See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/337398275

Chapter 7 SYNTAX

Chapter · November 2019

CITATIONS READS

0 47,209

1 author:

Fatchul Muin
Universitas Lambung Mangkurat
49 PUBLICATIONS 84 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Fatchul Muin on 20 November 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Nanik Mariani
Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

AN INTRODUCTION TO

LINGUISTICS

Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni

Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan
Universitas Lambung Mangkurat

i
National Library : Catalog in print

An Introduction to Linguistics

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

viii + 148 pages, 21 x 29,7 cm

ISBN : 978-602-53643-6-5

Editor :
Fahmi Hidayat
Bayu

Cover desainer:
Galih Rizki Khairul Ulum

Second Printing : November 2019 (Revison)

Published by
Jurusan PBS FKIP Universitas Lambung Mangkurat Banjarmasin, Kalimantan
Selatan, Indonesia

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, we have accomplished this learning and teaching material for the subject of
Introduction to Linguistics. First, we are indebted to the Rector of and Dean of Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary facilities in
accomplishing it.
We are indebted to the Head of UPT Bahasa, Lambung Mangkurat University, Prof. Dr.
Fatchul Mu’in, M.Hum., for giving us the opportunity of revising our Teaching Material of
Introduction to Linguistics to be adopted and adapted in the form of monograph. Also, to Dean of
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary
facilities in accomplishing it. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Jumariati, M.Pd, and Dr.
Sainul Hermawan, M.Hum. as the chairperson and the secretary of the Department of Language and
Arts, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University for motivating and
providing us the chance to use the office facilities. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr.
Noor Eka Chandra, M.Pd., the Head of English Language Education Program, Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, motivating and providing us to provide the
references for the students of the English Language Education Program.
We would also like to express our appreciation to Prof. Emer. M.P. Lambut, Dra.Nirmala Sari,
M.A Drs. Aris Djinal, Dr. H. Ahmad Sofyan, M.A, Prof. Dr. Abdul Muth’im, M.Pd, and Dr. Cayandrawati
Sutionom M.A, as well as Dr. Rina Listia, M.Pd, the senior lecturers of English Education Study
Program for sharing their ideas and academic experiences with us.
Banjarmasin, November 2019

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

iii
iv
Acknowledgments

Contents

Preface

Chapter I What is Language? / 1- 8

Chapter II Language in Social Context / 9 - 12

Chapter III Linguistics & Language Teaching/ 13 - 18

Chapter IV Phonetics /19 - 30

Chapter v Phonology / 31 - 34

Chapter VI Morphology / 35 - 46

Chapter VII Syntax / 47 - 54

Chapter VIII Transformational Generative Grammar/55 - 62

Chapter IX Semantics/63 - 78

Chapter X Pragmatics / 79 - 94

Chapter XI Discourse Analysis / 95 - 114

Chapter XII Sociolinguistics / 115 - 138

Chapter XIII Psycholinguistics / 139 - 148

REFERENCES

v
vi
PREFACE

The book entitled An Introduction to Linguistics is intended for providing materials

to our students attending the subject of Introduction to Linguistics. Up to the present time,
the subject has been lectured by using the handouts as a result of our compilation of some
references on language and linguistics. This book is written based on the handouts that have
been used since the writers handled the subject.
The materials discussed in this book cover What is a Language, Characteristics of
Language, What is Linguistics, Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax,
Transformational Grammar, Semantics, Sociolinguistics, and Psycholinguistics. In What is a
language, the writers elaborate on the definition and concept of Human Language and
Animal Language. In Characteristics of the human language, they explain some concepts on
“A language is systematic, A language is arbitrary, A language is social, A language is
spoken, A language is used for communication, and A language is complete for its
speakers.”
In Linguistics and Language Teaching, they present the definition of linguistics and
its branches of linguistics, and linguistics in language teaching.
In Phonetics, they present the concept of phonetics and organs of speech are used for
producing speech sounds, both vowels, and consonants, and will be explained how to
differentiate voiced from voiceless sounds. While in classification of consonants, the kinds of
consonants based on (a) Manner of Articulation, namely: Plosives/Stops, Fricatives,
Affricates, Nasals, Lateral/Liquids, and Semi-vowels/Glides, and (b) Place of Articulation,
namely: Bilabial, Labiodental, Interdental, Alveolar, Palatal, Velar, dan Glottal sounds will
be explained in detail so that the students understand the mechanism of producing the
consonants. In the classification of vowels, the kinds of vowels: (a) Front, Central, Back
Vowels, (b) Open, Half-open, Close, Half-close vowels, and (c) Rounded and Unrounded
Vowels and (d) Tenses and Lax Vowels will be elaborated.
In Phonology, the definition of phonology and the difference between phonetics and
phonology will be presented. Also, in this chapter, phonemes, phones, and allophones will
be discussed; these sub-topics include the ways to identify phonemes and phones, and also
allophonic variation. The minimal pairs and minimal sets are also presented. The other sub-
topic contains a brief description of Phonological Rules and its types such as Aspiration,
Vowel Lengthening, Vowel Nasalization, Flapping, dan Nasal Deletion. The description is
meant to help students to classify sounds in the processes of aspiration, vowel lengthening,
vowel nasalization, flapping, and nasal deletion.
In Morphology, the definition of morphology, differences between phonemes and
morphemes, differences between morphemes dan allomorph, and types of morphemes: Free
morphemes and Bound morphemes are presented. This chapter also discusses the Word-
formation process to show the students the process of word-formations (inflection and
derivation).
In Syntax, the definition of syntax, content words and functional words, syntactical
construction, and its types and sub-types, syntactic devices, and syntactical analysis are
presented and elaborated. In Transformational-Generative Grammar, the definition of TG
Grammar and its principles, and types of transformation are discussed briefly.

vii
In Semantics, the definition of semantics and its aspects are discussed. While in
Pragmatics, the definition of pragmatics and the difference between pragmatics and
semantics are elaborated. While in Sociolinguistics, the definition of sociolinguistics,
Language in socio-cultural aspects, Language variation, Language use, etc. are explained.
And, in Psycholinguistics, the definition of psycholinguistics, the relation of linguistics and
psychological aspects, language acquisition and language learning, mastery of two or more
languages are presented.

viii
Chapter VII

SYNTAX
Fatchul Mu’in

Introduction

Syntax refers to "the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general,
usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also
phonology and semantics.". It includes the syntax, but it's not limited to that. The syntax of a
language is also referred as , "the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences
in a language.", “ the grammatical structure of words and phrases to create coherent sentences.
Syntax is roughly about word order. Grammar has two overlapping meanings: 1.
Everything about how a language works, including syntax as a subset. 2. How words are
inflected, conjugated, declined according to aspect, degree, gender, mood, number, person,
tense, etc. One part of grammar is called Morphology. It has to do with the internal economy of
words. So a word like bookkeepers has four morphemes (book, keep, -er, -s) and is put together
with morphology. The other part is called Syntax. It has to do with the external economy of
words, including word order, agreement; like the sentence For me to call her sister would be a bad
idea and its syntactic transform It would be a bad idea for me to call her sister. That's syntax. English
grammar is mostly syntax.
From the other perspective, the syntax is defined as the study of arrangements of words into
phrases, clauses, and sentences or syntactical constructions. The smallest units of syntax are words.
When two or more words are arranged in a certain way, the result refers to syntactical construction.
In other words, it can be said that a syntactical construction is a construction in which its immediate
constituents (IC-a) are words (or free morphemes). An immediate constituent (IC) refers to a
constituent (or element) that directly form the construction.
As has been mentioned before, the smallest units of syntax are words. Then, words will
be discussed in the following.
Based on one perspective, grammarians classify the words into eight types of parts of
speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition,
conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in meaning
as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more than
one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is
essential for determining the correct definition of a word when using the dictionary.
Meanwhile, structural linguists classify words into two great classes: content and function
words.

Firstly, the parts of speech cover: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition,
conjunction, and interjection. Let us explain them in following:

1. Noun

47 An Introduction to Linguistics
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by adding
's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a subject,
direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.

2. Pronoun

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a

specific noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the
pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to
specific persons or things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used
to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and
demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

3. Verb

The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes
one or more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb
must agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take
different forms to express tense.

4. Adjective

An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually

answers the question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually
classified as adjectives.)

5. Adverb

An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a

noun. It usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to
what degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.

6. Preposition

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying

another word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional
phrase. The prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The
following list includes the most common prepositions:

7. Conjuction

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between
the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but,

48 An Introduction to Linguistics
or, nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because,
although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.

8. INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation

point such as: Oh!... Wow!... Oops!

Content and Function Words

Secondly, the structural linguists classify words in two great classes, namely: Content
and Function Words. The first class is known as content words and the second one is known
as function words. The first group include : (1) nouns, (2) verbs, (3) adjectives, and (4) adverbs.
Whereas, the second group include words such as (1) auxiliary words (can, may, must, shall,
and will), (2) determiner articles (a, the, this, that, many, some, etc), (3) prepositions (on, at, in,
above, etc), (4) qualifiers (very, somewhat, quite, etc), interrogators (when, how, who, etc), (5)
negators (not, never), (6) subordinators (is, as, although, etc), and (7) coordinators (and, or, but,
etc). Both content words and function words are used to form sysntactical constructions.

Content words are different from function words in some cases. These content words have some
characteristics as follows. Content words have precise lexical meanings, namely: meanings of words as found in
a dictionary or when they occur in isolation such as meanings of ‘Ali,’ ‘kicked,’ and ‘dogs.’ ‘Ali’, for instance,
refers to ‘a certain human being called ‘Ali’, ‘kicked’ means ‘hitting by using one’s foot which happened in
the past time’, and ‘dogs’ refers to ‘more than one four-footed animal’; whereas, function words do not have
clear lexical meaning such a word ‘of.’ ‘Of’ may mean ‘possession’ (for instance, the house of my father) and
it may mean ‘relationship of an action and its object’ (for example, the running of the boy).
Content words are different from function words concerning their frequencies of occurrence.
The former has a low frequency of occurrence, and the latter has a high frequency of occurrence.
For instance, a certain kind of content words like ‘chair’ (noun), ‘write’ (verb), ‘green’ (adjective),
and ‘clearly’ (adverb) are not always found or used in dialogue (conversation) or a writing activity.
On the other hand, a certain kind of function word like ‘of’ (preposition) is often used in utterance or
discourse, both when people speak and write.
The difference between content and function words concerns their numbers. The former is
said to be high in number, and the latter is known as those which are limited in number. In this
relation, we cannot imagine the number of nouns or verbs. There must be many words categorized
as nouns or verbs (also, adjectives or adverbs). On the other hand, the number of ‘auxiliary words’
can be easily counted by hand.
The difference between content and function words concerns their formal markers. The
former have formal markers. A noun, for instance, can be identified by using its formal markers
such as inflectional suffixes (for example, -s in dogs, derivational suffixes (for example, -ment in
statement), and its position after noun determiners (for instance, the- in the book). Whereas, the
latter do not have formal markers that can be used to identify them. In this relation, we do not have
‘a marker’ or ‘ a means’ to determine a word ‘in’; there is nothing in the word ‘in’ that tells that it is
a preposition.
Lastly, the difference between content and function words in what we often call open and
closed classes of words. This is to say that the former is said to be open classes of words, and the
latter are known as closed classes of words. When words are open, they mean that they may
49 An Introduction to Linguistics
change from time to time; the number of contents can increase in line with the development of
culture and technology. When words are closed in nature, they mean that they hardly ever increase
in their number.
Syntactical Constructions
Syntactical construction may be in the form of phrases, clauses, or sentences. A phrase or sentence
can be analyzed based on its immediate constituents (IC-s). This term was introduced by Bloomfield, who
illustrated how it was possible to a sentence (Poor John ran away) and split it up into two IC-s (Poor John
and ran away, and each IC can be further analyzed into its IC-s. So Poor John consists of Poor and John; and
ran away consists of ran and away. When the constituent(s) can be further analyzed into its(their) IC-s, the
constituent(s) are identified as ultimate constituent(s). In this relation, it can be said that Poor, John, ran,
and away are the ultimate constituents of the sentence Poor John ran away.
Types of Syntactical Constructions
There are two types of syntactical constructions. They are (1) endocentric construction and (2)
exocentric construction.
An endocentric construction is a construction in which at least one of the IC-s belong to the same
form class as the whole construction. For instance, a construction ‘green book.’ To identify whether this
construction is endocentric or not, we can test by using the following sentence.
Green book is on the table.

When we delete ‘book,’ the sentence will be :

Green is on the table *
Of course, and the sentence is not accepted because there is a sentence with an adjective as its subject.
When we delete ‘green,’ the sentence will be :

Book is on the table.

This sentence is acceptable. This shows us that one of the IC-s of the construction ‘green book’ e.g. ‘book’
belongs to the same form class as the construction ‘green book.’ In other words, an IC ‘book’ can replace
the position of ‘green book.’ Therefore, the construction is called ‘endocentric construction.’

An exocentric construction is a construction in which none of the IC- s belongs to the same form class the
whole construction. For instance, we have a construction ‘…in the room.’ We can test in the same way as
we did before. We use ‘in the room’ in a sentence:

They slept in the room.

Let us pay attention to ‘in the room.’

When we delete ‘in,’ the sentence will be:

They slept the room (*)

This is not a complete sentence, and therefore, it is not accepted. When we delete ‘in,’ the sentence
will be :
They slept in (*)
The sentence is also not complete and therefore, it is not accepted. Because none of the IC-s belongs to the
same form class as the construction ‘ in the room,’ it is called ‘exocentric construction.’ In this case, we can say
that either ‘in’ or ‘the room’ can replace the position of the construction ‘in the room.’
50 An Introduction to Linguistics
Sub-types of Endocentric Construction
There are three sub-types of endocentric construction. They are (1) attributive construction, (2)
appositive construction, and (3) coordinative construction.
An attributive construction is a construction that consists of two IC-s. The first IC is called ‘a modifier
(M)’ and the second one is called ‘a head (H)’ such as in the construction ‘green book.’ An IC ‘green’ is a
modifier and an IC ‘book’ is a head. Some words that can be functioned as ‘modifiers’ are adjectives, verbs in
past participle and verbs in present participle, and nouns such as ‘strong’ in ‘the strong boy’, ‘finished’ in
‘we need the finished products’, and ‘swimming’ in ‘he is swimming in the swimming pool’, and ‘stone’
in ‘a stone house’ respectively.
English has four possible ways of making attributive construction: M – H such as ‘green house’,
‘my book’, swimming pool, etc, (2) H – M such as ‘number two’, ‘the woman in blue jean’, etc., (3) M – H – M
such as ‘as soon as possible’, ‘the best friend of mine’, etc., and (4) H – M – H such as ‘ do not talk’, ‘will
never die’, etc. An appositive construction is a construction that consists of two IC-s. The first IC
is a noun or noun phrase, and the second one is a noun or noun phrase. The function of the
second one is to clarify the first one. In a written form, the first noun or noun phrase and the
second one are separated by a comma (,) such as a construction ‘Aryati, the student of ULM, is
always on time.
A coordinative construction is a construction that consists of two IC-s. The first one is combined with
the second one by using coordinators such as ‘and, or, but, both…and, either…or and neither….nor’. The
example of the construction is ‘you and I will attend the meeting.’ Sub-types of Exocentric
Construction
There are three sub-types of exocentric construction. They are :(1) directive construction, (2)
complementation construction, and (3) predicative construction.
A directive construction is a construction that consists of two IC-s. The first IC is a director and the
second one is its object. The director may be in the form of verbal element such as ‘give’ that is followed by its
object ‘money’ to form a construction ‘give money’; it may be in the form of preposition such as ‘on’ that is
followed by its object ‘the chair’ to form a construction ‘on the chair’; or it may be in the form of conjunction
‘after’ that is followed by its object ‘he went home’ to form a construction ‘after he went home’.
A complementation construction is a construction that consists of two IC-s. The first IC is a copula or
copulative verb ‘be,’ and the second one is its complement. The following is some examples of this type of
construction:
(I) am a teacher be (am) + a noun as a complement (He) is strong. be (is) + an adjective as
a complement
(They) are in the room à be (are) + an adverb of place as a complement
Some verbs are similar in their function to a copulative verb ‘be. They are ‘become (become angry),
get (get dark), go (go mad), grow (grow old), turn (turn red). In one case, the verbs have almost the same
meaning as ‘be.’ That is to say that a sentence ‘I am angry’ is similar in meaning to a sentence ‘I become angry.’ In
other cases, they are different from ‘be.’ In this relation, when the sentence is changed into a negative or an
interrogative sentence, it is altered differently. For instance, a negative form of the sentence ‘I am angry’ is ‘I
am not angry’; whereas, a negative form of the sentence ‘I become angry’ is ‘I do not become angry.’
A predicative construction is a construction that consists of two IC-s. The first IC is a subject and
the second one is a predicate. This construction refers to what we have known as a sentence. The two
essential things in the sentence are the uses of a subject and a predicate or a noun/noun phrase plus a
noun/noun phrase. The following examples show the kind of construction:
1. He is angry He (subject) + is angry (predicate)
51 An Introduction to Linguistics
2. He sings well He (subject) + sings well (predicate)
3. People elect him a president. He (subject) + elect him a president (predicate).
Analysis of Syntactical Construction

We have said that a sentence can consist of a predicate and its arguments. So in a sentence such
as (1):
(1) Prudence pestered Dennis
We have the verb pestered as the predicate which relates the two arguments Prudence, the
agent and Dennis, the patient. Now consider a slightly more complex case:
(2) the post woman pestered the doctor
This could mean exactly the same thing as (2), on the assumption that Prudence is a post
woman and Dennis is a doctor. In this case, the arguments seem to be the post woman and the
doctor, a sequence of words made up of a determiner followed by a noun. But what status do
these sequences of words have in the sentence? It seems as though they function as single
words do in (1), inasmuch as they constitute the same arguments as Prudence and Dennis do.
Thus these two words seem to go together to make up a unit which is the functional equivalent
of the proper nouns in the original sentence. This unit is called a phrase. We can represent this
as follows:

(3) Sentence

NP (noun phrase) V (verb) NP (nounphrase)

the post woman pestered the doctor

Thus, a sentence has more internal structure to it than we have so far been assuming.
Not only can sentences contain words and other sentences, but they can also contain phrases.
To make the drawing of the structures clearer in what follows, we will use the symbol S to
stand for sentences and the symbol P to stand for phrases. Though it should be made clear that
these symbols have no place in the system, we will eventually develop and are used now as
mnemonics which stand for something we have yet to introduce properly.
Two questions arise immediately: do sentences contain any more phrases than those
indicated in (3), and what can phrases contain? To be able to answer these questions, we must
first look a little more closely at the properties of phrases in general. The first thing to note is
that just as words have distributions in a sentence, so do phrases. This is obvious from the
above example, as the phrases the post woman and the doctor distribute in the same way that
the nouns Prudence and Dennis do:
wherever it is grammatical to have Prudence, it will be grammatical to have the postwoman
and where it is ungrammatical to have Prudence it will be ungrammatical to have the
postwoman:
a. Prudence is considerate the postwoman is considerate
b. I saw Prudence I saw the postwoman
52 An Introduction to Linguistics
c. they spoke to Prudence they spoke to the postwoman
d. *we Prudence Dennis *we the postwoman Dennis
With this in mind, consider the following:
(4) a Prudence pestered Dennis on Wednesday
b Prudence persisted on Wednesday
It seems that in the position where we have pestered Dennis we can have the verb persisted.
This is not surprising as the verb pestered is used transitively in (4a), with a nominal
complement (Dennis) whereas persisted is used intransitively in (4b), without a complement.
However, if intransitive verbs distribute the same as transitive verbs plus their complements,
this means that transitive verbs and their complements form a phrase that has a distribution in
the same way that a determiner with its nominal complement distributed like certain nouns.
Thus a more accurate description of the sentence than (3) would be

NP VP

the postwoman pestered NP

the doctor

Syntactic Devices
The arrangement of words does not always refer to syntactical construction. Not all combinations of
words are said to be syntactical constructions. For instance, ‘books many,’ ‘many book,’ ‘he sing,’ ‘the
president gave his agree,’ and ‘I go school.’
In improving the arrangements of the words above, we need some syntactic devices. We use a
word-order for improving ‘books many’; this arrangement must be changed into ‘many books.’ We use an
inflectional suffix –s to make ‘he sing’ syntactic; this arrangement must be turned into ‘he sings.’ We use a
derivational suffix –ment to improve ‘the president gave his agree’ and the resultant form is ‘the president
gave his agreement.’ At last, we use a function word ‘to’ to make ‘I go school’ acceptable and after ‘to’ is
inserted, the resultant form will be a syntactical construction, namely: ‘I go to school.’

53 An Introduction to Linguistics
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

54 An Introduction to Linguistics
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abdul Chaer and Leonie Agustina.1995. Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan Awal.

Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Asril Marjohan. 1988. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Jakarta: Proyek Pengembangan Lembaga
Pendidikan Tenaga Kependidikan, Dikti, Depdikbud.
Austin, J.L., 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bell, Roger T. 1976. Sociolinguistics, Goals, Approaches, and Problems. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1982. Principles of Language Teaching and Learning. New York: Addison
Wesley Longman, Inc.
Brown Gillian & George Yule. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press
Carol M. Eastman, 1975. Aspects of Language and Culture. San Francisco: Chandler & Sharp
Publishers, Inc
Coulthard, Malcolm. 1977. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Longman: Longman Group
Dauer, Rebecca M. 1993 . Accurate English. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Regents.
Dowty, David R., 1981. Language Files. USA: Department of Linguistics / The Ohio State
University
Ellya Arumaisa, Asmi Rusmanayanti, Elvina Arapah, and Fatchul Mu’in. 2019. “The Teacher
Talks in Teaching Reading Comprehension” in Lingua Education Journal, Vol.1 No.1
September 2019, pp.28-41.
Fatchul Mu’in. 2017. Phonemic Interference of Local Language in Spoken English by
Students of English Department of Lambung Mangkurat University. Journal of
Language Teaching and Research , 8 (1). ISSN 1798-4769.
Fatchul Mu'in, Dini Noor Arini, Rosyi Amrina. 2018. Language in Oral Production
Perspectives. CV. Rasi Terbit.
Fatchul Mu’in and Sirajuddin Kamal. 2006. Sociolinguistics: an Introduction. Banjarmasin: PBS
FKIP UNLAM
Fatchul Mu’in, Kamal, S., and Yamin, M. 2012. Students’ Errors in Paragraph Writing.
Banjarmasin: English Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education,
Lambung Mangkurat University.
Fatchul Mu’in. 2008. Sociolinguistics. Retrieved from https://fatchulfkip.wordpress.
com/2008/03/19/sociolinguistics/.
Fatchul Mu’in. 2008. Linguistic and Language Teaching. Retrieved from
https://fatchulfkip.wordpress.com/2008/03/19/linguistics-and-language-
teaching/.
Fatchul Mu’in. 2008. INTERFERENCE AND INTEGRATION – Prodi Bahasa Inggris
...https://english.fkip.ulm.ac.id › 2008/10/18 › interference-and-integration
Fatchul Mu’in (ed). 2019. Sociolinguistics, a language study in sociocultural perspectives.
Banjarmasin: Jurusan PBS FKIP Universitas Lambung Mangkurat.
Fatchul Mu’in. 2019. Theory of Sentences. Banjarmasin: Universitas Lambung Mangkurat.
Fatchul Mu’in. 2017. “Literature as media for developing language competence and building
social awareness” in LET: Linguistics, Literature and English Teaching Journal 3 (1), 1-10.
Fatchul Mu’in. 2019. Pendidikan Karakter: Perspektif Teoretis dan Gagasan Praktis.Banjarbaru :
Scripta Cendekia, pp. 189-224.
Finch, Geoffrey. 1998. How to Study Linguistics. London: Macmillan Press Ltd

139 An Introduction to Linguistics

Finocchiaro, Mary. 1989. English as a Second/Foreign Language From Theory to Practice. Fourth
Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Regents
Fishman, J.A. 1972. Language in Sociocultural Change. California: Stanford University Press.
Fraser, Bruce. 1983. The Domain of Pragmatics in Richards and Schmidt (eds.). Language and
Communication. London: Longman, pp. 29- 60
Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman. 1988. An Introduction to Language. Los Angeles:
California University Press.
Gazdar, Gerald. 1979. Pragmatics, Implicature, Presupposition, and Logical Form. New York:
Academic Press, Inc.
Geertz, Clifford. 1960. “Linguistic Etiquette” in The Religion of Java. Free Press
Gumperz, John J., and Dell Hymes. 1972. Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of
Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Giglioli, Pier Paolo, (Ed.). 1980. Language and Social Context. Harmondsworth, Middlesex,
England: Penguin Books Ltd
Grice, H.P. 1975. Logic and Conversation in Peter Cole and Jerry L. Morgan (eds.) Syntax and
Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press, Inc., pp. 41-58
Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Essex, London: Pearson Education
Limited.
Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman Group. Levinson, Stephen
C., 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lyons, John. 1995. Linguistic Semantics, An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
Mackey, William F. “The Description of Bilingualism.” in Fishman, J.A. Ed., 1972. Readings in
the Sociology of Language. The Hague-Paris: Mouton. Matthews, P.H., 1974.
Morphology, An Introduction to the Theory of Word –Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Nanik Mariani & Fatchul Mu’in. 2007. An Introduction to Linguistics. Banjarmasin:Jurusan
PBS Universitas Lambung Mangkurat.
Pratt, Mary Louise. 1977. Towards a Speech Acts Theory of Literary Discourse. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press
Ramadan, Fatchul Mu’in and Dini Noor Arini. 2019. “Types, Functions and Factors of
Code Switching as Teaching Technique conducted by English Department
Lecturers in ULM Banjarmasin” in Lingua Educatia Journal, Volume 1, September
2019.
Ramelan. 1979. Phonetics. Part 1. Semarang: IKIP Semarang Press. Ramelan, 1984.
Introduction to Linguistics. Semarang: FPBS IKIP Semarang Sari, Nirmala. 1988. An
Introduction to Linguistics. Jakarta: P2LPTK
Rustam Effendi & Fatchul Mu’in. 2018. Non-linguistics Problems in Teaching of Indonesia
Language. in https://www.shs-conferences.org › shsconf › pdf ›
shsconf_ichss2018_03002
Sandra Indriani, Rina Listia, Elvina Arapah, Fatchul Mu'in “THE POLITENESS
STRATEGIES IN LECTURERS’ILLOCUTIONS IN TEACHING ENGLISH FOR
NON-ENGLISH DEPARTMENT STUDENTS” - LINGUA EDUCATIA, 2019
Searle, John R., 1969. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Searle, John R., Ference Kiefer & Manfred Bierwisch. 1980. Speech Act Theory and Pragmatics.
London: D. Reidel Publishing Company.

140 An Introduction to Linguistics

Soviatu Zahra, Fatchul Mu'in, Nasrullah. 2019. “ STUDENTS'SELF-ESTEEM LEVEL AND
THEIR PERCEPTION ON THE FACTORS AFFECTING SELF-ESTEEM IN
INTERMEDIATE SPEAKING CLASS” in LINGUA EDUCATIA, 2019 -
feb.jtam.unlam.ac.id
Steinberg, Danny D. 1997. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. London: Longman
Taylor, Insup. 1990. Psycholinguistics. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall International, Inc.
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs & Marry Louise Pratt. 1990. Linguistics; For Students of Literature.
San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Trudgill, Peter. 1974. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books.
Wardhaugh, Ronald, 1986. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Weinreich, Uriel. 1967. Languages in Contact. (The fifth edition). The Hague: Mouton & Co.
Yule, George. 1983. An Introduction to Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

141 An Introduction to Linguistics

142 An Introduction to Linguistics

View publication stats