e
[Link] process by which animal cells lose water and shrink is called crenation.

6.) Explain briefly the role of active transport in living organisms.

It is involved in active reabsorption of glucose and mineral salts in kidney tubules during formation of
urine. it enables the absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal/small intestines into the blood
stream. Excretion of waste products from body cells for eventual removal. Involved in transmission of
nerve impulses within the nerve cells through the sodium pump which maintains a balance between
sodium and potassium ions. It facilitates accumulation of substances in the body cells to offset osmotic
pressure of organisms in dry and marine environment allowing them to absorb water by osmosis and avoid
desiccation. In plants it enables plant roots to absorb water from the soil against the concentration gradient.
It’s involved in translocation of manufactured food in the phloem tissue within the plant body. It’s
involved in the opening and closing of the stomata through the sodium-potassium pump mechanism.

iv) Outline the roles of active transport in living organisms

mineral salt intake by plants
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selective reabsorption of glucose and some salts by kidney tubules
absorption of digested good by small intestines excretion of waste
products from body cells
reabsorption of useful materials in the blood stream or at the tissue fluid sodium
pump mechanism in the nerve cells/neurons

f.) a) i) Define nutrition

the process by which living organisms obtain and assimilate nutrients

ii) State the importance of nutrition

for respiration to get energy
for growth for
development
to repair and replace worn out and damaged parts and tissues

b) Differentiate the various modes of feeding

i) Autotrophism
manufacturing food from simple organic substances
types are photosynthesis and chemosynthesis

ii) Heterotrophism
obtaining food from autotrophes and other organic substances types are
holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic

g.) a) i) Define photosynthesis

the process by which green plants build up organic compounds from carbon IV oxide and water in the
presence of sunlight

ii. State the importance of photosynthesis

formation of sugars/glucose which is a source of energy

purification of air(CO2 is used, O2 is released) storage
of energy to be used later in respiration
stores energy in wood, coal, oil to be used later to run industries

Structural adaptation of the leaf to its function

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The leaf has a broad and flattened lamina to provide a large surface area for trapping optimum light for
photosynthesis and allow maximum gaseous exchange.
The leaf epidermis is thin ( one cell thick) to reduce the distance across which diffusion of carbon (iv)
oxide gas to palisade cells and oxygen gas from palisade cells takes place.
The leaf has numerous stomata that allows easy diffusion of gases into and out of the palisade tissue. The
leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow easy penetration of light to the photosynthetic tissue.
The palisade cells are numerous,elongated and contain numerous chloroplasts to trapping optimum light for
photosynthesis.
The palisade tissue is just beneath the upper epidermis exposing them to trap optimum light for
photosynthesis.

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The leaf has numerous leaf veins consisting of a.) xylem vessels and tracheids for transporting water and
dissolved mineral salts from the soil to the photosynthetic tissue
b.) phloem tissue for translocation of of manufactured food from the leaf to storage organs and other parts
of the plant .
Numerous and large air spaces in the spongy mesopyl layer for optimum gaseous exchange with the
photosynthetic tissue.
Phylotaxy which is regular arrangement of leaves on the stem minimizes overshadowing and overlapping
exposing all leaves to light for photosynthesis.
The prominent midrib and leaf veins reduces chances of rolling of leaves maintaining a large surface area
for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis.

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C) Describe the structure and function of chloroplast
i) Structure

ii) Function
structure in which photosynthesis takes place
iii) Adaptations
has numerous/many grana to provide large surface area for packing many chlorophyll pigments have
numerous chlorophyll pigments which trap sunlight/light for photosynthesis
has stroma/third matrix which contain certain enzymes that catalyze photosynthetic reactions
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d) i) Give a word equation for photosynthesis

Carbon (iv)Oxide + water sunlight sugar + oxygen

Chlorophyll

NB 6CO2 +6H2O C6H1206 + 6O2

.) describe briefly the process of photosynthesis in plants.

The process of photosynthesis takes place in green plants allowing them to make their own food. The
process is controlled by enzymes and involves a series of reactions that take place in chloroplasts. The raw
materials required are water and carbon (iv) [Link] process takes place in two consecutive stages i.e Light
reaction stage.

It’s also called the light dependent stage as it requires light energy . the reactions take place in the granna
of the chloroplast. light energy from the sun is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and converted into
chemical energy. This energy splits water molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms a process is
called photolysis. The oxygen atoms are released as aby product or used up in the process of respiration.
The hydrogen ions formed are used in the dark stage of photosynthesis.
Water hydrogen ions + oxygen atoms
2H2O 4H+ + o2 g
Some of the light enrgy is used to combine a molecule called adenosine diphosphate(ADP) with a
phosphate group to form the rich energy molecules called adenosine Tri-Phosphate(ATP)
ADP + P ATP
Dark reaction stage.

It’s also called the light independent stage of photosynthesis since light is not required because it can take
place both in presence and absence of light. the reactions are controlled by enzymes. the hydrogen atoms
released in the light stage are combined with carbon(iv)oxide to form simple sugars mainly glucose. The
process uses energy from ATP. This is reffered to as carbon (iv) oxide fixation. The reactions take place in
the stroma of chloroplast. The excess glucose is converted into starch or lipids for storage.
The general process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following word and chemical equitions.

light & chlorophyll

Water + carbon (iv) oxide glucose + oxygen
6H2o + 6co2 C6H12O6 + 6O2

9.) factors that cause high rate of photosynthesis.

High water availability in the soil. Water a raw material for photosynthesis is split in presence of light to
provide the hydrogen ions required in carbon (iv) fixation. When water is readily available more hydrogen
ions are produced hence high rate of photosynthesis.
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High light intensity. Light splits water molecules to hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms. Increasing light intensity
increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level beyond which other factors become
limiting and rate of photosynthesis becomes constant.
rate
of
photosynthesis

Increasing light intensity

Day length. Long day length especially at high latitudes (temperate regions) provides more light for photosynthesis
causing an increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Light quality. The preferred wavelengths for photosynthesis range between 400nm-700nm. the rate of
photosynthesis is higher in red and blue light and lower in all other types of light.
Concentration of carbon (iv) oxide. It’s a raw material required to combine with hydrogen ions to form simple
carbohydrate molecules. Increasing the concentration of carbon (iv) oxide increases the rate of
photosynthesis up to an optimum level beyond which other factors
limit the rate of photosynthesis.

rate
of
photosynthesis

concentration of co2

f) Give the differences between the light and dark reactions during photosynthesis

Light reactions Dark reactions

occurs in grana occurs in stroma

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h.) a) i) What are chemicals of life?
substances which make up cells, tissues and organs of the living system
they combine to form organic compounds

ii) What are organic compounds?

compounds that contain the element carbon
iii) List the organic compounds

proteins
carbohydrates
lipids(fats and oils)
vitamins
enzymes
nucleic acids(DNA and RNA)

b) i) What are carbohydrates?

- Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

- The elements are in the ratio of I carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen

ii) Name the groups of carbohydrates monosaccharides (simple carbohydrates) e.g. glucose,
fructose and galactose disaccharides ( formed when two monosaccharides combine) e.g.
maltose, sucrose, lactose polysaccharides (composed of many monosaccharides and
disaccharides) e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose

iv) State the general functions of carbohydrates

production of chemical energy storage of

starch(plants) and glycogen (animals) commercial
uses e.g. manufacture of paper, textiles

c) i) what are proteins?

compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and in addition nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur and or
phosphorus
building blocks are called amino acids

ii) Name the types of amino acids

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essential amino acids which must be supplied in food since they body cannot synthesize them Non-essential amino
acids which body can synthesize.

iv) State the classes of proteins

first class proteins which supply all the essential amino acids
second class proteins which lack at least one amino acid

v) Give the functions of proteins

structural compounds e.g. muscles, hair, hooves, and feathers

as enzymes e.g. pepsin, trypsin hormones
e.g. insulin and glucagons antibodies part of
haemoglobin molecule actin and myosin in
muscles collagen in bones and cartilage
pigments in rods and cones for coordination
components of blood i.e. plasma proteins

d ) i) What are lipids

- Fats and oils

- They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- However, they contain a higher proportion of carbon and hydrogen but less oxygen that in carbohydrates

ii) Name the types of lipids

oils(liquid under room temperature)

fats (solid under room temperature)

iii) What are the building blocks of lipids?

fatty acids and glycerol

v) State the functions of lipids

production of energy source

of metabolic water
structural compound

e) i) What are enzymes?

a chemical compound, protein in nature, which acts as a biological catalyst

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ii) State the properties of enzymes

are highly specific in nature

they are not used up during chemical reactions work
within specific range of temperature work within
specific range of pH
enzyme controlled reactions are reversible

iii) State the factors that affect enzyme action

temperature substrate
concentration pH of the
medium enzyme concentration
presence of inhibitors and co-factors

v) Name the types of enzyme inhibitors

competitive inhibitors
non- competitive inhibitors

vi) What are the functions of enzymes?

enable cellular reactions to take place at a reasonably faster rate

Control cell reactions therefore no violent incidences occur in cells that might burn them.

i.) a) Explain the various types of heterotrophic nutrition

i) Holozoic
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Mode of feeding by animals where solid complex food substances are ingested, digested and egested.

ii) Saprophytism
feeding on dead organic matter

iii) Parasitism
feeding from another organism but not killing it

iv) Symbiosis
an association in which organisms of different species derive mutual benefit from one another

b) Differentiate between omnivorous, carnivorous and herbivorous modes of nutrition

i) Herbivorous
herbivores feed exclusively on vegetation

ii) Omnivorous
omnivores are animals which feed partially on plant materials and partially on flesh e.g pigs

iii) Carnivorous
Carnivores feed on flesh alone e.g. lion

c) i) What is dentition?
Refers to the number, arrangement and kind of teeth in an animal

ii) Distinguish between the terms homodont and heterodont

homodont have same kind , type, shape and size of teeth which perform similar function e.g. fish, reptiles and
amphibians
Heterodont have different kind, type, shape and size of teeth which perform different functions as those found
in mammals.

iv) Name the types of teeth found in mammals

Incisors
Canines
Pre-molars
Molars

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d) Describe the adaptations and functions of various types of mammalian teeth

Incisors chisel shaped/wedge shaped found in

the front of the buccal cavity used for cutting
i) Canines
next to incisors very sharp and pointed
located at the sides of jaws
used for tearing food ii) Premolars
next to canines but before molars have cusps
and ridges on their surface
used for crushing and grinding
iii) Molars
found at the back of the jaw have cusps and
ridges on their surface
absent in young mammals but appear later
when permanent teeth grow used for grinding
and crushing

e) i)Draw a labeled diagram to represent internal structure of a mammalian tooth.

ii) State the functions of the labeled structures labeled

Dentine main constituent of
teeth
like bone in structure but contains no cells
Enamel
protects tooth from mechanical/physical injury the
hard covering of the exposed part of teeth
Crown
portion of tooth above the gum covered
with dentine

Root part imbedded in the jaw below the gum

covered by substances called cement
cement is hard and bone-like

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Cement bone-like substance covering root and enamel of mammalian
tooth

Neck region at the same level with the gum forms a

junction between the crown and root
covered by enamel

Pulp cavity at centre of tooth within

dentine
has blood vessels for transporting nutrients/food and gases has
nerves for sensitivity

f) i) What is dental formula? formula indicating the number of each kind of teeth for a
given species of mammal only half the jaw is included
the number in the upper jaw of one side is written above that in the lower jaw of one side the
categories of teeth are given in the order incisors, canines, pre-molars, molars

ii) Give examples of dentition in named mammals

carnivore e.g. dog i2/3 , c 1/1, pm 2/3, m2/3 = 42 herbivore
e.g. sheep I 0/3, c 0/1, pm 2/3, m3/3 = 30 Omnivore e.g.
human I 2/2. c1/1, pm2/2, m 3/3 = 32

iii) How would one use dental formula to identify the

following?
Herbivores presence of diastema/gap between incisors
and premolars free movement of tongue absence of
incisors in upper jaw absence of canines presence of hard
pad
closely packed molars

Carnivore presence of
canines presence of
carnassial teeth
presence of incisors in upper jaw/absence of diastema/gap between incisor and premolar

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iv) State the functions of the following structures in mammals

Carnassials tearing flesh from

bones
Pad of gum provides grasping surface for lower
incisors

g) Name the common dental diseases

dental caries periodontal (pyorrhea and
gingivitis)
j.) a) i) What is digestion?
breakdown of complex food particles by enzymes to simple substances which can be absorbed
ii) Explain the types of digestion
Intercellular
Digestion that takes place in food vacuoles inside cells.
Extra cellular digestion that takes place outside cells e.g. in the
digestive tract
b) i) Draw human digestive system

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ii) Describe the process of digestion in the various parts of the human digestive system

Mouth
contains teeth for chewing has tongue
for mixing food with saliva
has salivary glands for chemical digestion, secretion of enzymes and mucus secretion
starch is acted on by salivary amylase enzymes to produce maltose the tongue rolls
food into a bolus which is carried into the stomach by peristalsis peristalsis is
movement of food along the gut by waves of contraction

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it facilitates rapid digestion due to its mixing action

Oesophagus
also called gullet forms a passage for
food by peristalsis
connects the mouth to the stomach

Stomach
has gastric glands which secrete gastric juices
these juices contain hydrochloric acid(HCL), mucus, and the enzymes pepsin, rennin and lipase
HCL produces an acidic medium for enzyme action
Proteins are acted upon by pepsin to produce peptides
Caseinogen is acted upon by rennin to produce casein
Fats are acted upon by lipase to produce fatty acids and glycerol
Mucus lubricates the stomach and prevents autolysis of stomach (mucus protects stomach)

Duodenum
the first u-shaped part of the small intestine food in the
stomach is now in a semi-liquid form called chime chime leaves
the stomach by peristalsis into the duodenum
there, the liver produces bile pigments, bile salts and sodium hydrogen carbonate
the stomach is usually alkaline to neutralize chime which is acidic bile salts
emulsify fats bile comes from the gall bladder through the bile duct sodium
hydrogen carbonate provides the correct pH/alkaline pancreatic juices are released
by pancreas into the duodenum the juices contain trypsin, chemotrypsin, amylase,
lipase and protease proteins are acted upon by trypsin to form polypeptides and
amino acids starch is broken down to maltose by amylase

Ileum
- produces intestinal juices
- Intestinal juice contains maltase, sucrase, lactase, erepsin, lipase, and several other peptidases
- Maltose is broken down to glucose and galactose by lactase
- Sucrose is acted upon by sucrase to glucose
Polypeptides are broken down into amino acids by erepsin
- Mucus secretion is to protect the ileum wall from digestion/autolysis

Colon
- Commonly called the large intestine
- Wider than the ileum
- has several mucus-producing cells
Highly folded for water absorption
- Also prepares food for egestion
- egestion is the process by which the insoluble parts of food are discharged from the body in form of faeces.

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Rectum
- Muscular and enlarged
- it produces mucus
- used for storage and removal of faeces

Anus

- found at the exterior end of the rectum

The rectum opens into the anus
- The anus has anal sphincter to control egestion
- Anus is used for egestion of faeces

c) Explain how mammalian intestines are adapted to perform their function

-
The mammalian intestines are relatively long and coiled. This allows food enough time and increases
surface area for digestion and absorption of products of digestion
- The intestinal lumen (inner wall) has projections called villi to increase surface area for absorption
- The villi have projections called micro-villi which lead to further increase of surface area for absorption - The
walls have glands which secrete enzymes for digestion e.g. maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidase and enterokinase.
- Goblet cells (mucus secreting cells or glands) produce mucus which protects the intestinal wall from being digested
and reduces friction.
- Intestines have openings of ducts which allow bile, a pancreatic juice into the lumen
- The intestines have circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction and relaxation (peristalsis) leads to mixing
of food with enzymes (juices) helps push food along the gut.
- The intestines are well supplied with blood vessels that supply oxygen and remove digested food.
- Intestines have lacteal vessels for transport of lipids (fats and oils)
- Intestines have thin epithelium to facilitate fast/rapid absorption/diffusion

d) What is the function of hydrochloric acid in digestion?

- kills bacteria
- activates trypsinogen to trypsin which digests proteins to peptones and peptones to soluble amino acids -
provides acidic medium for gastric enzymes

e) i) What is assimilation?
- The process by which digested food is taken up by cells and used in the body for various purposes.

ii) State the uses of digested food in the bodies of animals

- Protection
- Repair
- Growth
- Energy production

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f) Name the types of food substances in the food that do not undergo digestion in human digestive
system mineral salts water roughage
vitamins

k.) Explain the importance of the following food substances in human nutrition

Vitamins are organic chemical compounds essential for a

healthy body are obtained from fresh fruits and vegetables
some are synthesized in the body e.g. vitamin K they are
destroyed by overcooking food
they protect the body against diseases, play regulatory mechanisms in the body and act as coenzymes
insufficient amounts lead to deficiency diseases e.g. rickets, scurvy, beriberi

a) Mineral salts are important in organic compounds containing elements which are essential for normal body
metabolism
those required in large quantities are called macro-nutrients while those required in small quantities are
called micro-nutrients or trace elements
They are used in bone and teeth formation. In osmotic balance and neurotransmission insufficient
amounts lead to anaemia, rickets, goiter

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Excess amounts lead to high blood pressure, and dental disorders.

b) Roughage
composed of cellulose and plant fibers
digested by cellulose contained by gut microorganisms
provides grip essential for peristalsis
lack of roughage leads to slow movement of food leading to constipation roughage adds
bulk to food for peristalsis to take place

c) Water
used in transport in the body, universal solvent, hydrolysis insufficient leads
to dehydration

l.) Explain the factors that determine energy requirements in humans

a) Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) this is the energy required when the body is completely at rest
used to carry out breathing, heartbeat, circulation of blood and other basic reactions
also used in maintaining body temperature at constant all movements or physical
work e.g. walking, eating required more energy.

b) Occupation
means activity occurring everyday everyday
activity determines energy requirement
People doing heavy work like digging require more energy than office workers.

c) Age
children carry out many activities and also have more cell division than adults their
BMR is therefore higher than for adults
as they grow older, they become less active and their energy requirements decrease

d) Body size
small bodied people have a large surface area to volume ratio
their bodies lose more heat energy to the surrounding they
therefore require more energy-giving foods this is the opposite
for big bodied people

e) Sex
most males are more muscular than females
they also do heavier work than females hence require more energy females
do lighter work hence require less energy

f) Climate
in warm climate the body requires less energy
in low temperatures the body requires more energy to maintain body temperature

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m.) Explain various tests carried out on food

Test Procedure Observation Conclusion

Starch - add iodine solution - colour changes to Present
blue black/dark blue
Reducing sugar Benedicts solution - colour changes to Present
heat/boil/warm in Green to yellow to
hot water bath orange to brown to
red
Non-reducing sugar Dilute HCL, - colour changes to Present
NaHCO3, heat/boil, Green to yellow to
warm in hot water orange to brown to
bath
red
Proteins 1% CuSO4, 5% -- colour changes to Present
NaOH purple/violet
Ascorbic acid DCPIP drop wise DCPIP decolorized Present
(Vitamin C)
Fats/oils (lipids) - rub on filter paper - translucent mark present
- ethanol - white emulsions

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