Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Review article

Traditional uses, phytochemicals, and biological properties of

Saba senegalensis
Auphedeous Yinme Dang-i a, 1 , Isaac Otu Atta a , Osman Haadi Mbaadawu b ,
Shakira Ibrahim a , James Abugri b, 1 , Michael Adu-Frimpong b, *
a
Department of Applied Chemistry, School Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences (CKT-
UTAS), Navrongo, UK 0215-5321, Ghana
b
Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Sciences, School Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied
Sciences (CKT-UTAS), Navrongo, UK 0215-5321, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The fruit of Saba senegalensis is respectively known among local folks in Ghana, Senegal, and
Biological properties Burkina Faso as εsononantin, maad and weda. The plant has been used traditionally, ethno­
Ethnobotanical uses botanically, and medicinally in most West African countries. The phytochemicals that have been
Phytochemicals
discovered in various extracts of S. senegalensis parts include alkaloids, coumarins, anthracene
Proximate composition
Traditional uses
glycosides, anthocyanosides, anthocyanins, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins, saponin glycosides,
Saba senegalensis sterols, condensed tannins, tannins, triterpenes, and triterpenoids. Presently, isolation and
characterisation of phytochemicals from various parts of S. senegalensis has not been fully
explored since scientists have isolated only two steroidal alkaloids from the stem of the plant
namely Irehine and Homoandrost-9-ene-17β,17aβ-diol-3β-(methylamino)-17aα-methyl-12-one.
The phytochemicals have shown biological properties such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory,
anthelmintic, anti-microbial, analgesic, larvicidal, ovicidal, myostimulant, hypotensive, anti-
diabetic, anti-lipid peroxidation and anti-mycobacterial effects. Additionally, isolation and
characterisation of medicinally beneficial phytochemicals from various parts of the plant, namely
latex, leaf, stem, flower, root, fruit, and bark should be comprehensively investigated. Thus, this
current review summarises the traditional uses, phytochemicals, and biological properties of
various parts of the plant.

1. Introduction

Description of the genus Saba (Pichon) in the Apocynaceae family was first conducted in 1849. The genus is considered native to
mainland Africa, Comoros, and Madagascar [1,2]. However, the wider distribution of three species of this genus in Sub-Saharan Africa
[namely Saba comorensis (Bojer ex ADC.) Pichon, S. senegalensis (ADC.) Pichon and S. thompsonii (AChev.) Pichon] has been reported
[3] The S. senegalensis seems to be popular among the three above-mentioned species and has been appreciably studied by scientists. As
a wild fruit-bearing plant, S. senegalensis is mainly dispersed around African banks of rivers and open woodland [4]. The fruit of this
shrub-like liana plant is respectively known among local folks in Ghana, Senegal, and Burkina Faso as εsononantin, maad and weda [5].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Adu-Frimpong).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34934
Received 22 April 2024; Received in revised form 12 July 2024; Accepted 18 July 2024
Available online 19 July 2024
2405-8440/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

It is a climber with lance-shaped leaves that taper to the apex and can potentially reach a height of 40 m long with diameter below 15
cm [4]. Ethnobotanically, S. senegalensis has been used for medicine, food, and other economically viable purposes [6]. In terms of
value addition, the local folks of Ghana usually mash the ripened sweet-sour yellowish pulp of the fruit and use it to prepare Tuozaafi
and porridge, whilst the Burkinabe and Senegalese normally produce juice and jam from the fruit. Also, inner materials that envelope
the fruit pulp and shell are respectively used to substitute tamarind and lemon in fruit drinks as well as chewing gum [7]. Traditionally,
parts of S. senegalensis such as leaves, fruit, stem, roots, and latex have been used to treat various ailments [6]. Notable among these
traditional uses are the treatment of blindness, burning, constipation, chronic headaches, food poisoning, parasitic infections, pul­
monary disorders, leprosy, and scleroderma [6,8]. Besides, Belemlilga and co-experimenters affirmed the traditional use of
S. senegalensis for helminths treatment when they showed that an aqueous decoction of the plant could kill adult worms (Haemonchus
contortus, at LC50 of 6790 μg/ml) [9]. A growing body of literature has reported various biological activities of S. senegalensis. Scientists
in Burkina Faso showed that the aqueous extract of S. senegalensis could potently treat inflammatory diseases, particularly through
analgesia, anti-oxidation (at IC50 of 18.4 μg/ml) and anti-inflammation in mice [10]. Likewise, the leaves of S. senegalensis demon­
strated strong anti-oxidant (at IC50 of 1.74 μg/ml), analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects in mice [11]. Besides, polar fractions of
S. senegalensis has been explored for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, wherein scientists have demonstrated that butanol and ethyl
acetate extracts of the woody liana substantially inhibited alpha-amylase with respective IC50 of 410 and 1450 μg/ml [12]. Further,
leaves of S. senegalensis (aqueous extract) displayed anti-hypertension and myostimulant potentials in rabbits [13]. Various bioactive
phytochemicals have been extracted from parts of S. senegalensis. These include but are not limited to alkaloids, anthocyanosides,
anthracene-glycosides, carotenoids, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, tannins, triterpenes, triterpenoids, saponins and
sterols [10–12,14,15]. Altogether, ethnobotanical use and extracted phytochemicals demonstrate the excellent potential of
S. senegalensis to promoting health. Notwithstanding, secondary metabolites that have been identified in various parts of the plants
have not been compiled in a review article. Therefore, this review discusses the ethnobotanical uses, proximate compositions, phy­
tochemicals, biological activities, and toxicities of S. senegalensis.

2. Ethnobotanical uses

2.1. Botany

The botany of S. senegalensis has been reviewed in existing literature [6]. In brief, the plant has been found to freely grow in the
tropics. As a member of Apocynaceae family, S. senegalensis is a liana and is largely woody with the potential to grow beyond 40 m high
(Fig. 1a), amidst the bark being scaly dark-gray and produces white latex [6]. Usually, the plant climbs and grows through support of
other plant species, wherein the colour and shape of leaves are respectively dark-green and elliptically shaped (Fig. 1b). S. senegalensis
produces large and bumpy and ovoid-shaped fruits (Fig. 1c). When it is cut opened, the seeds can be seen to be coated with marginally
semi-transparent yellow and fibrous pulps (Fig. 1d) [6].

2.2. Utilisation of S. senegalensis as food

There are several culinary applications for S. senegalensis, which is often known as the African cherry or wild custard apple.
Importantly, the pulp of S. senegalensis is a healthy food for human consumption because of its nutritional composition [16]. The fruit
of S. senegalensis has been used in many ways across African cultures. It is often eaten raw or used to make juices, jams, and sweets [6].
In addition to this, Diabagate and colleagues produced jam and syrup from fruit of the African cherry [17]. Also, S. senegalensis pulp,
palm oil and spices were combined to form sweet and tangy sauce known as "sabara," a popular meal in Nigeria [5]. Likewise, con­
diments and sauces have been prepared from leaves of the plants into appetizer which tasted salty or sweet [6]. Besides, certain foods
are prepared in Burkina Faso with an acidifier, which are usually prepared from dried hulls through grinding, mixing with water and
sieving [5]. Additionally, S. senegalensis is commonly pounded into a powder and dried in Cameroon for use as a flavouring in a variety
of recipes, namely stews, marinades, and soups [6,14]. Further, S. senegalensis seeds are very frequently roasted and processed into a
powder that may are used as a spice or added to soups and stews to improve their flavour [7]. In another study, it was observed that

Fig. 1. (a) Tree with unripe fruit, (b) leaves, (c) ripe fruit, and (d) cross-sectioned fruit with pulpy seeds of Saba senegalensis.

2
A.Y. Dang-i et al.
Table 1
Proximate composition of Saba senegalensis.
Country Community Moisture % Ash % Fat % Carbohydrate % Fibre% Protein% Energy (kcal/kg) method references

Cote devoir Boromo 84.55 ± 0.23 0.42 ± 0.02 1.15 ± 0.02 13.28 ± 0.11 0.57 ± 0.02 657.5 AOAC (1990) [5]
Hounde 82.09 ± 0.17 1.04 ± 0.01 1.25 ± 0.08 14.81 ± 0.10 0.79 ± 0.15 736.5
Nouna 88.03 ± 0.02 0.25 ± 0.01 0.88 ± 0.05 10.45 ± 0.07 0.37 ± 0.00 512
Ouagqdougou 80.94 ± 0.04 1.02 ± 0.06 1.17 ± 0.06 16.23 ± 0.59 0.63 ± 0.03 779.7
Ouahigouya 82.45 ± 0.01 0.52 ± 0.04 1.31 ± 0.03 15.09 ± 0.90 0.60 ± 0.00 745.5
Po 81.76 ± 0.20 0.58 ± 0.01 1.17 ± 0.03 15.88 ± 0.15 0.58 ± 0.4 763.7
3

Sapone’ 82.75 ± 0.03 0.31 ± 0.02 1.16 ± 0.02 15.20 ± 0.19 0.56 ± 0.02 734.8
Senegal Youtou 75.16 ± 1.06 1.29 ± 0.07 1.66 ± 0.51 0.22 ± 0.03 dehydration (method NF V 03–707) [40]
Bayla 74.77 ± 0.84 1.15 ± 0.06 0.96 ± 0.30 0.22 ± 0.02 Soxhlet (method NFV 03–905 standard)
Niamone 74.34 ± 0.93 1.52 ± 0.01 1.10 ± 0.26 0.22 ± 0.02 Kjeldhal’s method (NF 03–050 standard)
Salemata 75.34 ± 0.27 1.45 ± 0.20 1.33 ± 0.20 0.24 ± 0.01
Bandafasse 74.24 ± 0.43 1.44 ± 0.21 1.16 ± 0.05 0.21 ± 0.02
Ghana Nyankpala 2.80 ± 0.00 8.92 ± 0.00 74.23 ± 0.00 13.25 ± 0.00 0.53 ± 0.00 AOAC, 1990 [41]
Cote d’Ivoire 85.27 ± 0.37 0.58 ± 0.01 0.81 ± 0.02 0.18 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.01 (AOAC 1990) [42]

Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

S. senegalensis can be transformed into puree for subsequent conversion into other products such as concentrated bases, syrups,
marmalades, and nectars [6]. Despite the nutritional importance of plants, scientists have not comprehensively explored its health
benefits.

2.3. Traditionally medicinal uses of S. senegalensis

Traditionally, herbal medicine practitioners have utilised S. senegalensis for a very long time, especially among the West African
countries. Sarr and colleagues [6] had reviewed the traditional uses of the plant and reported that the local folks use the S. senegalensis
to treat conditions that include but not limited to anaemia, anorexia, gonorrhoea, cough, wounds, colic disorder, stomachache,
tuberculosis, haemostatic disorder, emetic syndrome, pulmonary disease, sterility, and scurvy. However, other scientists have reported
some traditionally medicinal uses of the plants which are different from what have been reported by Sarr and co-authors. In another
study, the authors observed that the raw fruits of S. senegalensis were utilised as appetite suppressant, which suggests the potential use
of the fruit for treatment of obesity [18]. Also, the stem and climber of the S. senegalensis were used to prepare tea for treatment of
stomach cancer [19]. Through ethnobotanical study, Tuo et al. discovered that the leaves of S. senegalensis is traditionally used to treat
diarrhoea in humans [20]. Besides, tonic, stimulant, anti-scorbutic and anorectic effects of the ripe fruits has been reported, whilst the
roots have been exploited to treat female fertility [21]. Stomach aches and vomiting along with tuberculosis and coughs are
respectively treated with the macerated leaves and latex of the plant, whilst its tendrils are used for baby care [21]. Further, an
ethnobotanical survey indicated that traditional healers in Mali explored the aqueous extracts of the fruit and root of S. senegalensis for
wound healing [22]. From existing literature, it is obvious that the S. senegalensis is consumed by West African local folks in the form of
teas, decoctions, or poultices for medical reasons, wherein the plant’s leaves, stem bark, and roots are frequently used. Although
S. senegalensis is a well-liked option for natural therapies, little is known about the active ingredients in the various parts of the plants.
Thus, scientists should isolate and characterise the active compounds that are responsible for the reported medicinal effects of the
plant.

2.4. Proximate composition of S. senegalensis fruit

Quantitative estimation of food and food substances such as dietary fibre, crude protein, moisture total carbohydrates and fats is
known as proximate analysis [23]. Thus, proximate composition is a crucial standard which is used to ascertain the nutritional values

Fig. 2. Vitamins and minerals identified in the fruit of Saba senegalensis.

4
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

and quality of edible medicinal plants [24]. Available literature suggests that the proximate composition of S. senegalensis fruit has
been widely studied by other scientists. Table 1 shows the proximate analysis of distinct parameters from different countries and
different communities from some nations. The parameters that have been studied in terms of proximate analysis include moisture, ash,
fat, fibre, protein, carbohydrate, and energy. Notwithstanding, the existing literature suggests that scientists have not determined all
the parameters for S. senegalensis fruit pulp. Hence, scientists can explore this area especially when the pulp is considered as the
principal edible part of the plant. Another observation from Table 1 is that even though all the authors worked on the fruit pulp but
yield different results which may be due to differences in geographical origin, genotypic distinctions, environmental factors, maturity
of the fruit pulp and ecological factors [25,26]. Besides, recent literature has reported the presence of essential amino acids such as
valine, tryptophan, threonine, phenylalanine, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, and lysine [27] in fruit pulp of the plant. Of note, the
proximate analysis of the other parts of the plant is yet to be studied.

2.5. Vitamins and mineral contents of S. senegalensis fruit

As vital micronutrients of foods, vitamins and minerals participate in most of the metabolic processes of humans at molecular level.
The vitamin and mineral contents of the fruit of S. senegalensis have been studied [5,8,16,17,28–30] wherein vitamin C, beta-carotene
and potassium have been respectively discovered to be the main vitamins and mineral in the fruit. Fig. 2 shows the vitamins and
minerals that have been identified in the fruit of S. senegalensis. Of note, the vitamins and minerals in the other parts of the plant have
not been well-studied.

2.6. Anti-nutritional profile of S. senegalensis fruit

Uptake of food or utilisation of nutrients can be reduced by the presence of biological components in foods, which are known as
anti-nutritional factors (ANFs), wherein they contribute to impaired functions of gastro-intestines and performance of metabolism [31]
as well as decrease bioavailability of nutrients [32]. Available literature has identified ANFs in edible plants to be amylase inhibitor,
goitrogens, gossypol, lectins, phytic acid, protease inhibitors, saponins and tannins [32]. The ANFs of S. senegalensis fruit pulp has been
studied [16,17,30,33], wherein the pulp mainly contained oxalic acids, phytates, tannins and saponins. Given the obvious presence of
ANFs in S. senegalensis fruit, it is importance that scientists explore available methods (such as acid-alkali treatment, boiling, cooking,
dehulling, fermentation, roasting, soaking, sonication, and toasting) [34] to remove ANFs before consumption to harness its potential
health benefits. At present, the ANFs of the pod and seeds of S. senegalensis have not been studied.

2.7. Phytochemicals present in various parts of S. senegalensis

Available literature suggests that various parts of S. senegalensis such as fruit pulp, leaf, stem, bark, twig, flower, seed, tendril, and
root have been explored for their ethnobotanical and therapeutical benefits [35]. Extensive literature search showed that scientists
have not extensively identified and isolated the phytochemicals presents in the above-mentioned parts of the plants. Herein, the

Fig. 3. General structure of some phytochemicals and structure of irehine, a pregnane steroidal alkaloid.

5
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

Table 2
Biological properties of various parts of Saba senegalensis.
Parts of Biological Method Result Country References
S. senegalensis property of study

Fruit pulp Anti-oxidant Scavenging of DPPH free radical The fruit pulp had increased anti-oxidant Cote [26]
activity with IC50 of 39.98 mg/ml d’Ivoire
Scavenging of DPPH free radical The fruit pulp displayed high anti-radical Burkina [21]
Ferric reducing anti-oxidant power (FRAP) activity of DPPH (73.62 %) and increased Faso
mean FRAP value of 29.52 mg EAA/100 g FP
Scavenging of DPPH free radical The fruit extract (125.00 μg/ml) showed the Mali [35]
highest anti-oxidant activity with
percentage scavenging activity of 30.66 %
Stem with leaf Scavenging of DPPH free radical Anti-oxidant activity of the aqueous extract Burkina [10]
was discovered through inhibition of DPPH Faso
radical with IC50 of 18.4 μg/ml
Anti- In vivo anti-oedematous effect using The aqueous extracts decreased oedema
inflammatory carrageenan assay in NMRI mice with maximally after fifth hour of carrageenan
aqueous extract of S. senegalensis stem with injection and achieved 93.26 % inhibition of
leaves being 100, 200 and 300 mg/kg. lipoxygenase
In vitro 5-lipoxygenase inhibitory assay
Analgesic Acetic acid induced writhing method in The aqueous extract exhibited analgesic
NMRI mice using the same extracts at 100, effect by reducing NMRI mice abdominal
200 and 300 mg/kg writhing
Anti-lipid Anti-lipid peroxidation assay The aqueous extract inhibition lipid
peroxidation peroxidation by 79.22 %
Leaf Anthelmintic In vitro anthelmintic assay using Haemonchus At concentration of 15.00 mg/ml, the Burkina [9]
contortus with concentrations of aqueous aqueous extract of leaves showed 93.63 % Faso
extract being 0.10, 1.00, 3.00, 10.00 and inhibition and LC50 on adult worms of 6.79
15.00 mg/ml mg/ml
Ovicidal/ In vitro anthelmintic assay using Both aqueous decoction and hydroethanolic Burkina [44]
Larvicidal Heligmosomoides bakeri, In vitro ovicidal macerate of the leaves extracts and fractions Faso
activity, In vitro larvicidal activity using demonstrated increased ovicidal and
different concentrations of the extracts (100, larvicidal properties with respective Emax
625, 1250, 2500 and 3750 μg/ml) and LC50 of 95.60 % and 390.00 μg/ml along
with 100.00 % and 900.00 μg/mL
Myostimulant In vivo using rabbit through the method of Aqueous extract (0.21–0.81 mg/ml) of the Cote [13]
rabbit intestinal fragment and intra- leaves exhibited myostimulatory effect by d’Ivoire
peritoneal injection of thiopental (1 g/kg increasing the amplitude of rabbit intestinal
body weight) before measurement of arterial rhythmic contractions by 130.00–244.29 %.
blood pressure
Hypotensive The same aqueous extract (ED50 = 6, 11
mg/kg body weight) of the plant decreased
the rabbits’ arterial blood pressure from 7(4
%) to 18 (33 %)
Anti-oxidant Scavenging of DPPH free radical with ethyl The butanolic fraction (IC50 = 0.94 mg/ml) Senegal [12]
acetate and butanolic fractions of showed increased anti-oxidant activity
S. senegalensis leaves compared to ethyl acetate fraction (2.89
mg/ml)
Anti-diabetic In vitro alpha-amylase inhibitory assaying Anti-diabetic effect was evaluated through
with ethyl acetate and butanolic fractions of alpha-amylase inhibition, wherein the result
S. senegalensis leaves showed that the butanolic fraction (IC50 =
0.41 mg/ml) demonstrated obvious
inhibition of alpha amylase compared to
ethyl acetate fraction (IC50 = 1.45 mg/ml)
In vivo treatment of Mus musculus mice with The aqueous extract exhibited blood glucose Cote [52]
glucose 3 g/kg body weight to induce lowering activity within a range of d’Ivoire
hyperglycaemia before oral administration of 48.60–81.84 % after 1 h of treatment.
aqueous extract of S. senegalensis leaves at
doses of 150, 200 and 250 mg/kg
Anti- Anti-mycobacterial activity of the aqueous, The ethanolic extract of the leaves obviously Mali [53]
mycobacterial dichloromethane and ethanolic extracts of prevented the growth of H37Rv strain with
S. senegalensis leaves was investigated with minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv (ATCC 125 μg/ml
27294 strain)
Anti-oxidant Scavenging of DPPH free radical with The aqueous fraction demonstrated better Burkina [11]
aqueous, hydroethanolic and ethyl acetate anti-oxidant activity with respective IC50 Faso
fractions of S. senegalensis leaves at doses of and reducing power being 1.74 μg/ml and
200, 400 and 600 mg/kg 59.53 ET/g Sample
Anti- In vivo anti-oedematous effect using Aqueous fraction showed respective
inflammatory carrageenan assay in NMRI mice with the increasing oedematous inhibition
above-mentioned fractions and doses
(continued on next page)

6
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

Table 2 (continued )
Parts of Biological Method Result Country References
S. senegalensis property of study

percentages of 30.81, 62.27 and 72.71 % at

doses of 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg
Analgesic Acetic acid induced writhing method in Hydroethanolic fraction demonstrated
NMRI mice better pain reduction with maximal
inhibition of 77.28 % at 400 mg/kg
Anti-oxidant Hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity The aqueous (IC50 = 69.57 μg/ml) and Mali [54]
FRAP hydroethanolic (IC50 = 35.61 μg/ml)
extracts of the leaves demonstrated
moderate and good anti-oxidant activity
respectively
Anti- In vitro cyclooxygenase and protein Hydroethanolic extract of S. senegalensis
inflammatory denaturation inhibition tests leaves inhibited cyclooxygenase activity
with IC50 lower than 30 μg/ml

phytochemicals that have been reported in this study were identified in the extracts of the various parts of the plant. Generally, the
presence of phytochemicals such as alkaloids, coumarins, anthracene glycosides, anthocyanosides, anthocyanins, coumarins, flavo­
noids, saponins, saponin glycosides, sterols, condensed tannins, tannins, triterpenes, and triterpenoids (Fig. 3) have been identified in
the extracts of S. Senegalensis fruit pulp, leaves, stem, and root.

2.7.1. Fruit pulp

Of all the various parts of the plant, the fruit has been widely studied in terms of identifying its bioactive phytochemicals. Based on
existing literature [8,9,29], it can be concluded that the fruits contain diverse phytochemicals. Earlier work had shown the presence of
polyphenols (mainly composed of flavonoids and anthocyanins) in the methanol and acetone extracts of S. senegalensis fruit pulp [36].
Likewise, Kini and colleagues revealed the presence of triterpenes and anthraquinones in the fruit pulp of S. senegalensis [37]. In
another study, Yao and co-experimenters affirmed the presence of polyphenols, particularly flavonoids and tannins in ethanolic so­
lution of the fruit pulp [33]. However, other scientists did not detect alkaloids, saponins, tannins and coumarins, but revealed the
presence of flavonoids, anthocyanins, and steroid terpenes in the fruit pulp of S. senegalensis [38]. Besides, Kouakoua and co-authors
[29] observed higher presence of beta-carotene and polyphenols (specifically flavonoids) in fruit pulp of S. senegalensis in comparison
with banana, papaya, and pineapple. The presence of beta-carotene and phenols in fruit pulp of the plants was also affirmed by
Diabagate and colleagues [16]. Also, the presence of beta-carotene and lycopene were detected in the pulp of S. senegalensis after the
scientists [21] treated the sample with acetone/hexane (70/30). In the same study, the authors discovered that ethanolic extract of the
fruit pulp contained alkaloids, saponins, terpenes, tannins, flavonoids, and polyphenols [21]. In summary, fruit pulp of S. senegalensis
mainly contain beta-carotene and polyphenols, amid inconsistency in the reported phytochemicals of the plants. The above-mentioned
discrepancy may be attributed to sample storage and climatic conditions, as well as extract preparative methods, ripening time and
solvents that were employed for the sample preparations [21,39–42].

2.7.2. Leaf
Leaves of plants are endowed with various phytochemicals which are responsible for the medicinal values of such natural products
[43]. Extensive literature search revealed that a few studies have been conducted on identification of the phytochemicals in the leaves
of S. senegalensis. A study conducted by Mamadou and co-workers [13] revealed that an aqueous extract of S. senegalensis leaves
composed of polyphenols (flavonoids), saponoside, sterols and tannins with quinonic compounds and alkaloids being absent. Also,
Belemlilga and colleagues reported the presence of steroid, triterpene glycoside and saponins in aqueous S. senegalensis leaf extract [9].
Besides, Belemlilga et al. [44] sought to identify the phytochemicals in S. senegalensis leaves extracts, which was prepared with
hydroethanol and distilled water as solvents. The authors observed that the presence of coumarins and derivatives, anthocyanosides,
polyoses (in hydroethanolic macerate only), flavonoids, organoselenium, saponins, reducing compounds tannins, steroid and tri­
terpenic glucosides in the above-mentioned extracts [44]. Using solvents such as dichloromethane and ethyl acetate, the scientists
characterised the phytochemicals with thin-layer chromatography, wherein the results showed that the leaves’ extracts composed of
flavonoids, saponins, sterols, triterpenes, and tannins [44]. Additionally, Mireku-Gyimah and co-workers discovered the presence of
alkaloids, condensed tannins, saponin glycosides and triterpenoid [14]. Further, aqueous extract of S. senegalensis leaves comprising
phytochemicals such as anthocyanosides, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins, sterols, tannins, and triterpenes has been reported [45].
Inferably, the few existing literature suggests that the S. senegalensis leaves may comprise diverse phytochemicals, which should be
comprehensively investigated through isolation and purification of bioactive compounds.

2.7.3. Stem, root, and seed

The extraction of phytochemicals in medicinal plants’ stem barks, roots and seeds is well-known studied by scientists [46]. With
regards to S senegalensis, there is paucity of literature on the phytochemicals present in the parts. Notwithstanding, Mireku-Gyimah and
colleagues identified phytochemicals such as alkaloids, anthracene glycosides, saponin glycosides and triterpenoids in the stem and
root of S. senegalensis [14]. Of note, the phytochemicals of the seeds have not been presently investigated. The same authors isolated
two steroidal alkaloids from the stem of S. senegalensis, which were characterised through 1-dimensional (D) and 2D nuclear magnetic

7
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

resonance to be Irehine (Fig. 3) and Homoandrost-9-ene-17β,17aβ-diol-3β-(methylamino)-17aα-methyl-12-one [47] (structure not

shown). However, the biological effect of these two steroidal alkaloids have not been investigated as indicated by available literature.

3. Biological properties of S. Senegalensis

Bioactive compounds in medicinal plants have generally been shown to possess various biological properties such as anti-cancer,
anti-malarial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-viral and anti-diabetic activities [48,49]. Many biological prop­
erties of S. senegalensis have been reported by scientists, wherein these have been summarised in Table 2. It is possible that
S. senegalensis from different countries may have diverse biological properties because geographical locations have been found to cause
variations in the accumulation of phytochemicals [50]. The variations in IC50 values for anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic and
anti-inflammatory effects of various parts of the plant (Table 2) suggest possible influence of countries of origin. Nonetheless, the
influence of geographical locations on the biological properties of S. senegalensis has not been explored. This current review has
identified the biological properties of S. senegalensis to include anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, anti-microbial, anal­
gesic, larvicidal, ovicidal, myostimulant, hypotensive, anti-diabetic, anti-lipid peroxidation and anti-mycobacterial. More importantly,
adverse effects of the various parts of S. senegalensis have not been reported in the clinical settings.

4. Clinical therapeutic effect of S. senegalensis

In general, the phytochemicals in the medicinal plants have been revealed to be responsible for their therapeutic effects on human
beings. In this regard, the roots of S. senegalensis have been used to effectively treat disorders of neuropsychiatry in Burkinabe in­
dividuals residing within the Hauts Bassins region through treatment of hallucination or loss of consciousness [51]. Another study has
reported the potential of unripe S. senegalensis fruit to treat obesity among folks in hunter Nomad communities through suppression of
appetite [18]. In terms of cosmetic application, extract of S. senegalensis has been developed to soften skin or mucous membranes
coupled with cutaneous inflammation treatment [52]. Collectively, there is paucity of data on the clinical therapeutic effect of
S. senegalensis, hence further investigations are urgently needed in this regard.

5. Toxicity and interactions studies

Toxicological investigations of drug candidates are very important since they provide preliminary level of safety after various
routes of exposure of such compounds [53]. This implies that a potential drug-like molecule can only be developed into a drug and used
by humans when it has been confirmed to be safe and viable. Apart from seed ingestion that can lead to intestinal obstruction and
abdominal pain [54,55], no obvious toxicity of other parts of S. senegalensis has been reported based on available literature. In an acute
toxicity study [13] of aqueous S. senegalensis leaf extract, batches (1, 2 and 3) of M. musculus mice (weighing between 20 and 30 g) were
orally administered with 2000, 3000 and 5000 mg/kg body weight respectively. The authors discovered that the aqueous extract did
not cause any obvious toxicity since no death of mice was observed even at the maximum dose (5000 mg/kg body weight) with the
LD50 being above 5000 mg/kg body weight. Another acute toxicity study was conducted the same authors [56] in M. musculus mice,
wherein they orally administered increasing doses (ranged from 100 to 5000 mg/kg body weight) of aqueous extract of S. senegalensis
leaves to the mice. Likewise, the same above finding was discovered by the authors. Extensive literature search shows that the acute,
sub-acute and chronic toxicological studies of various parts of the plant have not been comprehensively conducted by scientists. Also,
the drug-drug interactions of the phytochemicals of S. senegalensis have not yet been investigated.

6. Limitations of the study

Although this narrative review was flexible, it facilitated rigorous synthesis of knowledge on the traditional uses, phytochemicals,
and biological properties of S. senegalensis, which may be useful for medicinal chemists and other scientists. Notwithstanding, the
findings of review are limited because of non-reproducibility, which may be due to influence of authors on the selection of literature
that was used for this review coupled with the sampling, screening, and analysis of the literature. Despite that we tried to include all
literature on S. senegalensis, language barrier may affect findings of this review since articles written in French and other languages
without English translation were omitted.

7. Conclusions

This mini review provides a summary of ethnobotanical and traditional uses, along with proximate composition, phytochemicals,
and biological properties of S. senegalensis, an edible liana plant that has been mostly exploited by indigenes in West African countries
because of its various medicinal properties. Various phytochemicals have been accordingly identified in the extracts of S. senegalensis
parts, namely fruit pulp, leaves, stem, and root. These phytochemicals include alkaloids, coumarins, anthracene glycosides, antho­
cyanosides, anthocyanins, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins, saponin glycosides, sterols, condensed tannins, tannins, triterpenes, and
triterpenoids. According to the existing literature, S. senegalensis has shown potential biological properties such as anti-oxidant, anti-
inflammatory, anthelmintic, anti-microbial, analgesic, larvicidal, ovicidal, myostimulant, hypotensive, anti-diabetic, anti-lipid per­
oxidation, and anti-mycobacterial effects. However, further investigations are required on both preclinical and clinical phases. These
investigations should focus on the isolation, characterisation, and potential pharmacological effects of phytochemicals from various

8
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

parts of the plant, as well as sub-acute and chronic toxicity. Additionally, it is necessary to study the solubility and bioavailability of
enhancing nanocarriers of isolated phytochemicals.

Data source and availability statement

This narrative review was conducted to include a noncomprehensive and non-exhaustive sample of the literature on this topic.
Literature was searched from databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. The literature that
was used for this review has been duly cited in the article and is available.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Auphedeous Yinme Dang-i: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Isaac Otu Atta: Software, Data curation. Osman Haadi
Mbaadawu: Writing – original draft, Validation, Data curation. Shakira Ibrahim: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Data
curation. James Abugri: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Michael Adu-Frimpong: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
original draft, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors have declared that they do not have any personal relationships or competing financial interests that could have
appeared to influence the findings of this review.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to scientists whose papers were utilised to prepare this review with apologies for the omission of col­
leagues’ contributions in this field.

References

[1] J. Leroy, M.-B. Ndjele, D. Geerinck, Catalogue-flore des plantes vasculaires des districts de Kisangani et Tshopo (RD Congo), Taxonomania, Revue de Taxonomie
et de Nomenclature Botaniques 30 (2010) 1–307.
[2] E. Fischer, K. Rembold, A. Althof, J. Obholzer, Annotated checklist of the vascular plants of Kakamega forest, Western province, Kenya, J. East Afr. Nat. Hist. 99
(2010) 129–226.
[3] A.J.M. Leeuwenberg, F.J.H. van Dilst, Saba (Pichon) Pichon series of revisions of apocynaceae XXVII, Bull. Jard. Bot. Natl. Belg./Bull. Natl. Plant. Belg. 59
(1989) 189–206, https://doi.org/10.2307/3668165.
[4] P. Diouf, S. Diedhiou, D. Fall, D. Ngom, M.D. Diallo, I. Ndoye, Effect of substrates on the mycorrhization and growth of Saba senegalensis under semi-controlled
conditions, Am. J. Plant Sci. 10 (2019) 1612–1622, https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2019.109114.
[5] S. Tiendrebeogo, L. Ganou, C. Compaore, F. Tapsoba, M. Dicko, Biochemical composition of Saba senegalensis fruits from Burkina Faso, Afr. J. Food Sci. 14
(2020) 322–329.
[6] M.G. Sarr, N.D. Ndiaye, N.C. Ayessou, P.G. Faye, M. Cisse, M. Sakho, C.M. Diop, Saba senegalensis: key features and uses, Food Nutr. Sci. 9 (2018) 1099–1111,
https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2018.99080.
[7] P. Baiyeri, O. Kolawole, Lesser known African indigenous tree and fruits plants: recent evidence from literatures and regular cultivation culture, in: Tropical
Plant Species and Technological Interventions for Improvement, Intechopen, 2022, pp. 1–34.
[8] G. Boamponsem, F. Johnson, G. Mahunu, S. Awiniboya, Determination of biochemical composition of Saba senegalensis (Saba fruit), Asian J. Plant Sci. Res. 3
(2013) 31–36. www.pelagiaresearchlibrary.com.
[9] M.B. Belemlilga, A. Traoré, S. Ouédraogo, A. Kaboré, H.H. Tamboura, I.P. Guissou, Anthelmintic activity of Saba senegalensis (A.DC.) Pichon (Apocynaceae)
extract against adult worms and eggs of Haemonchus contortus, Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 6 (2016) 945–949, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.07.015.
[10] M.N. Yougbaré-Ziébrou, N. Ouédraogo, M. Lompo, H. Bationo, B. Yaro, C. Gnoula, W.R. Sawadogo, I.P. Guissou, Activités anti-inflammatoire, analgésique et
antioxydante de l’extrait aqueux des tiges feuillées de Saba senegalensis Pichon (Apocynaceae), Phytothérapie 14 (2016) 213–219, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10298-015-0992-5.
[11] M.B. Belemlilga, T.K. Traoré, G.A.L. Boly, N. Ouédraogo, A. Traoré, M. Lompo, S. Ouédraogo, I. Pierre Guissou, Evaluation of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory
and analgesic activities of leaves of Saba senegalensis (A.DC) Pichon (apocynaceae), Eur. J. Med. Plants (2019) 1–12, https://doi.org/10.9734/ejmp/2019/
v27i330116.
[12] O. Faye, C. Sall, A. Ndong, M. Sene, M.D. Dioum, M. Cabral, G.Y. Sy, F.B. Sarr, Antioxidant and anti α-amylase activities of polar extracts of mitracarpus hirtus
and Saba senegalensis and the combinason of their butanolic extracts, Int. Res. J. Pure Appl. Chem. (2021) 1–8, https://doi.org/10.9734/irjpac/2021/
v22i930429.
[13] D. Mamadou, S.T. Yaya, K. N, G.L. Francis, T. Flavien, Myostimulant and hypotensive effect of aqueous extract of Saba senegalensis (Apocynacea) leaves in
rabbits, Certified Journal | Mamadou et al. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 26 World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research SJIF Impact Factor 11
(2015) 26–40, https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20225-23791.
[14] N.A. Mireku-Gyimah, K. Sarpong, I.K. Amponsah, A.Y. Mensah, R.A. Dickson, Comparative pharmacognostic studies of two Ghanaian medicinal plants: Saba
senegalensis and Saba thompsonii, Int. J. Pharma Sci. Res. 9 (2018) 1451, https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.9(4).1451-61.
[15] F. Kini, A. Saba, C. Parkouda, S. Ouedraogo, P. Guissou, Partial phytochemical characterisation of Saba senegalensis (apocynaecae) and landolphia heudolotii
(Apocynaecae), Pharmacopee et Medecine Traditionnelle Africaines 16 (2012) 32–35.
[16] H. Diabagate, S. Traore, M. Cisse, D. Soro, K. Brou, Biochemical characterization and nutritional profile of the pulp of Saba senegalensis from côte d’Ivoire
forest, American Journal of Food and Nutrition 7 (2019) 19–25.
[17] H. Diabagate, S. Traore, D. Soro, M. Cisse, K. Brou, Biochemical characterization and nutritional profile of jam and syrup from Saba senegalensis fruit in côte
d’Ivoire, J. Food Res. 9 (2020) 67–78.

9
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

[18] D. Pare, A. Hilou, N. Ouedraogo, S. Guenne, Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used as anti-obesity remedies in the Nomad and hunter communities of
Burkina Faso, Medicines 3 (2016) 9, https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines3020009.
[19] C. Agyare, V. Spiegler, A. Asase, M. Scholz, G. Hempel, A. Hensel, An ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants traditionally used for cancer treatment in
the Ashanti region, Ghana, J. Ethnopharmacol. 212 (2018) 137–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.10.019.
[20] K. Tuo, G.E.-K. Bolou, A.F.-T. N’docho, A. Chevillot, M. Mammeri, I. Vallee, K. Adjou, O.A. Toure, B. Polack, R. Jambou, Ethnobotanical study of plants used in
traditional treatment of diarrhoea in humans and cattle in two regions of ivory coast, Eur. J. Med. Plants (2020) 24–33, https://doi.org/10.9734/ejmp/2020/
v31i1630327.
[21] S. Tiendrebeogo, C.S. Compaoré, R.P. Barry, E.B. Oboulbiga, M. Hama Dicko, Comparison of nutritional, bioactive potential and antioxidant properties of Saba
senegalensis fruit pulps from five regions of Burkina Faso, Front. Nutr. 11 (2024), https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1358968.
[22] D. Diallo, C. Sogn, F.B. Samaké, B.S. Paulsen, T.E. Michaelsen, A. Keita, Wound healing plants in Mali, the bamako region. An ethnobotanical survey and
complement fixation of water extracts from selected plants, Pharm. Biol. 40 (2002) 117–128, https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.40.2.117.5846.
[23] P. Thangaraj, K.D. Rainsford, Pharmacological Assays of Plant-Based Natural Products, Springer Nature, 2016.
[24] M. Qayyum, M. Butt, F. Anjum, H. Nawaz, Composition analysis of some selected legumes for protein isolates recovery, J. Anim. Plant Sci 22 (2012) 1156–1162.
[25] A. Valyaie, M. Azizi, A. Kashi, R. Sathasivam, S.U. Park, A. Sugiyama, T. Motobayashi, Y. Fujii, Evaluation of growth, yield, and biochemical attributes of bitter
gourd (Momordica charantia L.) cultivars under karaj conditions in Iran, Plants 10 (2021) 1370, https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10071370.
[26] H. Ait Bouzid, E.H. Sakar, L. Bijla, M. Ibourki, A. Zeroual, J. Gagour, J. Koubachi, K. Majourhat, S. Gharby, Physical fruit traits, proximate composition,
antioxidant activity, and profiling of fatty acids and minerals of wild jujube (Ziziphus lotus L. (Desf.)) fruits from eleven Moroccan origins, J. Food Qual. 2022
(2022) 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9362366.
[27] K.K.T. Yao, M.K. Somda, I. Mogmenga, M. Nikiema, Y. Dabire, A. Ouattara, D. Kabore, M.H. Dicko, Free amino acids profile of pulp of Saba senegalensis (A.DC.)
Pichon fruit in the three climatic areas of Burkina Faso, Discover Food 4 (2024) 21, https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-024-00080-0.
[28] M. Sarr, P. Diouf, N. Ayessou, M. Cisse, M. Sakho, C. Diop, Intake nutritional variabilities of Saba senegalensis fruits, Food Nutr. Sci. 13 (2022) 826–834.
[29] Y. Kouakoua, A. Coulibaly, O. Kouadio, E. Gnagne, N. Amani, Comparative study of the nutritional potential of a wild fruit (Saba senegalensis) from Côte
d’Ivoire with pineapple, papaya and banana, Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci 15 (2021) 1791–1799.
[30] K. Olajide, G. Davidson, U. Ndubuaku, K. Baiyeri, Chemical composition of four accessions of Saba (Saba senegalensis) fruits from Kogi state, Nigeria, Nigerian
Journal of Crop Science 8 (2022) 1–7.
[31] G.S. Nagraj, A. Chouksey, S. Jaiswal, A.K. Jaiswal, Broccoli, in: Nutritional Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Fruits and Vegetables, Elsevier, 2020,
pp. 5–17, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812780-3.00001-5.
[32] M. Samtiya, R.E. Aluko, T. Dhewa, Plant food anti-nutritional factors and their reduction strategies: an overview, Food Production, Processing and Nutrition 2
(2020) 6, https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-020-0020-5.
[33] K. Konan, Toussaint Yao, M. Somda, M. Nikiema, I. Mogmenga, Y. Dabire, A. Ouattara, D. Kabore, M. Dicko, Proximate composition and nutritional potential of
Saba senegalensis fruit from three climatic regions in Burkina Faso, J. Food Res. 13 (2024) 10–26.
[34] R. Suhag, A. Dhiman, G. Deswal, D. Thakur, V.S. Sharanagat, K. Kumar, V. Kumar, Microwave processing: a way to reduce the anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) in
food grains, LWT 150 (2021) 111960, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111960.
[35] Sata Diawara, Lassina Sanou, Blaise Kabré, Patrice Savadogo, Amadé Ouédraogo, Utilizations, vulnerability and conservation practices of Saba senegalensis (A.
DC.) Pichon (Apocynaceae), a high value local species in Burkina Faso, Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 24 (10) (2022) 1–19, 24 (2022).
[36] A. Lamien-Meda, C. Lamien, M. Compaoré, R. Meda, M. Kiendrebeogo, B. Zeba, J. Millogo, O. Nacoulma, Polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of
fourteen wild edible fruits from Burkina Faso, Molecules 13 (2008) 581–594, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules13030581.
[37] F. Kini, A. Saba, S. Ouédraogo, B. Tingueri, G. Sanou, I. Guissou, Nutritional and therapeutic potential of some wild fruit species of Burkina Faso, African
Pharmacopoeia and Traditional Medicine 15 (2008) 32–35.
[38] K. Mamadou Abdoulaye, T. Fatoumata, S. Marius K, D. Nouhoum, D. Meminata, W. Mamadou, M. Sira, O. Aboubacar Sidiki, S. Rokia, Phytochemistry and in
vitro antioxidant activities of four consumed picking products in Sikasso, Mali, Int. J. Adv. Res. 7 (2019) 847–857, https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/10221.
[39] A. Thouri, H. Chahdoura, A. El Arem, A. Omri Hichri, R. Ben Hassin, L. Achour, Effect of solvents extraction on phytochemical components and biological
activities of Tunisian date seeds (var. Korkobbi and Arechti), BMC Compl. Alternative Med. 17 (2017) 248, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-1751-y.
[40] A. Moomin, W.R. Russell, R.M. Knott, L. Scobbie, K.B. Mensah, P.K.T. Adu-Gyamfi, S.J. Duthie, Season, storage and extraction method impact on the
phytochemical profile of Terminalia ivorensis, BMC Plant Biol. 23 (2023) 162, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-023-04144-8.
[41] N.M. Horablaga, A. Cozma, E. Alexa, D. Obistioiu, I. Cocan, M.-A. Poiana, D. Lalescu, G. Pop, I.M. Imbrea, C. Buzna, Influence of sample preparation/extraction
method on the phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activities of 12 commonly consumed medicinal plants in Romania, Appl. Sci. 13 (2023) 2530, https://
doi.org/10.3390/app13042530.
[42] S. Kumar, M. Yadav, A. Yadav, J.P. Yadav, Impact of spatial and climatic conditions on phytochemical diversity and in vitro antioxidant activity of Indian Aloe
vera (L.) Burm.f, South Afr. J. Bot. 111 (2017) 50–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2017.03.012.
[43] K.N. Agbafor, N. Nwachukwu, Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant property of leaf extracts of vitex doniana and Mucuna pruriens, Biochem Res Int 2011
(2011) 1–4, https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/459839.
[44] M. Bonewendé Belemlilga, A. Traoré, L. Belemnaba, F. Bondo Kini, S. Ouédraogo, I. Pierre Guissou, Ovicidal and larvicidal activities of Saba senegalensis (A.DC)
Pichon (apocynaceae) extracts and fractions on heligmosomoides bakeri (Nematoda, Heligmosomatidae), J Pharm Res Int (2019) 1–13, https://doi.org/
10.9734/jpri/2019/v31i630327.
[45] M.N. Yougbaré-Ziébrou, N. Ouédraogo, M. Lompo, H. Bationo, B. Yaro, C. Gnoula, W.R. Sawadogo, I.P. Guissou, Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antioxidant
activities of an aqueous extract of Saba senegalensis Pichon stems with leaves (Apocynaceae), Phytothérapie 14 (2016) 213–219, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10298-015-0992-5.
[46] F. Rabizadeh, M.S. Mirian, R. Doosti, R. Kiani-Anbouhi, E. Eftekhari, Phytochemical classification of medicinal plants used in the treatment of kidney disease
based on traditional Persian medicine, Evid. base Compl. Alternative Med. 2022 (2022) 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8022599.
[47] Mireku-Gyimah Nana Ama, Sarpong Kwame, Liu Ji-Kai, Annan Kofi, Two steroidal alkaloids from Saba senegalensis (A.DC.) Pichon (apocynaceae), in: 65th
Annual Conference of the Society for Medicinal Plant and Natural Product Research (GA), Basel, 2017.
[48] M. Aye, H. Aung, M. Sein, C. Armijos, A review on the phytochemistry, medicinal properties and pharmacological activities of 15 selected Myanmar medicinal
plants, Molecules 24 (2019) 293, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24020293.
[49] M.M. Romeiras, A.P. Essoh, S. Catarino, J. Silva, K. Lima, E. Varela, M. Moura, I. Gomes, M.C. Duarte, M.P. Duarte, Diversity and biological activities of
medicinal plants of Santiago island (Cabo Verde), Heliyon 9 (2023) e14651, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14651.
[50] B. Lawal, O.K. Shittu, F.I. Oibiokpa, E.B. Berinyuy, H. Mohammed, African natural products with potential antioxidants and hepatoprotectives properties: a
review, Clinical Phytoscience 2 (2017) 23, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40816-016-0037-0.
[51] P. Kinda, P. Zerbo, S. Guenné, M. Compaoré, A. Ciobica, M. Kiendrebeogo, Medicinal plants used for neuropsychiatric disorders treatment in the Hauts Bassins
region of Burkina Faso, Medicines 4 (2017) 32, https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines4020032.
[52] Celine Laperdrix, Sophie Zozine, Benedicte Portet, Use of Saba Senegalensis Extract for Softening Skin Such as Normal Skin, Dehydrated Skin and Defatted Skin
or Mucous Membranes, Unifying Color And/or Tone of Skin and Stimulating Angiogenesis in Skin, 2012.
[53] R. Gupta, S. Polaka, K. Rajpoot, M. Tekade, M.C. Sharma, R.K. Tekade, Importance of toxicity testing in drug discovery and research, in: Pharmacokinetics and
Toxicokinetic Considerations, Elsevier, 2022, pp. 117–144, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98367-9.00016-0.

10
A.Y. Dang-i et al. Heliyon 10 (2024) e34934

[54] O. Diallo, N. Zongo, P.J. Tchofo, CT features of Saba senegalensis (a tropical fruit) in patients with abdominal pain, J Belg Soc Radiol 102 (2018), https://doi.
org/10.5334/jbr-btr.1434.
[55] B.G. Wiener, R.L. Burton, S.W. Smith, M.K. Su, R. Biary, E.T. Tay, A “madd”-ening confounding: fruit seeds mimicking enteral drug concealment by computed
tomography, Clin. Toxicol. 61 (2023) 559–560, https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2023.2227760.
[56] Dosso Mamadou, Coulibaly Adama, Coulibaly Ousmane, Soro Doudjo, N’guessan Jean David, Potential anti-diabetic property of the aqueous extract of the
leaves of Saba senegalensis Pichon (apocynaceae) in mice, Int. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 8 (2020) 65–69.

11