Process Control

Dr. Asief Javed

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna-9203

This lecture slides are composed of different topics taken from several sources mentioned as
reference best of author’s knowledge.
Content of the Syllabus
Basic concepts of process control: Objectives of process control; Design aspects; Hardware
elements. Modeling for control purpose: Development of mathematical models; Review of
Laplace transform; Input-output model, Transfer functions and State-space models; Linearization
of nonlinear models; Empirical models from process data.
Dynamic behavior of chemical processes: Operability of process; First, second, and higher order
processes; Time Delay; Interactive and non-interactive systems in series. Multiple-Input, Multiple-
Output (MIMO) Processes. Feedback control systems: Concept, feedback controllers and final
control elements; Closed-loop responses; Concept of stability; Routh Stability criterion; Root
locus diagrams; Controller design, tuning, and troubleshooting.
Frequency response analysis: Bode diagrams; Nyquist plots; Bode stability criteria; Control
system design.
Enhanced control systems: Cascade, selective, feedforward, and ratio controls. Preliminaries of
distributed control system (DCS) and programmable logic controller (PLC).
Instrumentation: Basic measurement devices and working principles for level, flow, pressure and
temperature measurement devices; control valves.

2
Content of the Syllabus
Basic concepts of process control: Objectives of process control; Design aspects; Hardware
elements. Modeling for control purpose: Development of mathematical models; Review of
Laplace transform; Input-output model, Transfer functions and State-space models; Linearization
of nonlinear models; Empirical models from process data.
Dynamic behavior of chemical processes: Operability of process; First, second, and higher order
processes; Time Delay; Interactive and non-interactive systems in series. Multiple-Input, Multiple-
Output (MIMO) Processes. Feedback control systems: Concept, feedback controllers and final
control elements; Closed-loop responses; Concept of stability; Routh Stability criterion; Root
locus diagrams; Controller design, tuning, and troubleshooting.
Frequency response analysis: Bode diagrams; Nyquist plots; Bode stability criteria; Control
system design.
Enhanced control systems: Cascade, selective, feedforward, and ratio controls. Preliminaries of
distributed control system (DCS) and programmable logic controller (PLC).
Instrumentation: Basic measurement devices and working principles for level, flow, pressure and
temperature measurement devices; control valves.

3
Basic terminologies
• Process: The conversion of feed materials to products using chemical and
physical operations.
• Control: To maintain desired conditions in a physical system by adjusting
selected variables in the system.
• Process control: Process control is the ability to monitor and adjust a process to
give a desired output. It is used in industry to maintain quality and improve
performance.

4
Room heating process
The house, in a cold climate, can be
maintained near a desired temperature by
circulating hot water through a heat
exchanger. The temperature in the room is
determined by a thermostat, which
compares the measured value of the room
temperature to a desired range, say 18 to
22°C.

If the temperature is below 18°C, the

furnace and pump are turned on;

if the temperature is above 22°C, the

furnace and pump are turned off;

if the temperature is between 18 and

22°C, the furnace and pump statuses
remain unchanged.
5
Stirred-tank heating control system
A thermocouple measures the liquid temperature and converts it to a millivolt-level electrical
signal. This signal is then converted to a voltage level and transmitted to the electronic
controller. The feedback controller performs the control calculations and sends the calculated
value as an output signal to the final control element, an electrical heater that adjusts the rate
of heat transfer to the liquid.

Fig.: Schematic diagram for a stirred-tank heating control system.

6
Elements of a feedback control system

Fig. Schematic diagram of a feedback control system.

7
Why is control necessary?
1. To maintain the desired value when disturbances occur.
2. To respond to changes in desired values.

Other control objectives are

• Safety
• Environmental protection
• Equipment protection
• Smooth operation and production rate
• Product quality
• Profit
• Monitoring and diagnosis.

8
Terminologies in measurement
Measurement: The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or
the result of a comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and a predefined standard.

Instrumentation: Instrumentation can be defined as the application of

instruments, in the form of systems or devices, to accomplish some specific
objective in terms of measurement or control, or both.
It is the whole process of preparing to collect data. It involves not only the
selection or design of the instruments but also the procedures and the
conditions under which the instruments will be administered.

Instrument: An instrument is a device that transforms a physical variable

of interest (the measurand) into a form that is suitable for recording (the
measurement).
9
A closed-loop system

Fig. Physical diagram of a process-control loop

I to P Final control element Process

Set point Controller
converter (control valve) (flow)

Measurement (diff. P)
10
Fig. Block diagram of a process-control loop
Terminologies in measurement
Sensor: ‘Sensor’ is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus by
producing a physical response that is related to the value of process variable.
Transducer: ‘Transducer’ is a device that converts an instrumentation signal from
one form to another.
A sensible distinction is to use 'sensor' for the sensing element itself, and
'transducer' for the sensing element plus any associated circuitry.
For example, a thermistor is a sensor, since it responds to a stimulus (changes its
resistance with temperature), but only becomes a transducer when connected in a
bridge circuit to convert change in resistance to change in voltage, since the
complete circuit then transduces from the thermal to the electrical domain. A solar
cell is both a sensor and a transducer, since it responds to a stimulus (produces a
current or voltage in response to radiation) and also transduces from the radiant to
the electrical domain. It does not require any associated circuitry, though in practice
an amplifier would usually be used. All transducers thus contain a sensor, and many
(though not all) sensors are also transducers.

11
Terminologies in measurement
The transmitter usually is required to convert the sensor output to a form
compatible with the controller input and to drive the transmission lines
connecting the two. Transmitters performs two functions: signal generation
and line driving.
A sensor performs the initial measurement. If necessary, a transducer
converts this initial measurement into an electrical signal that is then
amplified and standardized by the transmitter.
In this example, process pressure is
measured with a range of 0-100 psi. Our
Sensor/transducer performs the initial
measurement and converts it to an
electrical signal of 0-3 mV. The transmitter
then converts that signal to a standard
signal of 1-5 V, which is received by a
PLC analog input module.
12
Standard Instrumentation Signal Levels
• Before 1960, instrumentation in the process industries utilized pneumatic
(air pressure) signals to transmit measurement and control information
almost exclusively.
• These devices make use of mechanical force-balance elements to
generate signals in the range of 3 to 15 psig, an industry standard.
• Since about 1960, electronic instrumentation has come into widespread
use.
• A transmitter usually converts the sensor output to a signal level
appropriate for input to a controller, such as 4 to 20 mA.
• Transmitters are generally designed to be direct acting.
• In addition, most commercial transmitters have an adjustable input range
(or span).
13
Standard Instrumentation Signal Levels
• Most transmitter analog signals are in the form of current rather than
voltage, because voltage is affected by wire and connector resistances
that change with wire length, temperature and aging.
• Voltage-level instrumentation signals (e.g., 1–5 VDC) are better suited to
situations where short distances are involved.

14
Standard Instrumentation Signal Levels
• For example, a temperature transmitter might be adjusted so that
the input range of a platinum resistance element (the sensor) is 50
to 150 °C.
• In this case, the following correspondence is obtained:

Input Output
50 °C 4 mA

150 °C 20 mA

• This instrument (transducer) has a lower limit or zero of 50 °C

and a range or span of 100 °C.

15
Standard Instrumentation Signal Levels
• For a linear transmitter, the steady-state relationship between the
measured variable y and the transmitter output ym is a linear
equation,
(1)
where Km is the transmitter steady-state gain. The general expression
for Km is

where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrary points on the

calibration curve. For the temperature transmitter example,
substituting T0 = 50 ∘C and Tm0 = 4 mA gives

16
Standard Instrumentation Signal Levels
Substituting numerical values into Eq. 1 gives the relation between
the temperature transmitter input and output:

Any temperature in the input

range can be calculated from this
relationship.

Figure. A linear instrument calibration showing its

zero and span. 17
General structure of measurement system

Sensing element
This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends in some way
on the variable to be measured. Examples are:
• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.

18
General structure of measurement system

Signal conditioning element

This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more
suitable for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency
signal.
Examples are:
• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change
• Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.
19
General structure of measurement system

Signal processing element

This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more
suitable for presentation. Examples are:
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital form
for input to a computer
• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming
digital data.

20
General structure of measurement system

Data presentation element

This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognized by the
observer. Examples are:
• Simple pointer–scale indicator
• Chart recorder
• Alphanumeric display
• Visual display unit (VDU).

21
A temperature measurement system

Signal Conditioning

Sensing
True Temperature millivolts Junction millivolts
Thermocouple Amplifier
compensation
Volts
Measured Temperature
VDU Computer ADC

Data Presentation
Signal Processing

22
Methods of Measurement
The methods of measurements may be broadly classified into two categories:

Direct Measurement: In these methods, the unknown quantity (also called the
measurand) is directly compared against standard. Direct methods are quite
common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time.
For example, measurement of Length of cloth with Scale, Resistance by Ohms Meter,
Length using Vernier Caliper, Voltage using Voltmeter.

Indirect Measurement: An approach to measuring things using alternative

measurements and properties to find out the desired measurement.
For example, measurement of Volume by measuring Mass and Density, Speed by
measuring Distance and Time, and Temperature by using RTD or Thermocouple.

23
Basic Terminologies
• Readability: The closeness with which the scale of the instrument may be read;
an instrument with a 12-in scale would have a higher readability than an
instrument with a 6-in scale and the same range.
• Least count: It is the smallest difference between two indications that can be
detected on the instrument scale.
• Both readability and least count are dependent on scale length, spacing of
graduations, size of pointer, and parallax effects.
• For an instrument with a digital readout the terms “readability” and “least count”
have little meaning.

24
Basic Terminologies
• The static sensitivity of an instrument or an instrumentation system is the ratio of
the magnitude of the output signal or response to the magnitude of input signal or
the quantity being measured.

For example, if the output of a thermocouple is 1mV for 1⁰C change in temperature,
the sensitivity of the instrument is 1mV/ ⁰C.

The sensitivity of an instrument should be high and therefore the instrument should
not have a range greatly exceeding the value to be measured.

25
Basic Terminologies
• Accuracy: The closeness with which an instrument reading approaches to the
true value of the variable being measured.
• Accuracy is frequently expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading (%FS) or
percentage of reading (% RD), so that a 100-kPa pressure gage having an
accuracy of 1 percent would be accurate within ±1 kPa over the entire range of
the gage.

26
Basic Terminologies
• Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and true
value of the quantity being measured.
• The precision of an instrument indicates its ability to reproduce a certain reading
with a given accuracy. As an example of the distinction between precision and
accuracy, consider the measurement of a known voltage of 100 volts (V) with a
certain meter. Four readings are taken, and the indicated values are 104, 103, 105,
and 105 V. From these values it is seen that the instrument could not be depended
on for an accuracy of better than 5 percent (5 V), while a precision of ±1 percent
is indicated since the maximum deviation from the mean reading of 104 V is only
1 V. It may be noted that the instrument could be calibrated so that it could be
used dependably to measure voltages within ±1 V. This simple example illustrates
an important point. Accuracy can be improved up to but not beyond the precision
of the instrument by calibration.

27
Basic Terminologies
• Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular instrument with
either (1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary standard with a higher accuracy
than the instrument to be calibrated, or (3) a known input source. For example, a
flow meter might be calibrated by (1) comparing it with a standard flow-
measurement facility of the National Institute for Standards and Technology
(NIST), (2) comparing it with another flow meter of known accuracy, or (3)
directly calibrating with a primary measurement such as weighing a certain
amount of water in a tank and recording the time elapsed for this quantity to flow
through the meter.
• Resolution is the smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will
respond.

28
Basic Terminologies
• Linearity: An element is said to be linear if corresponding values of Input and
Output lie on a straight line. When using sensor there is an input-output
relationship, the only stipulation is that this relationship be unique. This may be
linear (which is desirable) or non-linear. In some cases of non-linearity
approximation of a linear or quadratic nature are made.

• Consider a sensor which outputs a voltage as a function of pressure from 0 to 100

psi with linearity of 5% FS. This means that at some point on the curve of voltage
vs. Pressure, the deviation between actual pressure and linearly indicated pressure
for a given voltage deviates by 5% of 100 psi or 5 psi.

29
Basic Terminologies

Best-fit line
Output (volts)

Actual curve

Max. deviation

5 psi Pressure (psi)

Fig. Comparison of an actual curve and its best-fit straight line,

where the max. deviation is 5% FS.

30
Basic Terminologies
• Hysteresis effects show up in any
physical, chemical or electrical
phenomenon. Hysteresis is a
phenomenon which depicts different
output effects when loading and
unloading whether it is a mechanical
system or an electrical system and for
that matter any system.
• Hysteresis may be the result of
mechanical friction, magnetic effects,
elastic deformation, or thermal effects.

Fig. (a) and (b) an instrument which has no friction

due to sliding parts (electromagnetism), (c) and
(d)instruments which do not have internal friction
but have external sliding friction (between gears).
31
Basic Terminologies
• Reproducibility: The closeness of the agreement between the results of
measurements of the same physical quantity carried out under changed condition
of measurement e.g. different environmental condition, time, or observer, etc.
• Bias: Bias refers to a constant error in the data due to a deterministic cause rather
than random variations.

32
Types of errors
Gross errors: largely human errors, among them misreading of instruments,
incorrect adjustment and improper application of instruments, and computational
mistakes.
Systematic errors: shortcomings of the instruments (instrumental errors), such as
defective or worn parts, and effects of the environment on the equipment or the user
(environmental errors).
Random errors: those due to causes that cannot be directly established because of
random variations in the parameter or the system of measurement.

33
Common process variables measurement sensors
Table: On-Line Measurement Options for Process Control

34
Temperature measurement
Different types of temperature measurement sensors are
• Resistive temperature detector (RTD)
• Thermocouple
• Thermostat (Bimetallic thermometer)
• Radiation pyrometer (Non-contact)
• Filled system thermometer
• Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR, constructed from semiconductor
substances)

Commonly used temperature sensors in industry are RTD and thermocouple. These
two will be covered here.

35
Temperature measurement using RTD
• The resistance of a conductor changes as the change in temperature. This
principle is used to measure temperature in resistance temperature
detector (RTD).
Temperature Resistance
Temperature Resistance

• The relationship can be expressed as (for most of the metal)

𝑅 = 𝑅0 (1 + α1 𝑇 + α2 𝑇 2 + α3 𝑇 3 + ⋯ + α𝑛 𝑇 𝑛 )

where R0 is resistance at temperature T= 0; α1, α2, ,…. αn, are constants.

36
Temperature measurement using RTD
❑ The common material used to construct
RTD element are platinum, nickel, copper.

Platinum is preferable because

i. it can withstand high temperature
ii. it has long-term stability over time at
high temperatures
iii. it is a noble metal, so less chance of
contamination (oxidization) Fig: Characteristics of material used for RTDs.

iv. it follows very linear resistance-to-temp. relationship.

37
Temperature measurement using RTD
• Most popular RTD is Pt-100 (Resistance 100Ω at 0 deg.).

• It ranges from -2000 C to 6000 C. (90% of RTD are

designed below 400°C)

• To prolong the life of RTDs, it is used in a protective well.

The well protects the sensor from gas and liquid

being measured. Protective wells are available in stainless

steel, carbon steel, cast iron, etc. and used up to 1100°C.

Fig: Industrial RTD (PT100) Probes

with Cast Iron Protection Head

38
Temperature measurement using Thermocouple
❑Thermocouple is a sensor that is used to measure temperature by the Seeback
effect.

❑What is the Seeback effect?

When any pair of metals of electrical conductivity and thermoelectrically

(transforming heat into electricity) dissimilar are placed (welded) together, a
voltage is generated due to the difference in temperature at the junctions which is
nearly proportional to the temperature.

39
Temperature measurement using Thermocouple
• The thermal emf developed in the circuit may be approximately written as
2
𝐸 = 𝑎 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 + 𝑏 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
= 𝑎 Δθ + 𝑏 Δθ 2

where a and b are constants, whose value depends upon the metals used;
Δθ is the difference between temperature of hot and cold junctions in °C.

• The emf of a thermocouple is approximately a parabolic function of the

temperature difference between junction.

• Typically, a >> b so 𝐸 ≅ 𝑎 Δθ

40
Temperature measurement using Thermocouple
Thermocouples Temperature Metals used (positive and negative
range (°C) wire)
B type 1370 to 1700 Platinum (6% Rhodium) and Platinum
(30% Rhodium)
E type 0 to 870 Chromel (90% Cr and 10% Ni) and
Constantan (40% Ni, 60% Cu)
J type 0 to 760 Iron and Constantan.
K type 95 to 1260 Chromel and Alumel (94% Ni, 2% Al,
Si, Mn )
N type 650 to 1260 Nicrosil and Nisil
R type 870 to 1450 Platinum (13% Rhodium) and Platinum
S type 980 to 1450 Platinum (10% Rhodium) and Platinum
T type -200 to 370 Copper and Constantan
41
Temperature measurement using Thermocouple
• Thermocouples require special wiring to connect the thermocouple to the
receiving device. This wiring must be made from the same materials as the
thermocouple itself.
• If wiring with a different material is used, the receiving device will receive a
corrupted signal. Ensuring that the special wiring is available during installation
and maintaining a supply for later maintenance adds a layer complexity to a
thermocouple use. Cost of this special wiring is also a consideration (especially
with long wiring runs).

42
RTD vs Thermocouple (relative comparison)
Thermocouple RTD
Advantages Self powered Most stable
Simple Most accurate
Rugged More linear than
thermocouple
Inexpensive
Wide temperature
range
Disadvantages Non-Linear Expensive
Low voltage Voltage/ current
source required
Cold-junction Small resistance
compensation change
Least stable Self heating
43
RTD vs Thermocouple (relative comparison)
Sensor type RTD Thermocouple
Temperature Range
-200 to 650°C 200 to 1750°C
(typical)

Accuracy (typical) 0.1 to 1°C 0.5 to 5°C

Long-term stability
0.05°C/year Variable
@ 100°C

Linearity Fairly linear Non-linear

Constant voltage or
Power required Self-powered
current
Generally slow Fast
Response time
1 to 50s 0.10 to 10s
Susceptible / Cold
Susceptibility to
Rarely susceptible junction
electrical noise
compensation
Cost High Low Ref. Omega Engineering, UK 44
Level measurement
Level is defined as the filling height of a liquid or bulk material, for example, in a
tank or reservoir.
Generally, the position of the surface is measured relative to a reference plane,
usually the tank bottom.
If the product’s surface is not flat (e.g., with foam, waves, turbulences, or with
coarse-grained bulk material) level usually is defined as the average height of a
bounded area.
Various classic and modern methods exist to measure product level in process and
storage tanks in the chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, water, and food
industries, in mobile tanks on vehicles and ships, but also in natural reservoirs like
seas, dams, lakes, and oceans. Typical tank heights are approximately between 0.5
m and 40 m.

45
Level measurement
Two different tasks can be distinguished: continuous level measurements (level
indication, LI), and level switches (LS) (e.g., to detect an alarm limit to prevent
overfilling).
The following figure shows the principal
operational modes of level measurement.
Every continuous system can also be used
as a programmable switch. Many level
devices are mounted on top of the tank and
measure primarily the distance d between
their mounting position and the product’s
surface. The level L is then calculated,
defining the tank height h as constant, as
shown in Figure and expressed as: L=h-d

Figure: Representation of a tank with a liquid or solid material (hatched area), the product to be measured. The level
sensor can be mounted (a) contacting product at the bottom, (b) as a contactless instrument on top, (c) as an intrusive
sensor, or (d) at the sides as a level switch. 46
Level measurement
Different types of level transmitter:

• Capacitive level transmitter

• Hydrostatic level transmitter

• Magnetic level transmitter

• Ultrasonic level transmitter

• Guided microwave level transmitter

In this lecture time-of-flight method (ultrasonic), time domain reflectometry

(guided wave Rader), and capacitive level transmitters will be covered.

47
Level measurement using Time-of-Flight method
An indirect measurement of level is evaluating the time-of-flight of a wave
propagating through the atmosphere above the liquid or solid. This is primarily a
distance measurement; the level can then be calculated accordingly. It is a
nonintrusive continuous level gaging system.
Basic principle: Although different types of physical waves (acoustic or
electromagnetic) are applied, the principle of all these methods is the same: a
modulated signal is emitted as a wave toward the product, reflected at its surface
and received by a sensor, which in many cases is the same, (e.g., the ultrasonic
piezoelectric transducer or the radar antenna). The measuring system evaluates the
time-of-flight t of the signal: t = 2d/v, where v is the propagation velocity of the
waves.

48
Level measurement using Time-of-Flight method
One can generate an unmodulated pulse, a modulated burst, or special forms. The
following table shows the main properties of the three preferred types of waves,
used for time-of-flight level gaging.

Modulation is defined as the process of superimposing a low-frequency signal on a

high-frequency carrier signal.

Because factors such as dust, heavy vapors, tank obstructions, surface

turbulence, foam, and even surface angles can affect the returning signal when
using an ultrasonic level sensor, you must consider how your operating
conditions can affect the sound waves.
49
Level measurement using Time-of-Flight method
(a) Representation of time-of-
flight measurements. The emitter
couples a wave (ultrasonic or
electromagnetic) into the
atmosphere that propagates the
wave toward the liquid. Its
surface reflects the wave, and a
sensor receives it.

(b) Due to the propagation

velocity v, a time delay is
measured between emission and
receipt of the signal. This
example is characterized by a
modulated burst. The time scale
is arbitrary.

50
Level measurement using “time domain reflectometry” (TDR).
• Guided wave radar is based on microwave
technology. Microwaves are only affected by
materials that reflect energy which means that
temperature variations, dust, pressure, and
viscosity do not affect accuracy.
• The device sends a low energy microwave pulse
down a probe. When the pulse hits the media, a
significant proportion of the energy is reflected
back up the probe to the device. The level is
directly proportional to the time-domain
reflectometry. Because a proportion of the
emitted pulse will continue down the probe, an
interface can also be detected. Each pulse is
reflected with an intensity that depends on the
dielectric constant of the product.
Reference: About Guided Wave Radar | Emerson US 51
Level measurement using capacitance
• Capacitance of a flat capacitor is inversely proportional to distance between the
plates and directly proportional to the overlapping area of the plates. The
operating principle of a capacitive gauge is based on either changing the
geometry (i.e., a distance between the capacitor plates or the overlapping area), or
variations in the dielectric materials positioned between the plates. When the
capacitance changes, it can be converted into a variable electrical output signal
by one of several well-known circuits.
𝑘𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

• In most applications where capacitance level transmitter is used, a rod

electrode is arranged vertically in the tank. The electrode can be (1) non-insulated
if the liquid is nonconductive, or (2) insulated. The metallic vessel acts as a
reference electrode (or reference electrode in a non-metallic vessel).

52
Level measurement using capacitance
The result depends on the permittivity 𝜀2 of the product. Figure shows an
electrode concentrically mounted on a cylindrical tank.

Fig. Principle of operation for a capacitance-type level device. (a) An insulated electrode protrudes into the liquid. The
capacitance between the inner conductor and the tank walls is measured. (b) As a capacitance level switch, the electrode
can be mounted at the appropriate position directly into the tank wall. 53
Level measurement using capacitance
For such a rotationally symmetrical configuration, the capacitance C of an
insulated electrode changes with level L according to:

ε0 is the dielectric constant of vacuum (8.85x10-

12 AsV-1m-1); ε1 and ε2 are the relative
permittivities of the insulation material and the
liquid, respectively.
If the liquid itself is highly conductive,

If the electrode is not insulated,

54
Pressure measurement
Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area exerted by a fluid (liquid or
gas) on any surface.
Three types of pressure measurements are commonly performed:
Absolute pressure is the same as the pressure defined above. It represents the
pressure difference between the point of measurement and a perfect vacuum where
pressure is zero.
Gage pressure is the pressure difference between the point of measurement and
the ambient. In reality, the ambient (atmospheric) pressure can vary, but only the
pressure difference is of interest in gage pressure measurements.
Differential pressure (DP/ Delta P) is the pressure difference between two points,
one of which is chosen to be the reference. In reality, both pressures can vary, but
only the pressure difference is of interest here.

55
Pressure measurement

Fig. Relationship between pressure terms.

56
Pressure measurement
Units of pressure: Pascal, bar, atm, mmHg, psi

57
Pressure measurement
Sensing elements:
Since pressure is defined as the force per unit area, the most direct way of
measuring pressure is to isolate an area on an elastic mechanical element for the
force to act on. The deformation of the sensing element produces displacements
and strains that can be precisely sensed to give a calibrated measurement of the
pressure. This forms the basis for essentially all commercially available pressure
sensors today.
Specifically, the basic requirements for a pressure-sensing element are a means to
isolate two fluidic pressures (one to be measured and the other one as the
reference) and an elastic portion to convert the pressure difference into a
deformation of the sensing element. Many types of pressure-sensing elements are
currently in use. These can be grouped as diaphragms, capsules, bellows, and
tubes.

58
Fig. Pressure-sensing elements: (a) flat
diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm; (c)
capsule; (d) bellows; (e) straight tube; (f) C-
shaped Bourdon tube; (g) twisted Bourdon
tube; (h) helical Bourdon tube; (1) spiral
Bourdon tube.

In general, Bourdon tubes are

designed for measuring high
pressures, while capsules and
bellows are usually for
measuring low pressures.

59
Pressure measurement
Detection methods:
A detection means is required to convert the deformation of the sensing element
into a pressure readout.
(a) The displacements of a sensing element can be amplified mechanically by lever and
flexure linkages to drive a pointer over a graduated scale.
(b) In linear-variable differential-transformer (LVDT) pressure sensors, the displacement of
a Bourdon tube or capsule is used to move a magnetic core inside a coil assembly to vary its
inductance.
(c) Piezoresistive materials (strain gage) when incorporated into diaphragms are well
suited for sensing the induced strains as the diaphragm is deflected by an applied pressure.
(d) In piezoelectric pressure sensors, the strains associated with the deformation of a
sensing element are converted into an electrical charge output by a piezoelectric crystal.
(e) The capacitive detection approach can be used to realize the change in capacitance due
to the movement of the diaphragm caused by pressure difference.

60
Pressure measurement using capacitance
Capacitive pressure sensor:
A metal or silicon diaphragm serves as
the pressure-sensing element and
constitutes one electrode of a capacitor.
The other electrode, which is stationary,
is typically formed by a deposited metal
layer on a ceramic or glass substrate. An
applied pressure deflects the diaphragm,
which in turn changes the gap spacing
and the capacitance.
In the differential capacitor design, the
sensing diaphragm is located in between
two stationary electrodes. An applied
pressure will cause one capacitance to
increase and the other one to decrease,
thus resulting in twice the signal while
canceling many undesirable common Fig. Operating principle of capacitive pressure sensors. (a)
mode effects. Single capacitor design; and (b) differential capacitor
design
61
Pressure measurement using strain gage
Strain gage pressure sensor:
The basic principle of the piezoresistive pressure
sensor is to use a strain gauge made from a
conductive material that changes its electrical
resistance when it is stretched. The strain gauge
can be attached to a diaphragm that recognizes a
change in resistance when the sensor element is
deformed. The change in resistance is converted to (a)

an output signal.
A measuring amplifier feeds the strain gauges with
an excitation voltage and acquires and processes
the bridge circuit’s output signal to make the
changes in SG resistance visible. The resulting
measurement signal can be processed by an
industrial measuring amplifier and transmitted to a (b)
(c)
programmable logic controller (PLC).
Fig. (a) Piezoresistive strain gauge measurements are
made using a Wheatstone bridge circuit, (b) Strain gage,
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors | The Design Engineer's Guide | Avnet Abacus
(c) Positioning of the strain gauges on the diaphragm.
62
Load Indicator System – Sweden General Information - Load Indicator System - Sweden (lisab.se)
Flow measurement using differential pressure
A flow meter is a device that measures how much liquid or gas moves through a
pipeline in a given period.
Flow units: Gallons per min, m3/hr
Different types of flow meters are
1. Differential Pressure Flow Meter.
2. Turbine Flow Meter.
3. Ultrasonic Flowmeter.
4. Coriolis Mass Flowmeter.
5. Electromagnetic Flowmeter.
6. Vortex Flowmeter.

63
Flow measurement using differential pressure
Flow units: Gallons per min, m3/hr
• Over 40% of all liquid, gas, and steam measurements made in industry are still
accomplished using common types of differential pressure flowmeter (flow
obstruction method); that is, the orifice plate, Venturi tube, and nozzle.
• The operation of these flowmeters is based on the observation made by Bernoulli
that if an annular restriction is placed in a pipeline, then the velocity of the fluid
through the restriction is increased. The increase in velocity at the restriction
causes the static pressure to decrease at this section, and a pressure difference is
created across the element. The difference between the pressure upstream and
pressure downstream of this obstruction is related to the rate of fluid flowing
through the restriction and therefore through the pipe.
• A differential pressure flowmeter consists of two basic elements: an obstruction
to cause a pressure drop in the flow (a differential producer) and a method of
measuring the pressure drop across this obstruction (a differential pressure
transducer).
64
Flow measurement using differential pressure
Consider the one-dimensional flow system shown in the figure. The continuity relation for
this situation is ……………….(1)

where u is the velocity. If the flow is adiabatic and frictionless and the fluid is
incompressible, the familiar Bernoulli equation may be written as follows:
………………(2)
where now ρ1 = ρ2. Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously gives for the pressure drop

………….(3)
and the volumetric flow rate may be written

65
Flow measurement using differential pressure

Fig. Schematic of three typical obstruction meters. (a) Venturi; (b) flow nozzle; (c) orifice. 66
Flow measurement using differential pressure
System consideration for differential pressure flowmeters:
• Robust and mature technology with easy maintenance (no moving parts)
• Suitable for turbulent flow
• Poor accuracy for low-flow measurements
• Uses extractive flow-measurement technique, so there is always a permanent
pressure loss that must be overcome with extra pumping energy
• Requires strict placement of pipe fittings, elbows, and bends for downstream and
upstream constriction taps.

67
Flow measurement using ultrasound
• In markets like waterpower, water supply, irrigation, etc., flow must be measured
without any head losses, or any pressure drop. This means no moving parts, no
secondary devices, nor are any restrictions allowed. Two types of flowmeters
presently fulfill this requirement: Electromagnetic and ultrasonic flowmeters.
• Whereas ultrasonic flowmeters can be applied in nearly any kind of flowing
liquid, electromagnetic flowmeters require a minimum electric conductivity of
the liquid for operation. In addition, the cost of ultrasonic flowmeters is nearly
independent of pipe diameter, whereas the price of electromagnetic flowmeters
increases drastically with pipe diameter.
• There are various types of ultrasonic flowmeters in use for discharge
measurement: Transit time, Doppler, Cross-correlation, Phase shift, Drift.

68
Flow measurement using ultrasound
(i) Transit time flow meter
The acoustic method of discharge measurement is
based on the fact that the propagation velocity of an
acoustic wave and the flow velocity are summed
vectorially. This type of flowmeter measures the
difference in transit times between two ultrasonic
pulses transmitted upstream t21 and downstream t12
Fig. Principle of transit time flowmeters.
across the flow, as shown in the following figure. If
there are no transverse flow components in the
conduit, these two transmit times of acoustic pulses
are given by:

69
Flow measurement using ultrasound
Since the transducers are generally used both as transmitters and receivers, the
difference in travel time can be determined with the same pair of transducers. Thus,
the mean axial velocity (va) along the path of ultrasound is given by:

1 1
𝑣𝑎 = K( − )
𝑡21 𝑡12

Gessner has shown that for laminar flow νa = 4ν/3, and for turbulent flow, νa=
1.07ν, where ν is the flow averaged over the cross-sectional area.
The transit-time ultrasonic meter can be used for measuring only extremely clean
liquids or gases.

70
Flow measurement using ultrasound
(2) Doppler ultrasonic flow meter:
The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an
ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles
(discontinuities) in motion. This metering technique utilizes the physical
phenomenon of a sound wave that changes frequency when it is reflected by
moving discontinuities in a flowing liquid. Ultrasonic sound is transmitted into a
pipe with flowing liquids, and the discontinuities reflect the ultrasonic wave with a
slightly different frequency that is directly proportional to the rate of flow of the
liquid. Current technology requires that the liquid contains at least 100 parts per
million (PPM) of 100 micron or larger suspended particles or bubbles.
An ultrasonic Doppler flow meter is a volumetric flow meter that is ideal for
aerated liquids such as wastewater or slurries. Transit time ultrasonic flow meters
are ideal for clean liquid applications such as water and oil.

71
Flow measurement using ultrasound
(2) Doppler ultrasonic flow meter:
The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an
ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles
(discontinuities) in motion. This metering technique utilizes the physical
phenomenon of a sound wave that changes frequency when it is reflected by
moving discontinuities in a flowing liquid. Ultrasonic sound is transmitted into a
pipe with flowing liquids, and the discontinuities reflect the ultrasonic wave with a
slightly different frequency that is directly proportional to the rate of flow of the
liquid. Current technology requires that the liquid contains at least 100 parts per
million (PPM) of 100 micron or larger suspended particles or bubbles.
An ultrasonic Doppler flow meter is a volumetric flow meter that is ideal for
aerated liquids such as wastewater or slurries. Transit time ultrasonic flow meters
are ideal for clean liquid applications such as water and oil.

72
Flow measurement
Other methods are:
• Electromagnetic flow meter, also known as a magmeter.
• Coriolis flow meter, popular flow meter directly measures mass flow rate.
• Positive displacement flow meter
• Vortex shedding flowmeter

73
Flow measurement

https://upmation.com/control-valve/
74
Transmitter
• A Temperature Transmitter is a device that converts the signal produced by a
temperature sensor into a standard instrumentation signal representing a process
variable temperature being measured and controlled.
• The most common transmitter instrumentation output signal is 4 to 20 mA.
• The transmitter can be placed close to the sensor to reduce the special wiring
required, thus reducing any potential error. The transmitter converts the sensor
signal to a signal that can be transmitted a greater distance. This signal can be a
simple 4 to 20mA DC analog signal, digital signal (Hart Protocol, BRAIN
Protocol, or FOUNDATION Fieldbus Protocol), or a wireless signal (ISA100).
The transmitter gets a reliable accurate signal to the desired receiving device
using standard twisted pair or, in the case of a wireless transmitter, no wires at all.

75
Transmitter

Ref: Temperature Transmitter Explained | Connection and Calibration (realpars.com) 76

Transmitter
• A Temperature Transmitter requires a power supply to operate. Most
Temperature Transmitters are 2-wire types having only two wires. These two
wires provide power for the transmitter and are also the signal lines.
• A 4-wire transmitter has two wires connected to a power supply and two signal
wires connected to the PLC. The power supply can be AC or DC depending on
the vendor and model.

Ref: Temperature Transmitter Explained | Connection and Calibration (realpars.com) 77

Transmitter

• Field-mount temperature transmitters

are designed with a dual compartment
housing that keeps moisture, humidity,
or other contaminants from getting
into the transmitter's electronics.

Field Mount

Ref: Field Mount | Yokogawa Electric Corporation

78
Transmitter

• Commonly refer to as "Hockey

Pucks" due to their shape, head-mount
temperature are small disc shaped
transmitters that are often mounted
within a connection head.

Head Mount

Ref: Head Mount | Yokogawa Electric Corporation

79
Transmitter

• Panel-mount temperature transmitters

are designed to be mounted on DIN-
rails located in non-harsh
environments usually in or near
control rooms. The advantage of this
type of mounting is that they can be
grouped together for easy access. The
disadvantage is the length of wiring
from the sensor to the transmitter.
Panel Mount

Ref: YTA70P | Yokogawa Electric Corporation

80
Final Control Elements
• Every process control loop contains a
final control element (actuator), the
device that enables a process variables
to be manipulated.
• The final control element can be an
electric pump/motor, heater, or control
valve.
• For most chemical and petroleum
processes, the final control element
(usually control valve) adjust the flow
rates of materials such as solid, liquid or
gas feeds and products; and indirectly
the rates of energy transfer to and from
the process.
81
Final Control Elements

Ref: https://upmation.com/control-valve/
Please see this video 82
Control valves
• Control valve components include the
valve body, trim, seat, and actuator.

Fig. A pneumatic control valve (air to open)

• The valve body contains an orifice that allows for the flow of liquids and/or gas.
• The trim modulates the flow rates and can be a plug, ball, disk, or gate.
• The seat consists of protective material (typically metal or soft polymer) inserted
around the orifice to provide a tight shut-off and to increase the life of the valve
when corrosive or solid material pass through it.
• The actuator provides the force for opening and closing of the valve. 83
Types of control valves
Control
valve

Linear Rotary
motion motion

Globe Diaphragm Pinch Ball Butterfly Plug

• Linear valves are usually globe valves that open and close the valve by moving a
plug vertically away from the orifice and seat.
• Rotary valves are closed by 90 deg turn of the closing element, these valves are
used for both on-off and flow modulation. Rotary valves are more compact, easy
to maintain, and less expensive.
84
Directional Control Valve (DCV)

What is Directional Control Valve (DCV)? - Inst Tools (instrumentationtools.com) 85

Directional Control Valve (DCV)

A normally closed 2-way solenoid valve

Normally Open vs Normally Closed Solenoid Valve | Tameson.com 86

Control Valve

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qLSl9ZGIl0A

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDyTPlkwKak

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=npDJHWkSomA&list=PLiLi0iBi4DwxeAPrIt2aPa
W3WBHM18tLx&index=36

87
References
1. A.K. Sawhney. A course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and
Instrumentation.
2. Dale E. Seborg, Thomas F. Edgar, Duncan A. Mellichamp, Francis J. Doyle III.
Process Dynamics and Control, 2nd Edition and 4th Edition
3. John P. Bentley. Principles of Measurement Systems.
4. John G. Webster. (Editor in Chief). The Measurement, Instrumentation and
Sensors Handbook

88