Skin and Body Membranes

Body membranes cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form protective (and often lubricating) sheets
around organs.They fall into two major groups: (1) epithelial membranes, which include the cutaneous,
mucous, and serous membranes; and (2) connective tissue membranes, represented by synovial
membranes.

Epithelial membranes - also called covering and lining membranes.

3 types of epithelial membranes;

 Cutaneous membrane
 Mucous membrane
 Serous membrane

Cutaneous membrane
The cutaneous membrane is composed of two layers , superficial epidermis and the underlying dermis.
The epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium , whereas the dermis is mostly dense
irregular (fibrous) connective tissue . Unlike other epithelial membranes , the cutaneous membrane is
exposed to air and is a dry membrane.

Mucous membranes

Is composed of epithelium resting on a loose areolar connective tissue membrane called and lamina
propria.The moist, inner lining of some organs and body cavities (such as the nose, mouth, lungs, and
stomach). Glands in the mucous membrane make mucus (a thick, slippery fluid).

Serous Membranes

The serous membrane, or serosa membrane, is a thin membrane that lines the internal body cavities and
organs such as the heart, lungs, and abdominal cavity. There are a number of serous membranes in the
body: the pericardia surrounds the heart and some of the blood vessels; the pleurae membranes surround
the lungs, and the peritoneum membrane surrounds the abdominal cavity and related organs.

Synovial Membranes
A layer of connective tissue that lines the cavities of joints, tendon sheaths, and bursae (fluid-filled sacs
between tendons and bones). The synovial membrane makes synovial fluid, which has a lubricating
function. This structure cushion organs moving against each other during muscle activity such as the
movement of a tendon across a bone surfaces.
Functions of Integumentary System

The skins rich capillary network and sweat glands was controlled by the nervous system play an
important role in regulating heat loss from the body surface. The skin acts as a mini excretory system;
urea, salts , and water are lost when we sweat . The skin is also a chemical plant it: Manufactures several
proteins important to immunity and synthesizes vitamin D (modified cholesterol molecules in the skin
are converted to vitamin d by sunlight). The skin also produces acidic secretions , the acid mantle , that
protect against bacterial invasion.

Mechanical Damage (bumps and cuts) Aids in body temp. regulation controlled by nervous sys.

Chemical Damage (acids and bases) Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid

Microbe Damage Synthesizes Vitamin D

Ultraviolet Dessication (drying out)

Thermal Damage (Heat or Cold)

Structure of the Skin – Skin is composed of two kinds of tissue which is epidermis made of stratified
squamous epithelium. Dermis made of mostly dense irregular connective tissue. Deep to the dermis is
the subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis which essentially is adipose (fat).

Epidermis - epidermis is the outermost layer of skin on your body.Epidermis is avascular meaning it has
no blood supply.Epidermis is stratified squamous keratinized epithelium.

Stratum basale –stem cells are actively dividing; some newly formed cells become part of the more
superficial layers.

Stratum Sponisum – Cells contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments made of pre keratin.

Stratum Granulosum- Cells are flattened, organelles are deteriorating ; cytoplasm full of granules.

Stratum Lucidum – Cells begin to die.

Dermis – The inner layer of the two main layers of the skin. It is made up of a thin upper layer called the
papillary dermis, and a thick lower layer called the reticular dermis.

Papillary - The papillary layer is the top layer of your dermis. It's much thinner than the reticular dermis.
It consists of collagen fibers, fibroblast cells, fat cells, blood vessels (capillary loops), nerve fibers, touch
receptors (Meissner corpuscles) and cells that fight bacteria (phagocytes).

Reticular - The reticular layer is denser than the papillary dermis, and it strengthens the skin, providing
structure and elasticity. It also supports other components of the skin, such as hair follicles, sweat
glands, and sebaceous glands.
Bedsores — also called pressure ulcers and decubitus ulcers — are injuries to skin and underlying tissue
resulting from prolonged pressure on the skin. Bedsores most often develop on skin that covers bony
areas of the body, such as the heels, ankles, hips and tailbone.

Skin Color –Three pigments contribute to skin color; melanin, carotene and hemoglobin.

Melanin- a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to black is produced by special spider
shaped cells called melanocytes found in stratum basale.

Carotene – yellow orange pigment

Hemoglobin – crimson color ; gives the skin a rosy glow. The amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin.

When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, both the blood and skin of light skinned people appear blue, a
condition called CYANOSIS, it is common during heart failure and severe breathing disorders.

Emotions also influence skin color and some may state certain disease:

Redness or Erythema – reddened skin may indicate blushing,fever,hypertension,allergy and

Pallor or blanching - under certain types of emotional stress (fear, anger , and others), some people
become pale . Pale skin may also signify anemia blood pressure, or impaired blood flow into the area.

Jaundice or a yellow cast - an abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a liver disorder in which excess
bile pigments accumulate in the blood, circulate throughout the body, and become deposited in body
tissues.

Bruises - the black and blue marks of bruising reveal sites where blood has escaped from the circulation
and has clotted in the tissue spaces. Such clotted blood masses are called hematomas. An unusual
tendency to bruise may signify a deficiency of vitamin c in the diet or hemophilia (bleeders disease).

Cutaneous Glands – release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts.It falls into to two groups –
Sebaceous Glands and Sweat Glands.

Sebaceous Glands or Oil Glands – found all over the body except the palms of the hands and soles of the
feet.The product of sebaceous glands is sebum or grease.

Sweat Glands – it is widely distributed in the skin.Their number is staggering more than 2.5 million per
person.There are 2 types of sweat glands which is eccrine and apocrine.

 Eccrine Glands – Eccrine sweat glands are the most numerous, distributed across nearly the
entire body surface area, and responsible for the highest volume of sweat excretion.
 Apocrine Glands - Most apocrine glands in the skin are in the armpits, the groin, and the area
around the nipples of the breast. It may have a milky or yellowish color . The secretion is
odorless , what bacteria that live on the skin use its proteins and fats as a source of nutrients , it
can take on a musky , unpleasant odor . Apocrine glands begin to function during puberty under
the influence of androgens .
Hair and Hair Follicles – Hair is an important body image, Millions of hair and hair follicle found all over
our body except on the palms of our hands, soles of our feet,nipples and lips.Hair is the fastest growing
tissues in the body.Hair serves as a protection example , guarding the head against bumps,shielding the
eyes, and help to keep foreign particles out of the respiratory tract.

Nails – the one responsible for nail growth is the nail matrix, As the matrix produces nail cells, they
become heavily keratinized and die.Nails are transparent and almost colorless but they look pink
because of the rich blood supply in the underlying dermis.When the supply of oxygen in the blood is
low, the nail beds take on a cyanotic (blue) cast.

Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Most skin disorders are infections with pathogens such as bacteria, viruses or fungi.Allergies , which are
caused by abnormally strong immune responses, are also commonly seen in the skin.Less common but
far more damaging to the body is burns and skin cancers.

Infections and Allergies cause the following commonly occurring skin disorders:

 Athlete's foot - an itchy , red , peeling condition of the skin between the toes, resulting from an
infection with the fungus tinea pedis .
 Boils and carbuncles - boils are caused by inflammation of hair follicles and surrounding tissues
commonly on the dorsal neck. Carbuncles are clusters of boil often caused by the bacterium
staphylococcus aureus.
 Cold sores or fever blisters - small fluid filled blisters that itch and sting, caused by human
herpesvirus 1 infection . Cold sores usually occur around the lips and in the mucosa of the
mouth and nose .
 Contact dermatitis - itching redness , and swelling of the skin , progressing to blistering . It is
caused by exposure of the skin to chemicals such as those in poison ivy that provoke allergic
responses in sensitive individuals .
 Impetigo - is a common and highly contagious skin infection that mainly affects infants and
young children. It usually appears as reddish sores on the face, especially around the nose and
mouth and on the hands and feet. Over about a week, the sores burst and develop honey-
colored crusts.
 Psoriasis - is a skin disease that causes a rash with itchy, scaly patches, most commonly on the
knees, elbows, trunk and scalp. A chronic condition , psoriasis is believed to be an autoimmune
disorder in which the immune system attacks a person's own tissues , leading to the rapid
overproduction of skin cells . Attack or often triggered by trauma , infection , hormonal changes
, or stress.
 Burns - Burn is a tissue damage and cell death caused by intense heat, electricity , uv radiation
or sunburn , or certain chemicals such as acids , which denature proteins and cause cell death in
affected areas.
1. First degree burns - only the special epidermis is damaged . The area becomes red and
swollen . First degree burns are not usually serious and generally heal in 2 to 3 days .
Sunburn without blistering is a first-degree burn .
2. Second degree burns - involved injury to the epidermis and the superficial part of the
dermis . Skin is red, painful , and blistered. Because sufficient numbers of epithelial cells
are still present, regrowth (regeneration) after epithelium can occur . Ordinarily , no
permanent scars result if care is taken to prevent infection.
3. Third-degree burns - destroy both the epidermis the dermis and often extends into the
subcutaneous tissue , reflecting their categorization as full thickness burns . This blisters
are usually present , and the burn area appears blanched or blackened. Because the
nerve endings in the area are destroyed , the burned area is not painful . In third-degree
burns , regeneration is not possible , and skin grafting must be done to cover the
underlying exposed tissues.
4. Fourth degree burns - are also full tecnis burns , but they extend into deeper tissues
such as bone, muscle, or tendon . This burns appear dry and leathery, and they require
surgery and grafting to cover exposed tissue . In severe cases , amputation required to
save the patient's life . In general , burns are considered critical if any of the following
conditions exist;
 Over 30% of the body has second-degree burns .
 Over 10% of the body has third or fourth degree burns .
 There are third or fourth degree burns of the face , hands , feet or genitals .
 Burns affect the airway .
 Circumferential around the body or limbs have occurred .

Skin cancer - numerous types of neoplasms (tumors) arise in the skin . Most skin neoplasms are benign
and do not spread (metastasize) to other body areas . For example , warts are caused by human
papillomaviruses but are benign and do not spread . However , some skin neoplasms are malignant , or
cancerous , and they tend to invade other body areas .

3 most common types of skin cancer:

 Basal cell carcinoma - is a type of skin cancer. Basal cell carcinoma begins in the basal cells — a
type of cell within the skin that produces new skin cells as old ones die off. Basal cell carcinoma
often appears as a slightly transparent bump on the skin, though it can take other forms.
 Squamous cell carcinoma - of the skin result from prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, either from sunlight or from tanning beds or lamps. Avoiding UV light helps reduce
your risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin and other forms of skin cancer.
 Melanoma - the most serious type of skin cancer, develops in the cells (melanocytes) that
produce melanin — the pigment that gives your skin its color.

To help you identify characteristics of unusual moles that may indicate melanomas or other skin
cancers, think of the letters ABCDE:

 A is for asymmetrical shape. Look for moles with irregular shapes, such as two very different-
looking halves.

 B is for irregular border. Look for moles with irregular, notched or scalloped borders —
characteristics of melanomas.
 C is for changes in color. Look for growths that have many colors or an uneven distribution of
color.

 D is for diameter. Look for new growth in a mole larger than 1/4 inch (about 6 millimeters).

 E is for evolving. Look for changes over time, such as a mole that grows in size or that changes
color or shape. Moles may also evolve to develop new signs and symptoms, such as new
itchiness or bleeding.