Chapter 6

The Muscular
System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

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The Muscular System

▪ Muscles are responsible for all types of body

movement
▪ Three basic muscle types are found in the body
1. Skeletal muscle
2. Cardiac muscle
3. Smooth muscle

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Muscle Types

▪ Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated

(muscle cell = muscle fiber)
▪ Contraction and shortening of muscles are due to
the movement of microfilaments
▪ All muscles share some terminology
▪ Prefixes myo- and mys- refer to “muscle”
▪ Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh”

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Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles

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Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles (1 of 2)

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Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles (2 of 2)

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Muscle Types

▪ Skeletal muscle
▪ Most skeletal muscle fibers are attached by tendons to
bones
▪ Skeletal muscle cells are large, cigar-shaped, and
multinucleate
▪ Also known as striated muscle because of its obvious
stripes
▪ Also known as voluntary muscle because it is the only
muscle tissue subject to conscious control

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Muscle Types

▪ Skeletal muscle cells are surrounded and

bundled by connective tissue
▪ Endomysium—encloses a single muscle fiber
▪ Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of
muscle fibers
▪ Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal muscle
▪ Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium

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Figure 6.1 Connective tissue wrappings of skeletal muscle.

Muscle
fiber
Blood vessel (cell)

Perimysium

Epimysium
(wraps entire
muscle)
Fascicle
(wrapped by
perimysium)

Endomysium
(between
fibers)
Tendon

Bone

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Muscle Types

▪ The epimysium of skeletal muscle blends into a

connective tissue attachment
▪ Tendons—cordlike structures
▪ Mostly collagen fibers
▪ Often cross a joint because of their toughness and
small size
▪ Aponeuroses—sheetlike structures
▪ Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or
connective tissue coverings

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Muscle Types

▪ Smooth muscle
▪ No striations
▪ Involuntary—no conscious control
▪ Found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs
(such as stomach, urinary bladder, respiratory
passages)
▪ Spindle-shaped fibers that are uninucleate
▪ Contractions are slow and sustained

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Figure 6.2a Arrangement of smooth and cardiac muscle cells.

Circular layer
of smooth muscle
(longitudinal view
Mucosa of cells)

Longitudinal layer
Submucosa
of smooth muscle
(cross-sectional
view of cells)
(a)
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Muscle Types

▪ Cardiac muscle
▪ Striations
▪ Involuntary
▪ Found only in the walls of the heart
▪ Uninucleate
▪ Branching cells joined by gap junctions called
intercalated discs
▪ Contracts at a steady rate set by pacemaker

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Figure 6.2b Arrangement of smooth and cardiac muscle cells.

Cardiac
muscle
bundles

(b)
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Muscle Functions

▪ Whereas all muscle types produce movement,

skeletal muscle has three other important roles:
▪ Maintain posture and body position
▪ Stabilize joints
▪ Generate heat

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

▪ Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane

▪ Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
▪ Light (I) bands and dark (A) bands give the muscle its
striated (banded) appearance

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Figure 6.3a Anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber (cell).

Sarcolemma

Myofibril

Dark Light Nucleus

(A) band (I) band
(a) Segment of a muscle fiber (cell)

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

▪ Banding pattern of myofibrils

▪ I band = light band
▪ Contains only thin filaments
▪ Z disc is a midline interruption
▪ A band = dark band
▪ Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
▪ H zone is a lighter central area
▪ M line is in center of H zone

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Figure 6.3b Anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber (cell).

Z disc H zone Z disc

Thin (actin)
myofilament
Thick (myosin)
myofilament

(b) Myofibril or fibril I band A band I band M line

(complex organelle
composed of bundles
of myofilaments)

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

▪ Sarcomere—contractile unit of a muscle fiber

▪ Structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle
▪ Organization of the sarcomere
▪ Myofilaments produce banding (striped) pattern
▪ Thick filaments = myosin filaments
▪ Thin filaments = actin filaments

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

▪ Thick filaments = myosin filaments

▪ Composed of the protein myosin
▪ Contain ATPase enzymes to split ATP to release
energy for muscle contractions
▪ Possess projections known as myosin heads
▪ Myosin heads are known as cross bridges when they
link thick and thin filaments during contraction

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

▪ Thin filaments = actin filaments

▪ Composed of the contractile protein actin
▪ Actin is anchored to the Z disc
▪ At rest, within the A band there is a zone that
lacks actin filaments called the H zone
▪ During contraction, H zones disappear as actin
and myosin filaments overlap

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Figure 6.3c Anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber (cell).

Sarcomere

M line
Z disc Z disc
Thin (actin)
myofilament

Thick (myosin)
myofilament

(c) Sarcomere (segment of a myofibril)

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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

▪ Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

▪ Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Surrounds the myofibril
▪ Stores and releases calcium

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Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal
Muscle Cells

▪ Special functional properties of skeletal muscles

▪ Irritability (also called responsiveness)—ability to
receive and respond to a stimulus
▪ Contractility—ability to forcibly shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
▪ Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
▪ Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length
after stretching

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

▪ Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor

neuron (nerve cell) to contract
▪ Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the skeletal
muscle cells stimulated by that neuron

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Figure 6.4a Motor units.

Axon terminals at
neuromuscular junctions
Spinal cord

Motor Motor
unit 1 unit 2

Nerve

Axon of
Motor motor
neuron neuron
cell bodies

Muscle Muscle fibers

(a)
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Figure 6.4b Motor units.

Axon terminals at Muscle

neuromuscular junctions fibers

Branching
axon to
motor unit
(b)
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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

▪ Neuromuscular junction
▪ Association site of axon terminal of the motor neuron
and sarcolemma of a muscle
▪ Neurotransmitter
▪ Chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve
impulse in the axon terminal
▪ Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter that
stimulates skeletal muscle

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

▪ Synaptic cleft
▪ Gap between nerve and muscle filled with interstitial
fluid
▪ Although very close, the nerve and muscle do not
make contact

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

▪ When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal

of the motor neuron,
Step 1: Calcium channels open, and calcium ions enter
the axon terminal
Step 2: Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic
vesicles to release acetylcholine (ACh)
Step 3: ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and
attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma of the muscle
cell

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

Step 4: If enough ACh is released, the sarcolemma

becomes temporarily more permeable to sodium ions
(Na+)
▪ Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
▪ More sodium ions enter than potassium ions leave
▪ Establishes an imbalance in which interior has more
positive ions (depolarization), thereby opening more
Na+ channels

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

Step 5: Depolarization opens more sodium channels

that allow sodium ions to enter the cell
▪ An action potential is created
▪ Once begun, the action potential is unstoppable
▪ Conducts the electrical impulse from one end of the cell
to the other
Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down
acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline
▪ AChE ends muscle contraction
▪ A single nerve impulse produces only one contraction

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The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

▪ Cell returns to its resting state when:

1. Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
2. Sodium-potassium pump moves sodium and
potassium ions back to their original positions

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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 1

Myelinated axon
Nerve of motor neuron
impulse Axon terminal of
Nucleus neuromuscular
junction
Sarcolemma of
the muscle fiber

Synaptic vesicle containing ACh

1 Nerve impulse reaches axon
terminal of motor neuron. Axon terminal of motor neuron
Mitochondrion

2 Calcium (Ca2+) channels Ca2+ Ca2+

open, and Ca2+ enters the Synaptic
axon terminal. cleft Sarcolemma

Fusing synaptic
vesicle
Sarcoplasm
3 Ca2+ entry causes some ACh of muscle fiber
synaptic vesicles to release their Folds of
contents (the neurotransmitter ACh
receptor sarcolemma
acetylcholine) by exocytosis.

4 Acetylcholine diffuses across

the synaptic cleft and binds to
receptors in the sarcolemma.

Ion channel in
5 ACh binds and opens channels Na+ K+ sarcolemma opens;
that allow simultaneous passage ions pass.
of Na+ into the muscle fiber and
K+ out of the muscle fiber. More
Na+ ions enter than K+ ions leave,
producing a local change in the
electrical conditions of the
membrane (depolarization). This
eventually leads to an action
potential. ACh Degraded ACh
Ion channel closes;
Na+
ions cannot pass.
6 The enzyme acetylcholinesterase
breaks down ACh in the synaptic
cleft, ending the process.
Acetylcholinesterase
K+
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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 2

Myelinated axon
Nerve of motor neuron
impulse
Axon terminal of
Nucleus neuromuscular
junction
Sarcolemma of
the muscle fiber

Synaptic vesicle containing ACh

1 Nerve impulse reaches axon
terminal of motor neuron. Axon terminal of motor neuron
Mitochondrion

Ca2+ Ca2+
Synaptic
cleft Sarcolemma

Fusing synaptic
vesicle
Sarcoplasm
ACh of muscle fiber
ACh Folds of
receptor sarcolemma

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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 3

Synaptic vesicle containing ACh

1 Nerve impulse reaches axon
terminal of motor neuron. Axon terminal of motor neuron
Mitochondrion

2 Calcium (Ca2+) channels Ca2+ Ca2+

open, and Ca2+ enters the Synaptic
axon terminal. cleft Sarcolemma

Fusing synaptic
vesicle
Sarcoplasm
ACh of muscle fiber
ACh Folds of
receptor sarcolemma

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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 4

Synaptic vesicle containing ACh

1 Nerve impulse reaches axon
terminal of motor neuron. Axon terminal of motor neuron
Mitochondrion

2 Calcium (Ca2+) channels Ca2+ Ca2+

open, and Ca2+ enters the Synaptic
axon terminal. cleft Sarcolemma

Fusing synaptic
vesicle
Sarcoplasm
3 Ca2+ entry causes some ACh of muscle fiber
synaptic vesicles to release their Folds of
contents (the neurotransmitter ACh
receptor sarcolemma
acetylcholine) by exocytosis.

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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 5

Synaptic vesicle containing ACh

1 Nerve impulse reaches axon
terminal of motor neuron. Axon terminal of motor neuron
Mitochondrion

2 Calcium (Ca2+) channels Ca2+ Ca2+

open, and Ca2+ enters the Synaptic
axon terminal. cleft Sarcolemma

Fusing synaptic
vesicle
Sarcoplasm
3 Ca2+ entry causes some ACh of muscle fiber
synaptic vesicles to release their Folds of
contents (the neurotransmitter ACh
receptor sarcolemma
acetylcholine) by exocytosis.

4 Acetylcholine diffuses across

the synaptic cleft and binds to
receptors in the sarcolemma.

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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 6

Ion channel in
5 ACh binds and opens channels Na+ K+ sarcolemma opens;
that allow simultaneous passage ions pass.
of Na+ into the muscle fiber and
K+ out of the muscle fiber. More
Na+ ions enter than K+ ions leave,
producing a local change in the
electrical conditions of the
membrane (depolarization). This
eventually leads to an action
potential.

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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 7

ACh Degraded ACh

Ion channel closes;
Na+ ions cannot pass.
6 The enzyme acetylcholinesterase
breaks down ACh in the synaptic
cleft, ending the process.
Acetylcholinesterase
K+

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Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. Slide 8

Myelinated axon
Nerve of motor neuron
impulse Axon terminal of
Nucleus neuromuscular
junction
Sarcolemma of
the muscle fiber

Synaptic vesicle containing ACh

1 Nerve impulse reaches axon
terminal of motor neuron. Axon terminal of motor neuron
Mitochondrion

2 Calcium (Ca2+) channels Ca2+ Ca2+

open, and Ca2+ enters the Synaptic
axon terminal. cleft Sarcolemma

Fusing synaptic
vesicle
Sarcoplasm
3 Ca2+ entry causes some ACh of muscle fiber
synaptic vesicles to release their Folds of
contents (the neurotransmitter ACh
receptor sarcolemma
acetylcholine) by exocytosis.

4 Acetylcholine diffuses across

the synaptic cleft and binds to
receptors in the sarcolemma.

Ion channel in
5 ACh binds and opens channels Na+ K+ sarcolemma opens;
that allow simultaneous passage ions pass.
of Na+ into the muscle fiber and
K+ out of the muscle fiber. More
Na+ ions enter than K+ ions leave,
producing a local change in the
electrical conditions of the
membrane (depolarization). This
eventually leads to an action
potential. ACh Degraded ACh
Ion channel closes;
Na+
ions cannot pass.
6 The enzyme acetylcholinesterase
breaks down ACh in the synaptic
cleft, ending the process.
Acetylcholinesterase
K+
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Figure 6.6 Comparing the action potential to a flame consuming a dry twig.

Small twig

Match
flame
1 Flame ignites 2 Flame spreads
the twig. rapidly along the twig.
(a)

Neuromuscular junction Muscle fiber

Nerve (cell)
Striations
fiber

1 Na+ diffuses
into the cell.
2 Action potential spreads
rapidly along the sarcolemma.
(b)
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A&P Flix : Events at the Neuromuscular
Junction

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Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The
Sliding Filament Theory
▪ What causes filaments to slide?
▪ Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind regulatory proteins on thin
filaments and expose myosin-binding sites, allowing
the myosin heads on the thick filaments to attach
▪ Each cross bridge pivots, causing the thin filaments to
slide toward the center of the sarcomere
▪ Contraction occurs, and the cell shortens
▪ During a contraction, a cross bridge attaches and
detaches several times
▪ ATP provides the energy for the sliding process, which
continues as long as calcium ions are present

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Figure 6.7 Diagrammatic views of a sarcomere.

Myosin Actin

Z H Z
I A I

(a) Relaxed sarcomere

Z Z
I A I
(b) Fully contracted sarcomere
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Figure 6.8a Schematic representation of contraction mechanism: the sliding filament theory.

Regulatory proteins In a relaxed muscle fiber, the regulatory proteins

forming part of the actin myofilaments prevent
myosin binding (see a). When an action potential
(AP) sweeps along its sarcolemma and a muscle
fiber is excited, calcium ions (Ca2+) are released
from intracellular storage areas (the sacs of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum).

Myosin myofilament Actin myofilament

(a)

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Figure 6.8b Schematic representation of contraction mechanism: the sliding filament theory.

Myosin-binding site The flood of calcium acts as the final trigger for
Ca2+
contraction, because as calcium binds to the
regulatory proteins on the actin filaments, the
proteins undergo a change in both their shape and
their position on the thin filaments. This action
exposes myosin-binding sites on the actin, to which
the myosin heads can attach (see b), and the myosin
heads immediately begin seeking out binding sites.
Upper part of thick filament only
(b)

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Figure 6.8c Schematic representation of contraction mechanism: the sliding filament theory.

The free myosin heads are “cocked,” much like an

oar ready to be pulled on for rowing. Myosin
attachment to actin causes the myosin heads to snap
(pivot) toward the center of the sarcomere in a rowing
motion. When this happens, the thin filaments are
(c) slightly pulled toward the center of the sarcomere
(see c). ATP provides the energy needed to release
and recock each myosin head so that it is ready to
attach to a binding site farther along the thin filament.

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A&P Flix : The Cross Bridge Cycle

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

▪ Graded responses
▪ Muscle fiber contraction is “all-or-none,” meaning it will
contract to its fullest when stimulated adequately
▪ Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be
stimulated during the same interval
▪ Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions
may give differing responses
▪ Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal
muscle shortening

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

▪ Graded responses can be produced in two ways

▪ By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation
▪ By changing the number of muscle cells being
stimulated at one time

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

▪ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation

▪ Muscle twitch
▪ Single, brief, jerky contraction
▪ Not a normal muscle function

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Figure 6.9a A whole muscle’s response to different stimulation rates.

Tension (g)

(Stimuli)

(a) Twitch

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

▪ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation

(continued)
▪ In most types of muscle activity, nerve impulses are
delivered at a rapid rate
▪ As a result, contractions are “summed” (added)
together, and one contraction is immediately followed
by another

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Figure 6.9b A whole muscle’s response to different stimulation rates.

Tension (g)

(Stimuli)

(b) Summing of
contractions

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

▪ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation

(continued)
▪ When stimulations become more frequent, muscle
contractions get stronger and smoother
▪ The muscle now exhibits unfused (incomplete) tetanus

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Figure 6.9c A whole muscle’s response to different stimulation rates.

Tension (g)

(Stimuli)

(c) Unfused
(incomplete) tetanus

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

▪ Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation

(continued)
▪ Fused (complete) tetanus is achieved when the
muscle is stimulated so rapidly that no evidence of
relaxation is seen
▪ Contractions are smooth and sustained

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Figure 6.9d A whole muscle’s response to different stimulation rates.

Tension (g)

(Stimuli)

(d) Fused (complete)

tetanus

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Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

▪ Muscle response to stronger stimuli

▪ Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers
stimulated
▪ Contraction of more fibers results in greater muscle
tension
▪ When all motor units are active and stimulated, the
muscle contraction is as strong as it can get

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Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

▪ ATP
▪ Only energy source that can be used to directly power
muscle contraction
▪ Stored in muscle fibers in small amounts that are
quickly used up
▪ After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized
to produce ATP

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Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

▪ Three pathways to regenerate ATP

1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
2. Aerobic pathway
3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation

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Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

▪ Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine

phosphate (CP)—fastest
▪ Muscle cells store CP, a high-energy molecule
▪ After ATP is depleted, ADP remains
▪ CP transfers a phosphate group to ADP to regenerate
ATP
▪ CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
▪ 1 ATP is produced per CP molecule

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Figure 6.10a Methods of regenerating ATP during muscle activity.

(a) Direct phosphorylation

Coupled reaction of creatine

phosphate (CP) and ADP
Energy source: CP

P Creatine ADP

Creatine ATP

Oxygen use: None

Products: 1 ATP per CP,
creatine
Duration of energy provision:
15 seconds
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Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

▪ Aerobic respiration
▪ Supplies ATP at rest and during light/moderate
exercise
▪ A series of metabolic pathways, called oxidative
phosphorylation, use oxygen and occur in the
mitochondria
▪ Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water,
releasing energy (about 32 ATP)
▪ This is a slower reaction that requires continuous
delivery of oxygen and nutrients

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Figure 6.10b Methods of regenerating ATP during muscle activity.

(b) Aerobic pathway

Aerobic cellular respiration

Energy source: glucose; pyruvic

acid; free fatty acids from adipose
tissue; amino acids from protein
catabolism

Glucose (from
glycogen breakdown or
delivered from blood)

Pyruvic acid
Fatty
acids O2
Aerobic respiration
Amino in mitochondria
acids
32 ATP
CO2
H2O net gain
per
glucose
Oxygen use: Required
Products: 32 ATP per glucose,
CO2, H2O
Duration of energy provision:
Hours

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Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

▪ Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation

▪ Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
▪ Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce
about 2 ATP
▪ Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which causes
muscle soreness
▪ This reaction is not as efficient, but it is fast
▪ Huge amounts of glucose are needed

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Figure 6.10c Methods of regenerating ATP during muscle activity.

(c) Anaerobic pathway

Glycolysis and lactic acid
formation
Energy source: glucose

Glucose (from
glycogen breakdown or
delivered from blood)

Glycolysis
in cytosol

2 ATP
Pyruvic acid
net gain
Released
Lactic acid
to blood

Oxygen use: None

Products: 2 ATP per glucose,
lactic acid
Duration of energy provision:
40 seconds, or slightly more
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Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit

▪ If muscle activity is strenuous and prolonged,

muscle fatigue occurs
▪ Suspected factors that contribute to muscle
fatigue include:
▪ Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
▪ Oxygen deficit and lactic acid accumulation
▪ Decrease in energy (ATP) supply
▪ After exercise, the oxygen deficit is repaid by
rapid, deep breathing

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Types of Muscle Contractions

▪ Isotonic contractions
▪ Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during
contractions
▪ The muscle shortens, and movement occurs
▪ Example: bending the knee; lifting weights, smiling
▪ CONCENTRIC -shortening muscle contraction
▪ ECCENTRIC - lengthening muscle contraction
▪ Isometric contractions
▪ Muscle filaments are trying to slide, but the muscle is
pitted against an immovable object
▪ Tension increases, but muscles do not shorten
▪ Example: pushing your palms together in front of you

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Muscle Tone

▪ Muscle tone
▪ State of continuous partial contractions
▪ Result of different motor units being stimulated in a
systematic way
▪ Muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly ready for
action

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Effect of Exercise on Muscles

▪ Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and

endurance
▪ Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results
in stronger, more flexible muscles with greater
resistance to fatigue
▪ Makes body metabolism more efficient
▪ Improves digestion, coordination
▪ Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting)
increases muscle size and strength
▪ Individual muscle fibers enlarge

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Figure 6.11 The effects of aerobic training versus strength training.

(a) (b)

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