Course: Academic Writing & Critical Thinking

Level: M2 L.S.
Teacher: Mrs. BOUGOFFA
 Welcome to our academic writing course!
 This course is designed to be your ultimate
companion in the journey of developing and
organizing research papers, with a special focus on
dissertations. Our primary goal is to provide you with
the guidance and tools you need to excel in your
academic writing endeavors.
 Throughout this course, we will not only explore the
art of crafting effective research papers but also
acquaint you with the APA style guidelines as outlined
in the APA Publication Manual, 7th edition.
 So, let's commence this rewarding journey together by
starting with the essential steps we must adhere to.
Developing a dissertation is a complex and time-
consuming process, but the first step is crucial and
typically involves the following:
1. Selecting a Research Topic/Problem:
 Choose a subject or topic that genuinely interests you and
aligns with your field of study. Your dissertation will require
significant time and effort, so it's essential to be passionate
about your research area.
 Ensure your topic is specific, well-defined, and has academic
significance. You should be able to make a meaningful
contribution to the existing body of knowledge in your field.
 Consider the feasibility of your research topic, including the
availability of resources and data.
Once you have a clear and research-worthy topic, you can move on to subsequent steps, which might include:
2. Conducting a Literature Review:
 Review existing literature and research on your chosen topic. This step helps you understand what has already been
studied, what gaps exist, and where your research can make a meaningful contribution.
3. Defining Your Research Questions or Hypotheses:
 Formulate clear and focused research questions or hypotheses that guide your dissertation.
4. Developing a Research Proposal:
 Create a research proposal that outlines the objectives, methodology, and significance of your research. This proposal may
need to be approved by your supervisor before you proceed.
5. Gathering Data and Conducting Research:
 Depending on your field, this could involve surveys, experiments, interviews, data analysis, fieldwork, or other research
methods. Collect and analyze data systematically.
7. Writing the Dissertation:
 Start writing your dissertation in a structured and organized manner. This involves formatting, citing sources correctly (in
APA 7th ed.), and presenting your research findings logically.
There are few things you should consider doing that will help make the process of writing go much smoother:
 Drafting a schedule and noting deadlines on your personal calendar should be your first step to writing a research paper.
 Choose specific dates of important steps along the way but focus on setting realistic goals, and then stick to them!
8. Revising and Editing:
 Expect to revise and edit your work several times. Consider feedback from your supervisor and peers. Pay attention to the
clarity and coherence of your argument.
9. Defending Your Dissertation:
 Prepare for a dissertation defense, where you will present your research to your committee and defend your findings. This
often involves a formal presentation followed by questions from your committee.
10. Submitting Your Dissertation:
 After successful defense and any necessary revisions, you can submit your dissertation to your institution for final approval .
Let's move forward with
the initial step and
delve into it
thoroughly.
1. CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC /
PROBLEM
A research topic/problem is the core subject
matter or the main organizing principle
guiding the analysis of your paper. The
problem under investigation offers you an
occasion for writing and a focus that governs
what you want to say.
Tips to Begin
Do not assume that choosing a research problem to study will be a quick or easy task!
You should be thinking about it at the beginning:
Step1: Think about topics related to the course that you are interested in. A dissertation is a
long and intensive project, so your passion for the topic will be a valuable motivator.
Step 2: If you lack ideas, or wish to gain focus, try any or all of the following strategies:
 Review your course readings, particularly the suggested readings, for topic ideas.
 Search the USC Libraries Catalog for a good, recently published book and, if appropriate, more
specialized works related to the discipline area of the course.
 Browse through some current journals in your subject discipline.
 Consult with your academic advisors, professors, or mentors about the core journals within your
subject discipline. Discuss with them your ideas. They can provide guidance on the suitability of
your chosen topic and offer valuable insights.
 Discuss your topic with peers or colleagues to gather different opinions. They may point out
potential challenges or suggest valuable angles.
 Search online media sources.
Step 3: Ensure that your chosen topic is relevant and aligns with your field of study.
Step 4: Ensure your topic has academic significance. It should address a gap in the existing
literature, provide new insights, or contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your field.
Step 5: Strive for originality in your topic. While you can build on existing research, your
dissertation should contribute new knowledge or perspectives to your field.
Step 6: Consider interdisciplinary perspectives. Sometimes, combining ideas from different
fields can lead to innovative and unique research topics.
Step 7: Consider whether your topic is too broad or too narrow. You might need
to refine it to make it manageable within the scope of a dissertation. Narrow a
topic by looking at its smaller parts, or by choosing a specific problem, time
period, or place to cover.
Step 8: Carefully analyze your topic to determine what you are specifically
going to write.
Step 9: Once you have a specific and well-defined topic for your paper, write
your topic as the question which your paper will answer. Doing this is a great
way to focus your paper and ensure that you meet the paper’s purpose. In fact,
your purpose will determine the type of question that you ask.
Step 10: Consider the feasibility of your research topic, including the
availability of resources and data. Do you have access to the necessary
resources, data, or materials to conduct research on this topic?
Step 11: Conduct some preliminary research to see what has already been
written about your topic. This will help you understand the existing literature
and identify gaps. Explore current events, trends, debates, societal challenges,
or emerging issues in your field.
Step 12: Be f lexible and open to adjusting your topic as you progress with your
research. Sometimes, your initial idea may evolve into a more refined and
compelling topic.
Remember:
 The topic you choose will shape the entire
trajectory of your dissertation. Take your
time and be patient to select a topic that
resonates with your academic and personal
interests while also meeting the
requirements of your academic program.
Now, let's move on to
the process of selecting
a provisional title.
2. CHOOSING A TITLE
The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. It should be a
concise statement of the main topic of the research and should identify the
variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between
them. A good title contains the fewest possible words needed to adequately
describe the content and/or purpose of your research paper.
a. Importance of Choosing a Good Title
The title is the part of a paper that is read the most, and it is usually read
first. It is, therefore, the most important element that defines the research
study. With this in mind, the following parameters can be used to help
you formulate a suitable research paper title:
 The purpose of the research
 The scope of the research
 The narrative tone of the paper [typically defined by the type of the research]
 The methods used to study the problem
 The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to highlight the
research problem under investigation.
b. General Principles for Effective titles in academic research
papers
 Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study,
 Rarely use abbreviations or acronyms unless they are commonly known,
 Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest,
 Identify key variables, both dependent and independent,
 Reveal how the paper will be organized,
 Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis,
 Is limited to 5 to 15 substantive words,
 Does not include redundant phrasing, such as, "A Study of," "An Analysis of" or
similar constructions,
 Takes the form of a question or declarative statement,
 Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words
capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last words of the title
are also capitalized, and
 Rarely uses an exclamation mark at the end of the title.
c. The Subtitle
Subtitles are frequently used in research papers. Some examples of
why you may include a subtitle:
 1. Explains or provides additional context, e.g., “Students' Attitudes
towards Implementing Blended Learning in Teaching English in
Higher Education Institutions: A Case of Al-Quds Open University”
 2. Qualifies the scope of the research, e.g., “Perceptions of Blended
Learning: A Case Study on Student Experiences in an Advanced
Placement Macroeconomics Course”
 3. Identifies the methodology used, e.g. “Advertisers’ Intelligent
Use of Verbal and Nonverbal signs in Myth Creation: A Semiotic
Analysis of the ‘Coca-Cola for Everyone’ Commercial”
“The Influence of Blended Learning on EFL Students' Writing
Apprehension and Writing Performance: A Qualitative Case Study”
Note:
Typically, you start with a
preliminary title but the
final title you submit is
created after the research is
complete so that the title
accurately captures what
has been done.
Following that, we'll
proceed with the
discussion on how to
appropriately label,
arrange, and format the
sections.
3. SECTION LABELS AND ORDER
❖ Preliminary pages: The order and inclusion of these
preliminary pages can vary based on specific institutional or
departmental requirements:
 Title page
 Title Page (again, repeat the title of the paper and your name
without additional information)
 Abstract (A concise summary of your dissertation)
 Table of Contents
 List of Tables
 List of Figures
 List of Abbreviations
 Acknowledgments
 Dedication
❖ General Introduction (Background of the Study, Statement of the Problem,
Research Questions and Hypotheses, Aims of the Study, Significance of the
Study, Research Methodology, and Structure of the Dissertation)
❖ Chapter One: Literature Review (Give it a suitable title). It is divided into
two sections:
• Section 1: in which you review the literature related to the first research
variable (Give it a suitable title)
• Section 2: in which you review the literature related to the second research
variable (Give it a suitable title )
❖ Chapter Two: Research Methodology, Analysis and Discussion
It is divided into three sections:
 Section 1: Research Methodology (Study Design, Population and Sample,
Research Instruments, Data Collection and Analysis Procedures)
 Section 2: Data Analysis and Discussion
 Section 3: Summary of the Results, Limitations, and Recommendations
❖ General Conclusion
❖ References
❖ Appendices (or Appendix if it is the only one used)
❖ Résumé (French version of the abstract)
❖ ‫(امللخص‬Arabic version of the abstract)
Formatting Guidelines (APA 7th)
 Font: Use 12-point New Times Roman along the entire
work.
 Line Spacing: Text should be double spaced on 8 ½ x
11pouces (21,6 × 27,9 cm) white paper (double-space
the entire work including block quotations, tables, list
of references, …)
 Margins: Use 1-in. (2.54cm) margins on all sides (top,
bottom, left, and right) of the page.
 Page Number: Number pages consecutively. The page
number should appear on the top right corner of the
paper within the header, double-space to the line of
text. Placement of numbers should be consistent
throughout the document. The APA "running head" is
not included in the dissertation.
 Paragraph Alignment: Align the text to the left
and leave the right margin uneven (“ragged”). Do
not use full justification, which adjusts the spacing
between words to make all lines the same length
(flush with the margins).
 Do not manually divide words at the end of a line,
and do not use the hyphenation function to break
words at the ends of lines.
 Do not manually insert line breaks into long DOIs
or URLs; however, breaks in DOIs or URLs applied
automatically by a word-processing program are
permissible.
 Paragraph Indentation: Indent your paragraphs
by one tab key 0.5inch left (use the tab key or the
automatic paragraph-formatting function of your
word-processing program).
 For block quotes, the first paragraph is indented
from the left margin 0.5in.
 If the block quotation spans more than one
paragraph, the first line of the second and any
subsequent paragraphs of the block quotation
should be indented another 0.5 in., such that those
first lines are indented a total of 1 in..
 Each main section, new chapter, and the reference
start on a new page and each appendix starts on a new
page. Sections of the chapters should follow each other
without a break.
 Place section labels on a separate line at the top of the
page on which the section begins, in bold and
centered.
 Better to write an introduction and a conclusion for the
chapter, while you can introduce the sections under
this chapter with an introductory statement/paragraph
without labeling it ‘Introduction’, as you can conclude
with a summary statement/paragraph without labeling
it ‘Conclusion’.
 All sections of the dissertation should
include signposts and summaries that
indicate what has been done and what is
coming next to connect the various parts of
the dissertation and give clear bearings for
the reader.
 Make a balance in pages number between
the theoretical chapter and the practical
one, with a possibility that the practical
chapter can exceed the theoretical one and
not vice versa.
 Heading Levels
There are five possible levels of heading. Level 1
headings are used for top-level or main sections, Level 2
headings are subsections of Level 1, and so on.
1. Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading: Text begins as a
new paragraph.
2. Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading: Text begins as a
new paragraph.
3. Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading: Text
begins as a new paragraph.
4. Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a
Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a
regular paragraph.
5. Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending
With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues
as a regular paragraph.
 Note.
In title case, most words are capitalized
(nouns of two parts are capitalized both e.g.
Self-Report, words of four letters or more are
capitalized e.g. Form, With, …, minor words
of three letters or fewer are in lowercase e.g.
at , in , for, …).
 Spelling: Check Merriam-Webster’s
Dictionary for spelling. Use one
spelling consistently throughout the
entire work.
 Abbreviations:
➢ Write out all abbreviations the first time they are used with
parentheses around the abbreviation [i.e., International
Monetary Fund (IMF)] then use just the abbreviation in
what comes later. Do not use too many abbreviations (use
them sparingly); they shorten the text but make it more
difficult to read because the reader has to repeatedly think
about what each means. Never start a sentence with an
abbreviation.
➢ When the full version of a term appears for the first time in
a heading, do not define the abbreviation in the heading;
instead define the abbreviation when the full version next
appears. Use abbreviations in headings only if the
abbreviations have been previously defined in the text.
ARRANGEMENT & PAGINATION
❖After the pages are arranged in the correct order, they
should be numbered consecutively, beginning with the
title page and continuing through the preliminary
pages.
❖Preliminary pages carry lowercase Roman numerals (i,
ii, iii, iv, v, etc.). Some of the preliminary pages are
counted but not numbered (as shown next). The main
body of the dissertation, which includes the
introduction and subsequent chapters, begins with
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) on the first page of
Chapter 1 (or the first page of the first section of your
dissertation).
❖Preliminary Pages
 Title Page – counted but not numbered
 Abstract – This is the first page that is visibly
numbered.
 Table of Contents –numbered
 List of Tables (if applicable) – numbered
 List of Figures (if applicable) – numbered
 List of Abbreviations (if applicable) – numbered
 Acknowledgments (optional) – numbered
 Dedication (optional) – numbered
❖Text
 Chapters (begin Arabic numerals, starting with page
"1")
 References (numbered)
 Appendices (if applicable) – numbered
 Résumé (numbered)
 ‫(امللخص‬numbered)
Finally, we'll explore
each of the preliminary
pages in more detail,
including formatting
and related
considerations.
4.1 Title Page
❖ Follow the instructions and conventions of your institution for writing
the title page.
❖ Include the following information on the title page:
 Institutional affiliation (Institutional logo, University name / Faculty
name / Department name (Title case: lower/ uppercase, bold,
centered, and positioned on the top of the title page)
 Title of Dissertation or Dissertation Proposal (Title case: lower/
uppercase, bold, centered, and positioned in the upper half of the title
page)
 Subtitle if necessary (If the title is longer than one line, the main title
and the subtitle can be separated on double-spaced lines if desired)
 The following specific statement with the degree sought, separated as
indicated on the sample dissertation: A Dissertation Submitted to the
Department of Letters and English Language in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of Master in Language Sciences
 The candidates’ names/candidate’s name
 The supervisor’s name
 The board of examiners (President, Supervisor, and Examiner)
 The academic year
4.2 Abstract
❖ An abstract summarizes the major aspects of the entire
paper in a prescribed sequence that includes:
 A very brief Background (this is optional)
 The overall purpose of the study (aim & objectives);
 The research problem(s) you investigated (questions &
hypotheses);
 The basic design of the study (methodology);
 Major findings found as a result of your analysis;
 A brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions
(recommendations); and,
 Keywords: words, phrases, or acronyms that describe the
most important aspects of your paper. They are used for
indexing in databases and help readers find your work
during a search.
❖ Importance of a Good Abstract
 The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major
aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether
they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore,
enough key information must be included to make the
abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your
work.
 How do you know when you have enough information
in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine
that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then
ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper
you could access, would you be happy with the amount of
information presented there? Does it tell the whole story
about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract
likely needs to be revised.
❖Formatting
 Abstracts are limited to no more than 250 words
(typically around 150-250 words).
 Every word and number within the abstract must be
counted as one word. The word ‘Abstract’ that stands
as the heading of the page is not included in the 250-
word count.
 All numbers within the abstract should be represented
as numerals unless they begin a sentence.
 Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in
a block format and with no indentation of the first line
(structured format).
 Place the abstract on its own page.
 Write the section label ‘Abstract’ in bold title case,
centered at the top of the page, and place the abstract
below the label.
 Write the label ‘Keywords:’ (in italic) one line below
the abstract, indented 0.5 in. like a regular paragraph,
followed by three to five keywords in lowercase (but
capitalize proper nouns), separated by commas.
 The keywords can be listed in any order.
 Do not use a period or other punctuation after the last
keyword. If the keywords run onto a second line, the
second line is not indented.
❖ Writing Style and Grammar
 The most frequent tense used in abstracts is the
present tense. It is used to state facts, describe
methods, make comparisons, and give results. The
past tense is preferred when reference is made to the
author's own experiments, calculations, observations,
etc.
 Abstracts usually use meta-text (e.g., "This paper
investigates ...").
 Abstracts rarely use negative sentences.
 Abstracts tend to avoid the first person and to use
impersonal active constructions (e.g., " This research
shows ...") or passive voice (e.g., " The data were
analyzed ...").
❖ Composing Your Abstract
 Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract
should be written last since it will summarize the contents
of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing
your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from
each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that
summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting
phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and
smoothly.
 Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that
the information in the abstract completely agrees with
what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as
a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most
crucial information using the fewest necessary words.
❖ The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:
 Lengthy background or contextual information,
 Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives,
and repetitive information;
 Acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols,
 References to other literature [say something like, "current
research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
 Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete
sentences,
 Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
 Citations to other works, and
 Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or
references to them.
4.3 Table of Contents
 The Table of Contents (T.O.C.) should include a listing of all
preliminary page sections which follow it, chapter/section
headings, and concluding materials. Essentially, there are
two columns within the T.O.C.: one for the heading and the
other for the page designation. The heading column text
should be connected to the page designation by auto-
formatted leader dots or tabs and they should be plain (not
bold, italicized, or underlined). Page numbers are always
justified right to the one-inch margin.
 The heading of this page is listed as ‘Table of Contents’ and
should be in bold and centered at the top of the page.
 Wording of the headings should match the wording used in
the manuscript.
 The levels of subheadings included in the T.O.C. must be
consistent throughout the manuscript.
 There must be a minimum of 2 levels of headings in the T.O.C.
If chapters include more than 2 levels, students may include
those additional levels in the T.O.C. but are not required to do
so.
 Chapter numbers in the T.O.C. should be formatted identically
to those on chapter title pages.
 Chapter numbers may be Arabic, upper case Roman numerals,
or numbers written out as words (e.g. Chapter 5, Chapter V, or
Chapter Five).
 Double-spacing is used in the entire work including the T.O.C.
 The subheadings listed on the T.O.C. should be in title case. If
the subheading of any level is longer than one line, the second
line of the subheading must be indented so that it is aligned
with the text above it, and the page number should follow the
period leaders after the last word of the subheading.
 Main chapters/sections headings should be bolded but no levels
within the T.O.C. should be underlined, or italicized.
4.4 List of Tables / Figures / Abbreviations
 It is required when there are tables, figures, or abbreviations within the
manuscript. If all are utilized, they must be in separate lists, each
starting on a new page.
 The headings of these pages are listed as List of Tables’, ‘List of Figures’,
and ‘List of Abbreviations’ in bold and centered at the top of the pages.
 There are two columns within the table/figure lists: one for the
table/figure number and title and the other for the page designation.
 The table/figure numbers (in bold followed by a colon and then by the
titles) are placed in a column flush left under the main heading ‘List of
Tables’ and ‘List of Figures’. The table and figure titles are in title case,
and run-over lines are further indented. The table/figure title should
follow the table or figure number, and wording should be identical to
the wording of the titles as they appear in the manuscript. Connect the
titles with period leaders to a column flush right which will contain the
page number where the table or figure is located in the manuscript.
Double-space between headings.
 For the ‘List of Abbreviations’, the page
designation is not required. Each
abbreviation/acronym (in bold) is followed by a
colon and then by the full version of the term.
 Abbreviations should be ordered alphabetically.
 If there are symbols used throughout the work,
include them within a list under the heading ‘List
of Abbreviations and Symbols’.
4.5 Acknowledgements
A section where you thank individuals or organizations
that supported your research. It includes the expressions of
gratitude to colleagues, teachers, supervisors, sponsors,
sample participants etc. Acknowledgments also allow the
author to demonstrate that he/she is a member of a certain
academic community. They are usually written in the form
of ordinary paragraphs and in the first person—I for a
single author and we for co-authors.
The heading ‘Acknowledgments’ appears in bold and
centered at the top of the page. Text should be double-
spaced, flush left and indented 1/2 inch for each paragraph.
Below are several patterns of the most widespread elements of acknowledgments. You
can make use of them in your own English writing.
1. Financial support.
 This research was supported by a grant from ... (e.g., the International Research and
Exchanges Board).
 The work of . . . was supported in part by . . . (e.g., the National Science Foundation),
and in part by ... (e.g., the Division of Applied Sciences, Harvard University).
2. Thanks to colleagues.
 I would like to thank Prof. X for his invaluable commentary and guidance.
 I am indebted to Dr. XX for . . . (e.g., "the use of this source").
 I owe a debt of gratitude to Prof. X who introduced me to the theory o f . . .
3. Thanks to editors and reviewers.
 I wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions.
 We are grateful to the . . . publishers for the permission to use copyright material.
4. Sources.
 This article is based on . . . (dissertation, conference presentation, etc.).
 An earlier version of this paper was presented at . . . (congress, conference).
5. Disclaimers.
 The responsibility for any shortcomings rests with me alone.
 None of the sponsoring organizations is responsible for the views expressed.
4.6 Dedication
 A section where you can dedicate your dissertation to
someone or something if desired.
 The heading ‘Dedication’ appears in bold and centered at
the top of the page. Text should be double-spaced, flush
left and indented 1/2 inch (0.5 in.) for each paragraph.
 It is usually written in the form of ordinary paragraphs and
in the first person—I for a single author. In case of co-
authors, each author has to write his own dedication on a
separate page with his name at the bottom.
 Be academic in writing your ‘dedication section’; do not use
fancy or decorated fonts, do not use a different text font,
and do not use a box or frame to surround the element (do
not let aesthetics and artistry overwhelm your writing).
Thank you, everyone, for your
attention.
I appreciate your active participation.
I'm looking forward to our next step
in this journey.
If you have any questions or need
further clarification, please feel free
to reach out.
Have a great day!