2.

5 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Teacher education is a workable programme whose efficiency depend upon the quality
of school teachers. Because of the reason, the countries worl over are trying to improve their
national system of schol teacher training simultaneously, these systems are trying to achieve
correct position, becaus school teacher training is a basic element of the national education
systems whic has to be standardized. If we want to update our system of teacher training and
make it compatible/comparable with European system, there is need to identify the requirements
of teachers, teacher educators, teacher education institutions and organizing agencies etc. and
fulfil their requirements. Teacher development is the professional development; a teacher only
achieves in order to increase his/her knowledge and examines his/her teaching systematically.
The term professional development includes activities that provide instruction in methods of
teaching to the teachers with their special requirements.
No doubt professional development expands instructional flexibility of teachers and also
develops new skills and techniques in them. Professional development is also known as staff
development which is the provision of organized in-service programmes designed to foster the
growth of teacher community.
Expectancy beliefs, instrumentality beliefs and outcome valences depend on personalities,
motive structures present and previous circumstances and experiences. All these may affect
motivation to learn and to participate in the programmes of professional development. For this
reason, working teachers in the same circumstances may have different opinions regarding
usability, requirement, meaning etc. of updating. The lack of effectiveness of teacher educations
in schools is due to carelessness and negligence of teachers prepared for the teaching profession.
If the teachers are fully involved in designing of staff development programmes then those
programmes would have a high degree of success. Teachers are involved in designing and
planning of programmes of staff development to the least extent. Most of the researchers suggest
that staff development in general has not been the product of an attractive policy, nor it has been
linked to priorities of institutions for curricula and improvement of instruction/teaching.
Vacca et al. (1982) got similar results in a study of professional growth in six districts.
Administrators in only two out of six districts stated a structural connection between
professional development and programme evaluator; in both of these instances, the connection
was closely oriented toward the 'remediation' of individual teachers but not toward coordination
of initiatives of programme improvement (p. 182).
2.5.1 Characteristics of Effective Professional Development
The effective teacher professional development may improve classroom practices.
(Borko, 2004; Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009; Guskey, 2002; Peterson, 2002;
Richardson, 2003). There is an agreement in the literature related to characteristics which makes
professional development very effective (Desimone, 2009; Guskey, 2003; Loucks-Horsley,
1995). Most of the writers and researchers have consensus that effective professional
development has the characteristics as given below:
1. Professional development is conducted for a reasonable time that includes a semester or
at least of 80 hours’ teaching time (Desimone, 2009; Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman,
& Yoon, 2001; Supovitz & Turner, 2000).
2. It provides opportunities to trainee teachers to develop knowledge of content and
pedagogy (Desimone, 2009; Guskey, 2003).
3. It strengthens the community of teachers and students and promotes the sharing among
the partner groups of trainees (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011; Garet et al.,
2001; Guskey, 2003).
4. School-based professional development makes the teachersto be engaged to acquire solid
based classroom practice of new teaching techniques (Desimone, 2009; Penuel,
Fishman, Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, 2007; Supovitz & Turner, 2000).
5. It is an ongoing and willingly joined with other components of the educational reforms
or school environment (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011; Desimone, 2009).
6. It provides teachers the opportunities to assess their professional development activities
1
(Garet et al., 2001; Guskey, 2003; Loucks-Horsley et al., 2010). 7-It provides teachers
environment for effective learning like assessing students’ assignments and getting
feedback of their instruction (Garet et al., 2001; Rogers et al., 2007).
7. It is permanent, continuous, concentrated and supported by teaching such coaching,
demonstrating and shared problem solving (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011;
Rogers et al., 2007).

2.5.2 Effectiveness of Professional Development

Sorcinelli (2006) describes that effective teaching takes place when one considers
teaching as an attractive activity and makes it interesting for students too. The most important
thing is to make interaction between subject matter and real life and to present the content
matter in a highly organized form. He also indicates two aspects of good quality teaching:
( i ) continuous feedback on the performance of students and ( ii ) involvement of
students in classroom activities. This research study indicates that t e a c he r ’ s
knowledge of content and methodology is very impor t ant for ef f ect competent teacher knows
how to: manage classroom, plan the le teaching strategies which are essential for a teacher to
have a competency. Most of the researchers state that teacher’s knowledge of subject matter and
pedagogy are very important areas for effective professional development. Campbell et al.
(2004) also concentrated on the knowledge of subject matter and the teaching methodology for
effective teaching. Improvement in teaching and the betterment of students’ learning are good
indicators to know the effectiveness of professional development.
A number of researchers challenged the preference given to pedagogy over content
knowledge in professional development activities. These prevail an opinion that pedagogy
without deep content knowledge has limited contribution towards professional development of
teachers.
There is scarceness in the literature on the direct relationship between professional
development and its effect on student attainment and learning (Garet et al., 2001; Shymansky,
Yore, & Anderson, 2004; Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007) and Slavin (2003)
stated that it is difficult to make a direct relationship between professional development and
student learning because many indicators intervene, like the social and economic position of
students, students’ devotion, students parents’ background, class strength and environment of
school and school administration.Shymansky et al. In the same way, C.C. Johnson, Kahle, and
Fargo (2007), stated that the “current research base failed to demonstrate a clear relationship
between professional development and student performance” (p. 2).
However, a few current researche studies have provided evidences on the effect of
professional development on students’ learning (Guskey, 2002; C. C. Johnson & Fargo, 2010;
Ross, Hogaboam-Gray, & Bruce, 2006; Yoon et al, 2007). In this regard, Yoon et al. (2007)
indicated three phases in the effect of professional development on student learning: 1-
professional development increases teachers’ knowledge and teaching skills, 2- teachers’
improved skills and knowledge eventually improve classroom teaching practices and 3-
improved teaching practices rises students’ l evel of achievement. C.C. Johnson et al. (2007)
carried out a study in the subject of science over a period of three year and concluded there was
noteworthy improvement in student learning in years two and year three of the professional
development. They found that “teacher participation in effective, sustained, professional
development and their subsequent use of standards-based instructional strategies have a positive
impact on their students’ performance in science” (p. 10). In the same way, an another research
was carried out by C.C. Johnson and Fargo (2010), they reported that students in experimental
schools had high improvement level in the subject of science than those students
of control school whose teachers were not imparted training.
In spite of an agreement on the characteristics of effective professional development,
there is no clear picture about how these characteristics are workable and how they can be made
applicable in professional development activities to have a positive effect on students’ learning
(Garet et al., 2001). So there is a need for proper research into how the definite characteristics
2
make professional development more effective and the relationship with students’ learning, and
academic achievement. Darling-Hammond (1997) suggested that that effective professional
development activities be practiced in teachers’ daily routine work, involving them in joint
lesson planning, study groups, action research related to classroom activities, mentoringand peer
coaching. In spite of, knowing these characteristics of professional development, a number of
professional development models are being used in the world depending upon the nature of
environment and the needs assessment of teachers.
2.5.3 Professional Development Standards
At present every aspect of school needs reformation and the professional development
programmes can perform this function for teacher community. In this regard, various agencies
and organizations have focused on professional development and have sought to identify
qualities that characterize most effective practice in the field of education. Schramm (2006) has
recognized as one of the most comprehensive set of professional development standards.
These standards vary in their content and aims but generally they have common themes.
These are relevant to those programmes that focus upon student learning; deepen teachers’
understanding about their subjects; improve teaching methodology; provide proper time and
resources for continuous, rigorous study; bring teachers together in learning communities; and
construct a road map for the professional development of teachers.
2.5.4 Models of Teachers’ Professional Development
There are various models ofprofessional development. These models are different
depending on the basic theories. For an instance, according to the conservative theory, trainees
are considered as dynamic learners taking part in their personal growth. This theory states that
teachers have their views, experience and previous knowledge in any learning state. Thus
knowledge must be expressive; otherwise it is useless (Butler, 1992). Different researchers have
recognized different professional development models that are frequently used in teacher
education ( Guskey, 2000; Kriek & Grayson, 2009; Kuijpers, Houtveen, & Wubbels, 2010;
Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989; Westchester Institute for Human Services Research,
2007).Most of the work on professional development models is based on the work of Sparks and
Loucks-Horsley (1989) and the Westchester Institute for Human Services Research (2007).
These models are described in detail below:
2.5.4.1 The Teacher Network Model:
This model gives teachers a helpful professional community outside the school and
involves teachers to work in a group. The model is characteristically organized around definite
content matter, and requires to increase teachers’ comprehension level of content and new
teaching technique (Darling-Hammond
&McLaughlin, 201 1).A few of these networksare nationwide in scope, while others shelter only
one state or region and members remain in touch through electronic bulletin boards (Corcoran,
1995; Villegas-Reimers, 2003; Westchester Institute for Human Services Research, 2007).
According to this approach, teachers perform duty for various tasks, like team teaching,
curriculum development, and assessment techniques, and other events which create freedom and
collaboration amongst teachers. This model encourages on-the-job learning as it helps fruitful
interactions of knowledge amongst teachers and the sharing of reflection on their teaching
(Westchester Institute for Human Services Research, 2007). Villegas-Reimers (2003) reported
that (p. 109). . It is expected from this model, according to Villegas-Reimers (2003), teachers
share their problems which they face in their daily practice and they organize their own
networks and share the knowledge with specialists. The main advantage of this model: - i it is
flexible as it allows the use of online networking and ii- learning of teachers is individualized
and includes formal and informal learning because it is not regularized by institutional schedules
(Lieberman, 2000). The main drawback of the model, according to Villegas- Reimers (2003), is
that they get less or no financial aid from government.
2.5.4.2 The Improvement Process Model :
This approach involves partnership between schools and teacher education institutions or
universities, where schools are used as laboratories to bring innovations. Teachers take part in
3
developing programmes and they involve themselves in school improvements where they focus
on improving classroom teaching or the curriculum (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989). These
programmes provide opportunities to the teachers to gain access to up-to-date knowledge and
they enable the researchers/ university teachers to develop new strategies for teaching their pre-
service teachers (Guskey, 2000). This model uses professional development schools like
teaching hospitals in which to test and treat weaknesses in subject content and teaching
methodology. In this model, it is assumed by Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) that it includes:
(i) adults teachers learn more effectively when they face problems affecting their teaching
practice (ii) prospective teachers best understand what is needed to better their performance and
how to change their professional routine and iii- teachers get vital knowledge or teaching skills
through their participation in the processes of school improvement or curriculum development.
The main advantages of this approach are that it offers opportunities to the teachers to be
contacted with experts from outside the school atmosphere and discuss their experiences,
problems and knowledge, and in this way they learn formal research assistances from university
experts (Guskey, 2000; Lalitha, 2005). However, the main drawback of this approach is that it is
limited to a small numbers of teachers as it involves only a few schools in collaboration with a
university or teacher education college (Guskey, 2000).
2.5.4.3 The Action Research Model:
According to this model, teachers apply fundamental classroom research techniques,
prepare research questions about recognized teaching and learning issues and problems to
classroom practice, collect information and analyze the data and use the results for the
improvement of classroom teaching techniques (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989).This model is
applied to replace conventional teaching methodology, develop new teaching methods and
improve teaching techniques and skills (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). This approach may
involve study groups, small groups or even the whole school as a unit of inquiry. According to
this model, Loucks-Horsley et al. (1987) state tha t t e a c he rs a r e intellectual and curious by
nature with genuin e expertise and have knowledge to r impove their classroom prS acu tc ich et
se . achers are motivated to get in formation to respond persistent questions and to ref a le me ct
on the d solutions. They continue to develop new understanding to prepare questions and gather
data to respond these questions. The advantag model in clude: (i) it assists the teachers to
become more ref lectiv problems; and (ii)elpit s h the teachers to improve their classroom prac
( G u s k e y, 2 0 0 0 ) . Ac c o r d ing t o Gu s k e y ( 2 0 0 0 ) , t h is mo d e l ne e d s t e a c he r
for time and as this approach is in quiry based; the success of inquiry the time which is the main
drat h wis bamo ck d oe f l.
2.5..4 4 The Individually Guide: Mode
According to this model, teacher educators and teachers f ix pro development learning
targets and chose various activities to achieve model is based on these assump-in dt o ivn ids u:
ati el acher may judge his/her learning needs; ii- he/she is capable of self-learning, and more
interested to learn when he/she initiates his/her own professional development (Guskey, 2000).
Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) suggested that there are four stages of this model that can be
followed properly or casually. These stages include : i- to identify needs and interests of
teachers; ii- to develop a strategy to fulfill the needs and interests; iii- to plan the learning
experiences and activities; and iv- to evaluate whether the learning meets the identified needs
and interest (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989). The advantages of this model are: - it i is flexible
as it depends on t eacher’s own choice, it provides opportunities for self-assessment and
personal reflection, and it guides teacher for decision making (Guskey, 2000). However, there
are few opportunities for sharing teaching skills, techniques and knowledge as the concept of
partnership does not exist for this model.
2.5.4.5 The Observation Model:
In this model, observations constitute methods of clinical supervision, peer coaching and
mentoring. The model permits the sharing of learning experiences among teachers and a very
experienced teacher plays a key the role in guiding the activities of the other teachers. For an
instance, newly recruited teachers are mentored by veterans (i.e. highly experienced teachers)
4
who share their knowledge and expertise (Hennissen, Crasborn, Brouwer, Korthagen, & Bergen,
2011; Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlison, 2009; Leslie, 2001).
Guskey (2000) remarked that “one of the best ways to learn is by observing others, or
being observed and receiving feedback from that observation” There are four assumptions
regarding the observation model: - i classroom observationand assessment which helps the
teacher to analyze him/herself to improve his/her teaching and, eventually, student’s
achievement;
ii- reflection by the teacher on his/ her own practice may be improved by another individual’s
observations; iii- observation and evaluation of classroom instruction may be useful for both -
the teacher being observed and the observer; and iv- when teachers observe positive results from
their struggles to change, they become more dedicated to make improvements in teaching
(Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989).
The model is beneficial for both the observer and the observed but model requires
devotion and significant time from both the observed and the observer (Guskey, 2000). This
model considers that teachers are active learners in professional development. In this model,
teachers act as the 'eyes and ears' of their course mates. They observe each other and provide
feedback (Garet et al, 2001). Observation can be seen in the form of peer coaching, when
colleagues work together for improving their practices (Joyce and Showers, 2002). Sparks and
Loucks-Horsley (1989) describe that teachers gain feedback after observation, by which they
improve their performance and ultimately students get benefit in the form of achievement. Joyce
and Showers (2002) found that few trainees got skills and knowledge during a one-day training
session, but they gained more knowledge and skills when they were given training and
modeling. They followed practice and coaching by the study team respectively. This finding
showed that trainees learnt 85 % of requisite knowledge and demonstrated 18% of skills when
they take part in both the one-day presentation training session and modeling. The level of
trainees for acquiring knowledge was extremely raised to 85% when they were imparted
training by using four constituents of training: (i) presentation, (ii) modeling, (iii) practice and
(iv) feedback from their course mates the coaching study team. Trainees learnt 90 % of
knowledge and demonstrated 90 % of skills when they were trained by using above mentioned
four components of training.
2.5.4.6 Inquiry model:
According to this model, teachers use their techniques to pursue reply to questions.
There is no pre-packed content. Individual teacher may work alone, exploring some concerns
relevant to the teaching profession. Individual teacher may also work with his/her others
colleagues in his/her institution. Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) describe three assumptions
related to this model : (i) teachers are capable to explore the literature related to content ; (ii)
teachers have abilities to go through problems and find their solutions, and(iii ) teachers also
have capability to respond their questions and inquiries, solve their problems that lead to change
their practice. Some researches have been carried out to know the advantages of inquiry model
in teachers’ professional development, and have proved that the inquiry model is useful for
improving teachers' practice. For example, Smith and Sela (2005) carried out a research to
enable the transition of newly qualified teachers (NQTs) during their initial recruitment period.
NQTs were directed to participate in a professional course on compulsory basis. The course was
planned to impart essential skills to NQTs to enable them to understand classroom issues. The
researchers facilitated them to use research tools for conducting action research on different
topics. They found that teachers became more analytical and critical about their teaching
practice. They began to consider themselves as researchers and teachers.
2.5.4.7 Deficit model:
This model exhibits a more conventional approach to the nature of professional
development of teachers. The deficit model is typically a top-down approach that often lessens
the opportunities for teachers to become active learners. According to Clark and Florio-Ruane
(2001), the deficit model is strongly negative. Because teachers do not have opportunities to
state their opinion about professional development, so they feel that they have been inculcated
5
knowledge by an outsider expert who is not relevant as he does not teach that the class (p.5).
According to this model, teachers are considered as the reason for the drawbacks of educational
system and “diseased or defective components in an otherwise excellently designed learning
production and control system." The deficit model assumes that teacher weakness can be
overcome by specifically addressing a perceived deficit in their performance (Kennedy, 2005).
This approach assumes that performance of teachers is affected by low standard of the
institution and poor attainment of students is not correct. Rhodes and Beneicke (2003)
concluded that there are various factors which are responsible for poor performance of a school,
like social contact between schools and local stakeholders’ expectations.
2.5.4.8 The Training Model:
According to (Kennedy, 2005), this model is considered to be the most ordinary model
of professional development. An outsider expert designs the content of the training. Workshops
and presentations are normally two common types of training, in which an experienced
supervisor communicate pre-determined objectives and learning outcomes. Teacher training
may be conducted at work place i.e. school or outside the school .Sparks and Loucks-Horsley
(1989) identified three assumptions that affect the training model which are given below: (i) the
presenter, and communication methods should be decided well in time in advance by the
expert ; (ii) what content is designed for the training session and chosen is valuable for teachers
to apply in their classes; and (iii) teachers will implement the intended strategic techniques in
their classes. Kennedy (2005) states that the training model is helpful for an expertise-based,
technical expert’s view of teaching while CPD gives opportunities to teachers to renew their
teaching skills for the demonstration of their abilities. This model involves workshop culture,
where teachers attend workshops and the presenter of the workshop is an expert, who prepares
the content material and all other activities and learning experiences in the whole session.
(Guskey, 2000; Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989). According to Lalitha (2005), the workshops
are arranged with a set of learning outcomes. Learning outcomes are usually designated as the
teaching skills and knowledge and that the trainee will exhibit after the training. There are two
major assumptions of this model:
(i) teachers required to gain new behaviours and teaching techniques for classroom practice and
i ( i) teachers may modify their behaviours and learn to repeat behaviours in their classroom that
were not earlier in their range (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989). Sparks and Loucks-Horsley
(1989) acknowledged the major advantages of training model: i ( ) it is a cost-effective by which
teachers gain knowledge and teaching skills; and ( ii) it may assist to teach a number of trainees
in a short time. On the other hand, Villegas-Reimers (2003) described the drawbacksof this
model that (i ) short term workshops are not better than long-term workshops; (ii) there is no
appropriate continuous support for teachers to implement the new practice work; and (iii)
occasionally assessment is problematic because training is generallyimparted in short time and
training materials are not related to the requirements of the teachers and the school environment.
There are various models of professional development of teachers, considerably professional
development activity flops to achieve the intended goals of assisting professional growth of
teachers (Borko, 2004; Guskey, 2000; Guskey & Yoon, 2009). Many models are presented in
schools without any analysis of inner or outer factors, like an evaluation of learning needs of
teachers, accessibility of funds and the participation of teachers in designing professional
development activities (Bantwini, 2004; Guskey, 2002). Professional development
implementing agencies often apply a top-down approach that means teachers are recipients of
knowledge (Bantwini, 2004), and often they ignore to discuss the relevant issues of how
students are getting education better due to professional development (Guskey, 2000).
2.6 EFFECTIVE TEACHER EVALUATION
Teacher evaluations serve two main functions i.e. a measure of competence of teacher
and to foster professional development; teacher evaluation should give a beneficial feedback on
classroom requirements, the opportunity to know about new teaching skills and techniques. It
should also give lesson to make changes in the environment of classroom. In this regard,
evaluator must decide about specific procedures and standards.
6
Stodolosky (1990) describes:
The evaluation of teachers had received a great deal of attention, especially in the United
States, where it has developed as a somewhat predictable consequence of the concern for teacher
accountability. In its standard form, a supervisor or an administrator takes to the classroom an
observational “scorecard”, which l ists criteria loosely derived from the research on teacher
completes the scorecard, and confers with the teacher in conference that has been characterized
as a “good news/bad news” session (p. 194).
In the situation of such criticism, educationists have suggested alternatives which are
applications of self-assessment, the development of cumulative portfolios, the administration of
performance tests and the use of goal-based systems that focus on growth. It is difficult for
teachers, evaluators and head teachers to associate evaluation with development. The evaluation
may be used to work with teachers to set specific educational goals, provide positive criticism
and suggestion to strengthen weak areas of subject/discipline and enable senior teachers to help
to improve the performance of junior teachers.
It is concluded that evaluation may be a positive experience for both the evaluators and
teachers. The job of evaluators is to make the process of evaluation meaningful and reliable
experience. Teacher evaluations are made to improve the teaching of teachers. It may be said
that evaluation is a continuous and sustained process which goes on until teacher ceases to
teach.
2.7 IN-SERVICE TRAINING OF TEACHERS (INSET)
In-service training has been considered as on-going process by many researchers and
teachers in the world.Different terms have been used to define the concept of INSET. Usual
terms are professional growth, in-service training, staff development and lifelong education.
Every term is useful in its own context bu there is a need for a standard and reliable definition of
INSET by educationa planners and policy makers.
In-service teacher training is helpful for the teachers to bring changes in the society and
enables them to take active part in curricula development process, implementation of curricula
and updating approaches to teaching. In-service teachers training is also helpful for school
teachers to serve as managers, planners administrators, teacher educators, officers, and
supervisors of school education. This definition is ideal and conceptual because it fulfils all the
requirements of programme which are needed for the professional growth of in-service teachers.
This definition contains four elements:
 Introduction of training
 Designation of specific group of individuals i.e. teachers
 Competencies, and
 Agency paying the cost.

These elements meet the criteria of an ideal and conceptual definition. If policy makers
and agencies related to in-service education accept this definition, then there is no need to
discuss more about system of teacher training programme.
2.7.1 Definitions of INSET
In-service education is directly related to teacher’s change and curriculum’s change. But
Alwan (2000) has a different view. She says that INSET is the way of improving teaching
mythology (p.1 1), while Henderson (1978) states that it is not easy to differentiate between
education and training, but in-service education and training is more usually used than other
different terms like in-service education, and professional development and professional growth
(p.12).
Moreover, Morant (1981) states that there are few differences between in - service
education and in -service training but that the difference is unimportant. He indicates that the
term “training” is imparted to ga in skills and techniques b y the use of uniform learning
procedures and sequences. Freeman (1982) has pointed out in a different way that there is a
difference between “teacher training” and “teacher development”. Training inculcates specific
teaching techn iques in the teachers due to which they became more active and confident in their
7
professional

8
life. Teachers need to have long-life learning and they became professionally strong when they
attain personal and professional development. Morant (1981) describes that it is difficult to have a
single definition of INSET but suggests that in- service education in one form or another could be
experienced by a teacher, if
they were so disposed, for a span of perhaps forty years (p.1).
Morant asks what the idea of in-service education comprises of when he describes that some
experts prefer to include voluntarily or involuntarily experiences in INSET programmes. Samoor
(2006) defines INSET as the knowledge, activities and needs which helps the teachers to improve
their performance and become more professional (p. 469). INSET is as a set of offered theoretical
and practical learning activities which increase the professional abilities during their professional
life in order to achieve better goals and get programmed improvements, Hamadah (2006) defines
INSET as a planned, organized and target oriented activity, consists of training needs of teachers, to
develop their knowledge base, teaching techniques and abilities, and make better their level of
academic and educational performance from both the theoretical and practical viewpoints. He says
that it can be done by imparting training by means of lectures, workshops and small teaching
meetings undertaken with perfect and definite objectives.
Cimer et al. (2010) define INSET as something which is focused on change, namely those
learning activities that claim that teachers change practice, which they argue teachers cannot
continuously accept as required. It may be said that INSET is comprised of those activities which
are needed for the professional growth and improvement in their profession. Simjee (2006) suggests
another viewpoint that INSET is identical to the terms such as school development, staff
development, teacher development, continuous professional development and teacher professional
development. She describes that:
“INSET refers to an entire array of measures for educators that are associated with the
improvement of competency, broadening of knowledge and professional abilities. INSET activities
are pursued in order to improve the quality of education and are aimed at enabling educators to be
more effective in the classroom,” (p. 21).
Simjee also views that both the terms INSET and professional development are
interchangeably used to discuss the professional growth of teachers but Fraser et al. (2007) give
their view point that the concept of professional development has currently been changed from
practicing while participating INSET courses, to the idea of continuous and ongoing learning
throughout the life of a teacher. Muijs and Lindsay (2007) argue that the term continuous
professional development (CPD) is ill-defined as it is intermixed with the related ideas of in-service
education and on job learning. They indicated that the above terms are very limited than the concept
of continuous professional development. Muijs and Lindsay suggest that this is because CPD
includes a vast range of different methodologies of teaching and learning in different environments
which may be neither inside nor outside the job place.
Mutshekwane (2004) claims that INSET is same thing as that of staff development,
continuous professional development, capacity building and training as all these terms support the
teachers to strengthen them in learning activities. The concepts of teacher education, teacher
training and teacher professional development are used interchangeably by various educationists.
The term INSET comprises of those arranged activities that are applied to increase teachers’
information, expertise and behaviors in order to increase students’ achievement. The aim of INSET
activities is to improve teachers professionally, but this profession should not disregard the role of
CPD which has broader and deeper concept than INSET. In-service education is extremely focused
on those arranged activities that work on improving the teacher’s practice in order to associate with
the recent changes and anticipated improvements. On the other hand, continuous professional
development focuses on improving teachers’ lifelong learning activities to improve their outcomes.
Academics dictionary of education (2002) stated the INSET as; Job related instruction and learning
experiences are accessible to teachers. In-service training programmes are usually presented during

9
usual working time, activities aimed to enhance the knowledge and skills of teachers and the quality
of services, particularly the teaching practices. INSET is imparted to those teachers who are
fundamentally eligible and recruited by school education systems (p. 158).
It may be concluded that within this study, we define the term INSET as those arranged
short or long term courses that aim to improve and expand teachers with fresh and more content
knowledge, techniques, pedagogical skills, attitudes and learning experiences and activities. Due to
the nature of teachers’ in-service training programmes carried out in our country, schools do not
have the authority to design and arrange their programmes, we shall generally focus and use the
term INSET rather than CPD as it is only applicable in the primary schools of Punjab under the
umbrella of DSD, Lahore.
2.7.2 The Concept of INSET
Saitis & Saitis (2006) describe that new changes in science have given a rise to changes that need
prompt action. Education requires to address these changes, not only for school syllabi but also to
use recent teaching techniques and methods for the role of teacher. Taking into consideration
schools as a learning place, and the fact that teachers are the base of any educational institution,
reformers were required to rethink performance of school, and especially teachers who immediately
need to adopt the innovative teaching methods and techniques in addition to performance as
teachers. They indicate that, considering in mind that the teacher is the base of an education system
where he / she is trying on improving students’ performance and the betterment of the school’s
performance, the concept of INSET becomes the key to the success of the school, and even its
existence.
Hamadah (2006) thinks the INSET is essential for teacher output and potential which is
carried out with ease and is more cost effective than if the teacher was not trained quietly. He
further says that the changes in INSET – by its types and methods enhance the outcomes due to
investing on teachers. Fraser et al. (2007), on the other hand, mentioned that the idea of professional
development is changed; it has changed from the practice of just participation in courses towards
the concept of ongoing learning. Although most of the countries have changed towards school-
based INSET, due to its low cost and its cost effectiveness, Day (1997) convinces that there is no
proof of any systematic assessment of the advantages of particular models. The concept of INSET
is associated with improving teachers’ knowledge, professional and personal skills by pre-arranged
activities.
2.7.3 Aims of INSET
The major objective of in-service education/training is to awaken teachers regarding general
environment of school and to develop professional skills in them. Almutawa & Al-Furaih (2005)
state the aim of INSET is to prepare and direct new teachers by improving their performance and
providing them recent ideas in order to renew their skills and skilled .Guskey (2002) indicates three
major goals for professional development as i- change of teachers’ routine in the class, ii- change of
teachers’ viewpoint and attitudes, and iii- change of students’ learning outcomes. He says that these
improvements take place when teachers change their routine teaching practices in the classroom. He
describes that changes in teachers’ thinking and behaviours happen when they see that their
students’ performance has improved. Guskey thinks that these betterments usually come from
changes that teachers brought in their classroom routines, which are related to the changes that
happen in teachers’ thinking and behaviours.
INSET not only upgrades knowledge and skills of teachers but also fosters continuous
professional development. (p. 131). The purpose of INSET is to enhance the efficacy of in-service
teachers. The INSET activities/programmes certainly aim at the following, with different objectives
varying in levels and contexts of the course:
1. Assisting in-service teachers to afresh their knowledge.
2. Developing skills in them to improve classroom teaching.
3. Assisting them to improve instructional/teaching aids from meagre cost and material.

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4. Changing their behavioural attitudes towards accepting new changes in the educational
programmes.
INSET not only upgrades teacher s’ content knowledge and skills, enhances their teaching abilities
and develops criteria which would help them toassess their own teaching roles in relation to a
changing society for which school must equip their pupils.
In-service training of teacher is variably related to instructional process and is directly
related to schools’ programmes. Eraut (1987) has stated that the main objective of INSET is to
provide and develop classroom practice.
School, no doubt, faces some difficulties to articulate the needs and may prefer to preserve
its autonomy by avoiding the issue altogether.
2.7.4 Need and Importance of INSET
Improvement in quality of pre-service education of teachers is necessary; the same is true
for in-service education. It is undeniable that INSET provides new skills, methods of teaching,
teaching strategies, techniques and advanced conceptual and concrete knowledge. In-service teacher
training is dynamic activity, because many teachers enter into teaching profession for the first time.
In-service teacher training can be vital to support a suitable execution of the reorganization
of secondary education. However, many other enterprises need to be developed, from a macro to a
micro school level. In-service Education is whole time and life long process (Malik, 2005). The
knowledge is expanding enormously. The curricula of education at all levels have been revised
(Pakistan’s National Education Policy 1980-82). The policy stressed to move from aimless
education to the most plausible, beneficial and purposeful scientific and agrotechnical education.
Changes in curricula bring about innovations in subject matter and methods of teaching as well. The
changes in methods of teaching bring changes in techniques and new trends of teaching for
teachers. The changes in methods of teaching include educational technology, modular approach,
inquiry approach, cooperative-learning and programmed-learning etc. do force teachers’ mind to
undergo in-service education.
Simjee (2006) describes that the importance of INSET came from academic change in
various countries, comprising of mentoring, induction, certification, licensing and the need for a
period of training for teachers. Due these changes, many institutes began to take steps to include
new frontiers of knowledge about teaching and learning in their syllabi for good teachers. The
purpose was to prepare teachers to face problems and perform duties related to their job by
improving their attitudes, teaching skills, knowledge, and making them up-to-date with the recent
development and changes in the education.
Almomany (2007) indicated that the need for INSET is an ongoing issue, because teachers
not only teach with their recognized knowledge and teaching skills. He described that, with the
expansion of knowledge and the rapid speed of change, teachers are surely required to be equipped
with updated knowledge, teaching skills, techniques and good learning behaviours. They own their
learning as a continuous growth process. This explosion in information, technology and
communication has brought new styles in the field of education along with the appearance of
various educational behaviours in teacher training, as a response by training agencies to current
changes.
Alwan (2000) states that training in the United Arab Emirats is poorly designed and occurs
rarely. She indicates that many efforts are made to improve INSET programmes but those who
impart training are not properly qualified and they conduct INSET programmes in a normal routine
instead of focusing on particular purposes. She recommends that, teacher training is very necessary
in order to train teachers, to evaluate the performance of teachers, to identify their weakest
capacities that require to be improved, to offer good planning in conducting trainings, and to assess
the results of these trainings by an assessment process that monitors whether improvement in the
performance of teachers has occurred or not (p. 18). Asu (2004) states that INSET programmers are
necessary as these improve teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, belief, and practice that ultimately

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benefit to students in term of achievements (p. 15).
In short, in-service Training of teachers offers them the teaching skill, knowledge, and
ability that are related to the professional life of teachers. INSET modifies the personality of
teachers such that their attitudes are remodeled. It means that their personality is reconstructed by
dint of teachers training. The significance and
need of INSET has been rationalized by APIED (1993) under these points:
� In some countries, untrained teachers have been appointed. They were hired due to large
demand of education. These teachers need skills and techniques to become certified
teachers.
� The teachers who are trained i.e. received pre-service training need skills and
competencies.
� Pre-service teacher training of some teacher education institutions does equip teachers
with skills for teaching the teachers turned out by these institutions do not have qualities
of a competent teacher.
� Teachers are agents of change because they improve the life of community. Many
trained teachers are not competent and confident to carry out this role beyond the
classroom.
� Teachers do not have extra ordinary knowledge about science, technology and
mathematics. Their knowledge and skills in these subjects need to be upgraded.
� Due to implementation of new curricula in some countries of th world, there is need for
teacher retraining (pp. 25-26).
In short, in-service training in science, technology and mathematics (STM is needed for
these purposes:
� To upgrade teaching competencies and skills in STM;
� To update knowledge in STM;
� To prepare teachers to implement new curricula; and
� To create acquaintance in teachers about new methods and skills teach STM.
Conferences, workshops, seminars, discussions, local and national broadcasts, educational
trips to industries and museums, participating in scien exhibitions, visits to zoos, sabbaticals in
native and foreign countries, universities and colleges all are useful strategies of comprehensive in-
service training of teachers. The professional training imparted to teachers during the service in
order to equip them with the recent trends and changes in the conte and pedagogy is known as
INSET.
Changes in society are equally important for INSET. The growth of science and its
applications (i.e. technology) generate new issues and if o citizenry must be familiar to them and be
prepared to cope with. These afre demands crop up for teachers. Teachers are catalysts/agents who
prepare th students to do work for the betterment of society and need to attend in-service training
courses periodically.
Teacher should study recent educational literature and should change theory in to practice
studied in literature .In this way, they can motivate their students. INSET activities must be
managed to broaden understanding of educational problems. It is ethical duty of teachers to develop
lifelong education. In-service training should be arranged to improve their professional education so
that they perform their duties and responsibilities effectively. In-service training encourages
teachers to refine their competencies and responsibilities.
2.7.5 Scope of INSET
In-service teacher training is a long-time, continuous and never-ending progressive
programme. Such training is imparted to the teachers whenever changes in curricula, methods of
teaching and new skills are introduced. The INSET activities fall in the range of hours-days-years.
The time span needed for such activities is highly dependent upon group as a whole and individuals
in particular. The term INSET may not be a suitable nomenclature for such programmes but rather

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in-service education and teacher learning is likened term The INSET programme includes teachers
of all levels e.g. primary, secondary, college and university. INSET enhances the personal and
professiona development of teachers which is beneficial to the students as well as institution INSET
has numerous positive impacts on the performance of secondary schoo teachers due to which they
become self-developed, and gain new teaching skills that enables them to perform their duties and
timely complete syllabi in better and adequate way. All these impacts have an uninterrupted input
towards well performance of teachers. Finally nation benefits from it. To achieve the objective, a
single or series of in-service training courses might be required. All these institutions strive for
obtaining their staff upgraded through different teacher training programmes and activities.
All the teachers, administrators i.e. Director Public Instruction (DPI), Executive District
Officers Education (EDOs), District Education Officers (DEOs), head teachers, curriculum planners
and developers, master trainers, resource persons, editors and other educational professionals are
eligible to benefit from INSET as and when required. Award-bearing courses and programmes are
also arranged for more than four weeks or sixty hours for teachers and after completing these
courses/programmes, they are rewarded in the form of diplomas, certificates or degrees. Various
universities, colleges and special institutions like Institute of Education and Research (IER), PITE
and DSD run such programmes and activities that are essential for professionals. These include
workshops, meetings, seminars, group discussions and exhibitions. Action and (R & D) researches
should be made a must part of it.
2.7.6. Development of In-service Training
Teacher education is considered as an essential component of education systems in the
world. The earlier mode of teacher education was the normal school system- a secondary school in
which pre-service primary school teachers were imparted training related to theory and practice
together with their senior secondary school education (Karras, 2010). Then, training colleges came
into existence in the 19th century in Western Europe and North America, due to the establishment
of systems of primary education. In the age of colonization, the teacher training college, as the
normal school earlier, spread to the countries which were under the colonial rulers. In the mid of
20th century, universities took over charge of teacher training; first the training of teachers of
secondary schools, later likewise the training of teachers of primary schools. So the states of
Western Europe and North America too supervised the process of moving towards an all graduate
teaching force, this process of training is presently spreading to the developing countries of the
world.
Aims and goals of in-service teacher training (INSET) programmes conducted by various
countries are comparatively similar; however, the organization of courses is different from country
to country. But the content of in-service teacher training is approximately same according to the set
objectives which include:
I. General pedagogy and teaching methodology
II. Curriculum theory, school management and
III. Innovative training
2.7.7 Guiding Principles for INSET
INSET promotes learning and desire for continuing professional growth amongst the
participants (i.e. teachers). APEID (1993) described some guiding principles for INSET in the
following points:
1. A national policy for INSET needs to be developed and implemented.
2. INSET should directly address the requirements of teachers and institutions.
3. There should be an efficient process for disseminating successful INSET courses.
4. INSET should encourage independent learning and a desire for continuing professional
growth amongst the trainees.
5. There should be continuous feedback and communication within the system.
6. INSET should draw on and benefit from the findings of research. Similarly, research

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should be built into INSET (p. 26).
There should be feedback mechanism to know the weaknesses and utility of INSET
programme so that new training activities may be developed in a more sophisticated manner.
2.7.8 Basic Approaches of INSET
Erraut (1987) and Hussain (2004, p. 33) acknowledged two basic approaches for INSET.
These are (i) defect approach and (ii) growth approach. The defect approach identifies the defects
observed in the teacher and aims to remove defects by strategic skills and methods devised by
trainers while the growth approach is related to low and weak performance of school and identifies
defects in the school system (p.73).
The supporters of defect approach characterize that defects in teacher are found due to
having ‘outmoded technique’ and ‘inefficiency’. They think that outmoded technique may be
supervised by organizing training courses at college or at university while ineficiency may be
supervised by improving practices of evaluation and performance tests of the teachers while the
supporters of growth approach characterize that low and weak performance is due to defect in the
school system. They believe that the environment of schools is grossly non–
participatory for professional development.
Other approaches have been characterized by Siddiqui (1991):
� Individual focused in-service teacher training.
� School focused in-service teacher training.
� System focused in-service teacher training (p. 14).
2.7.8.1 Individual Focused INSET
According to this approach, INSET was considered that individual teachers have to attend
the course. In-service training is organized by the training agencies which follow that the organized
courses would be helpful for teachers’ development, environment of classroom and the school even.
The process has been considered that the teacher or head teacher on the behalf of teacher selects an
activity from a programme/s of the training courses, workshops, seminars or conferences etc. and a
teacher attends it and comes to his/her school after attending it.
2.7.8.2 School Focused INSET
Baker (1980) defined school focused INSET as “which is targeted on the needs of a
particular school or group within the school. The actual activity may take place on site (school-
based) or off site and equally importantly may be internally provided by certain school staff or
externally provided by an outside agency” (p. 25).
School focused in–service teacher training embraces usual types of INSET. School focused
INSET is based on the requirement of particular school or group within the school. The activities
may be carried in the school (school-based) or off site. It can be carried internally by school staff
and externally by outside agencies. It is stated that INSET is an ongoing and useful activity for
teachers to develop knowledge and skills throughout the education process. INSET is used to
achieve different objectives in order to bring change in educational system. Professional
development activities through INSET are classified as under:
(1) Professional education has a wide range and focuses on development of a teacher’s
theoretical perceptions by means of advanced study;
(2) Professional training, the development of knowledge and skills which are directly related to
daily classroom activities;
(3) Professional training support activities aimed at developing on-the-job experience and
performance. (Spence, 1996; as cited in Altun et al., 2007).
Above classification shows that INSET is only related to teacher development, however, it is
related to activities in school. It helps the teachers to learn and improve their own professional
expertise for better learning opportunities of students.The process of in–service training occurs as a
result of a school, a group of school, a group of teachers or a single teacher paying attention to solve
problems or initiate changes which are closely relevant to their own institutional or individual

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needs. School focused in-service teacher training has high degree of professionalism and closely
related to schools' needs and is effective in bringing about changes in school. The approach is a
good source of teacher motivation for initiating and implementing changes in objectives, methods
of teaching, subject content and evaluation of curricula.
2.7.8.3 System Focused INSET
According to this approach, the main purpose of INSET is to bring about change in the
education pattern as proposed by educationists, educational planners and curricula developers etc. at
national level. Siddiqui (1991) describes that “such an in-service education strategy may destine to
propagate a basic or overall change in the education pattern, frame of curriculum, evaluation policy
etc. which needs to be
implemented uniformly in almost
all the schools which fall in line with the system” (p. 16). Thus it may be visualized that INSET or
orientation activity is provided to all teachers within a fixed time period.
2.7.9 Conditions of INSET Effectiveness
APEID (1993) source recognizes some conditions which reveal effectiveness of INSET.
These conditions are:
(i) Need assessment (ii) Setting objectives (iii) Congruence of programme with teachers’ need (pp.
29-
It may be pointed out that all these conditions for effectiveness of INSET are not applicable
to all cases.Good and McCaslin (1992) described the ‘teacher and school effect’ research studies
have been given prominence in 1970s especially concerning to identify students’ gain in basic
knowledge and skills through the associated process variables (p. 182).
INSET affects upon teachers' attitude and teachers' attitude affects upon the learning of
students. INSET improves and increases teachers’ knowledge of the content, makes them highly
qualified, enables them to get hold of new teaching methods, trains teachers for management and
administration and encourages them to work as a team.
2.8 MODELS OF INSET
The following three models for INSET have been described in course code 3704 Trends and
Issues in Teacher Education of AIOU (202 , p.218)): 2.8.1 Competency Based Model:
Competency based model was developed by Cooper et al. (1973).It was based on the
concept of effective teacher practice. I t changes teachers’ competency. Competency means what
teacher knows and be able to do. This model requires what teacher does after completing training
(p. 14).
Five competencies have been described in this model:
2.8.1.1 Cognitive Based Competencies
Cognitive based competencies include knowledge and intellectual skills and abilities, which
are, expected from the teacher.
2.8.1.2 Performance Based Competencies
These competencies include performance of a teacher.
2.8.1.3 Consequence Based Competencies
These competencies expect of a teacher to bring changes in others. These do not include
what one knows or does but what one can accomplish. 2.8.1.4 Affective Competencies
Affective competencies are defined as expected attitudes and values, tend to resist the
specificity and are not easy to assess.
2.8.1.5 Exploratory Competencies
The peculiar nature of these competencies is not defined. In these competencies, specific
learning outcome is not desired. How teacher behaves, performs in classroom and how he/she
performs his/her duties in the state of anxiety or joy. Working of a teacher for 12 hours in Physics
laboratory and discussion of a teacher with five parents are examples of these competencies.
Competencies are defined before the implementation of programme and teachers are bound to know

15
them. The selection of contents and activities is made on the basis to what extent these competences
would help in the demonstration of programme?
Instructions are not directly related to competencies. Instructions are related to the
wholesome programme. Teachers are expected to accept and complete competencies. Assessment
of programme measures to what extent teachers demonstrate the competency gained.
2.8.2 Personalized Model:
Fuller (1970) developed this model. This model is concerned with the personal needs and
feelings of teacher. This model fulfils the needs and solves problems faced by teacher during his/her
teaching. Before teaching the class, teacher views every step in critical manner like what students
are feeling and expected attitude of students towards teachers and his/her teaching (p. 3).Which
technique should be used to teach students in a better way? What are weak points of contents in a
better manner? Which point would produce frustration in students? and at the end teacher evaluates
the needs and learning of students.
Fuller (1970) states five steps as given below:
i. Pre-Teaching Concerns: Teacher views classroom environment through the eyes
of students.
ii. Survival Concerns: Teachers think whether they would teach the class
successfully or not.
iii. Teaching Situation Concerns: It debates to the conditions of teaching i.e. number
of students, availability of teaching materials and instructional needs etc.
iv. Pupils' achievement concerns.
v. Assessment of needs and training of learners (p. 5).
This model helps the teacher how he/she should use different motivational techniques and
methods in the classroom. Recent training programmes are carried out under this model of INSET
to train the teachers.
2.8.3 Humanistic Model:
Combs (1974) developed humanistic model. This model of INSET supports teachers to become
teachers according to their own competencies. No particular competencies have been defined in this
model. It does not teach teaching methods; it helps the teacher how he/she should learn him/herself
and he/she should assist other persons to learn. It only polishes inherent capabilities of teacher.
Humanistic model identifies some characteristics of an ideal teacher as he/she is well informed,
dependable, motivated, helpful, capable of sharing, self-disciplined and thoughtful about teaching–
learning process (p. 8). This model stresses on educating a person to become teacher rather than
educating a person for how to teach.
Jamil, B.R. (2004) stated six models of INSET as under:
2.8.4 Cascade or Generational Model:
It is the most favorite model in practice. A first tier of teachers is trained in a peculiar topic
or aspect of teaching to transmit to second and third tiers of teacher trainers and go up to three or
four tiers. The scope of this model is extensive but the transference of content knowledge and
pedagogy is diffused and changed as it reaches ultimate target.
2.8.5 Mentor model:
This is a model by which a colleague who acts as observer, he asks questions, makes
observations and gives suggestions which are helpful for different decisions. Teaching is a learned
skill and mentors also need training. The mentor model is copy of the apprentice model where the
mentor is a master teacher to be imitated.
2.8.6 Reflective Model:
This model is based on teachers’ own classroom practices. Teachers are expected to be
devoted to work for the interest of students and also work for the betterment of their students. When
teachers become reflective practitioners, they use their discrete skills to an extent where they can
integrate and change skills to fit exact contexts. They eventually reach at a stage when skills

16
become their body parts and they are able to invent new techniques. In this way, they are able to
solve problems by sense of their expertise.
2.8.7 Whole School Improvement or School Based Model:
It includes training, school resources, emphasis on high achievements, conscious attention
on teaching methods and techniques. It pervades the culture of school and motivates the local
community for support. WSIP is a school-based management in which school improvement and
school effectiveness takes place by eclectic approach. In this approach, outputs are considered as
the primary focus while inputs are considered as secondary focus.
2.8.8 Cluster Based Professional Development Model:
According to this model, teachers of different schools of same locality approach to a cluster
center / resource center and discuss educational issues. There are many examples of these
programmes in Pakistan particularly in the Norther Areas, and Khyber Pakhtoon Khawah (KPK),
Sindh, Punjab and Baluchistan supported by GTZ, USAID/ESRA, UNICEF, DfID and this model is
in practice South Africa, Uganda, India, Sri Lanka, China, etc.
2.8.9 In-service training placements outside Pakistan:
It is not a specific model but it is a modality of training in which is INSET is imparted to
teachers by different projects like ADB, DfID, CPBEP, US AID (ESRA), CIDA and US
Government. The teachers are sent to institutions abroad to get training about subject,
administration and other specialized fields. In the last 12 years, many teachers and trainers were
sent abroad. The duration for courses ranged from 4 weeks to 4 months. A large number of teachers
and trainers from the GCETs and some from secondary schools were sent abroad with expectations
to get knowledge about pedagogy, assessment systems, leadership and management at elementary
and secondary levels. There is an anxiety that the returned trainees were not able to practice in a
serious manner or a dynamic network due to little interaction and culture of little cooperation
among different partners.
2.9 PRESENT SCENARIO IN PUNJAB

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