Research Title

When the title is poorly constructed that it does not accurately

describe the objective of your research, it can discredit the value of the
entire research, let alone the implications of your research findings. It is
therefore important that you make your research title accurate yet
captivating. After all, the research title is the first thing your professor,
fellow researchers, journal editors, or reviewers get to see first. Once it
captures the attention of the readers, they will be enticed to read the
entire work and learn something from your research. Learn how to make
your research title create a good impression is essential.

The following are the basic guidelines in make research title:

1. Use an accurate description of the subject and scope of the study

instead of using general terms.

2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like

DNA and ICT.

3. Do not include words like, "The study of analysis of"," an

investigation of" or similar construction as these would only lengthen the
title.

4. Include the main dependent and independent variables.

5. Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation.

6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well
as the first letter of the first and last words.

7. State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in

question form from time to time.

8. The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated
unless it is a historical study.

9. Use current terminology.

10. Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to 15 words are

sufficient to describe the research study.

11. Use the common name instead of chemical formula.

12. Write and italicize scientific names.

13. Must reflect the tone of the paper.

The following steps can guide you in writing your research title:

1. Determine what is that you wish to accomplish r know from your

study. Write one to two sentences to state the main objective of your
research project.

2. Include important keywords and variables. Revise the sentences

into complete sentence that includes important keywords and variables of
the study.

3. Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary words. You may also

shrink a phrase into a simpler phrase or a single word. In doing this, make
sure that the main thought of the research study is retained.

4. Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there is any.

5. Observe proper formatting. The format may vary according to the

requirements of the course or school. Please seek guidance from your
professor.
Chapter 1: Introduction

After the research title, the introduction is the next thing your
audience will read, so it's vital to begin strongly. The introduction is your
opportunity to show readers and reviewers why your research topic is
worth reading about and why your paper warrants their attention.

The introduction serves multiple purposes. It presents the

background to your study, introduces your topic and aims, and gives an
overview of the paper. A good introduction will provide a solid foundation
and encourage readers to continue on to the main parts of your paper—the
methods, results, and discussion.

Tips for writing an effective introduction to research papers:

1.　Start broadly and then narrow down

In the first paragraph, briefly describe the broad research area and
then narrow down to your particular focus. This will help position your
research topic within the broader field, making the work accessible to a
broader audience, not just to specialists in your field.

2.　State the aims and importance

Papers rejected for "not showing the importance of the topic" or

"lacking clear motivation" usually neglect this point. Say what you want to
achieve and why your reader should be interested in finding out whether
you achieve it. The basic structure can be as simple as "We aim to do X,
which is important because it will lead to Y."
3. Cite thoroughly but not excessively

Once you've narrowed your focus to the specific topic of your study,
you should thoroughly cover the most recent and most relevant literature
pertaining to your study. Your review of the literature should be complete,
but not overly long—remember, you're not writing a review article. If
you find that your introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, one
possible solution is to cite review articles, rather than all the individual
articles that have already been summarized in the review.

4. Clearly state either your hypothesis or research question

For research in empirical sciences, stating a hypothesis can be an
effective way of framing the research. For example, instead of stating "In
this study, we show that X is related to Y by method A," you could say, "In
this study, we hypothesize that X is related to Y, and we use method A to
test this hypothesis." For research in formal sciences or exploratory
research, you could consider stating a research question instead: "In this
study, we examine the following research question: Is X related to Y?"
Note that the research question doesn't always have to be stated in the
interrogative form (with a question mark); instead, you can put the
question into a declarative sentence: "In this study, we
investigate whether X is related to Y." Hypotheses and research questions
are effective because they help give shape to the paper and serve as
"signpost phrases" that guide readers through your paper smoothly.

5. Consider giving an overview of the paper

An organizational overview is more common in some fields than
others. It is particularly common in technology, but less so in medicine. In
the last paragraph of your introduction, consider giving a section-by-
section overview of your paper if it is appropriate for your field. For
example, "In Section II, we describe our analysis methods and the datasets
we used. In Section III we present the results. In Section IV, we discuss
the results and compare our findings with those in the literature. In Section
V, we state our conclusions and suggest possible topics for future
research."

Background of the Study

The background of the study is the part of the paper where you
inform the reader of the context of your paper. When we say context, it
means how we manipulated the situations or circumstances within which
your topic was conceptualized. This part is written when we have already
conducted the literature review and has a good perception of the topic so
you can articulate the importance and validity of the research problem.

It is important to:

1. Summarize the key points of and then

2. Analyze your research before

3. Relating how your research fits into the field as a whole. You work
should also be compared to
4. The gap in the field, including how your research might have
moved the edge of current knowledge. Finally, how your research modified
our view of

5. What lies beyond the edge of current knowledge and some

6. Suggestions for future directions on how to examine those

hypotheses are needed.

Statement of the Problem

A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim

that outlines the problem addressed by a study. The statement of the
problem briefly addresses the question: What is the problem that the
research will address?

Tips on how to write a statement of the problem

A problem statement is a tool used to gain support and approval of the

project from management and stakeholders. As such, it must be accurate
and clearly written. There are a few key elements to keep in mind when
crafting a problem statement that can have a positive impact on the
outcome of the project.

1. Describe how things should work.

2. Explain the problem and state why it matters.
3. Explain your problem's financial costs.
4. Back up your claims.
5. Propose a solution.
6. Explain the benefits of your proposed solution(s).
7. Conclude by summarizing the problem and solution.

Research Problem and Research Questions

The research questions help to clarify and specify the research

problems. Research questions are also considered as sub-problems of your
research problem. These questions are informative in nature. It specifies
the method of collecting and analyzing data and the type of data to be
collected since you are exploring a quantitative research question.

Characteristics f good research questions:

Feasible. Consider the amount of time, money, respondents and even

your current situation as a student researcher.

Clear. The clarity of how the questions stated lead to agreement of

meaning of the readers of your paper.

Significant. Know if your research questions are relevant or necessary to

ask.

Ethical. Always consider the beliefs of your respondents. Look into ways
of answering the research questions without harming the physical and
psychological aspects of your respondents.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The types of research frameworks are classified as the theoretical

and conceptual frameworks. A theoretical framework is mostly used for
studies that anchor on time-tested theories that relate the findings of the
investigation of the under printing relevant theory of knowledge. At the
same time a conceptual framework refers to the actual ideas, beliefs,
tentative theories that specifically support the study. It is primarily a
conception or model of what is out there that the researcher plans to
study.

Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

1. Provide an overall view of the researcher study;

2. Anchor a theory that supports the study;

3. Guide in developing relevant research questions/ objectives;

4. Help justify assumptions/ hypothesis;

5. Aid choosing appropriate methodology;

6. Help n gathering and interpreting data and

7. Guide in identifying possible threats to validity.

Differences between the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Conceptual framework

framework
Scope  Broader  Narrower/ focused
 Can be used in  Directly related t a
different studies specific study
Focus of Content  The particular used  Set of related
already in the fields concepts to a
specific study
Number of Theories  Presents one  May synthesize one
theory at a time or more theories
Time of Development  Already existing  Develop while
before the conduct planning and
of the study writing a specific
research
These are the following guidelines and strategies of choosing and
developing a Research Framework according to Barrot (2017, p.
73)
Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a specific, clear, and testable proposition or

predictive statement about the possible outcome of a scientific research
study based on a particular property of a population, such as presumed
differences between groups on a particular variable or relationships
between variables. Specifying the research hypotheses is one of the most
important steps in planning a scientific quantitative research study. A
quantitative researcher usually states and a prior expectation about the
results of the study in one or more research hypotheses before conducting
the study, because the design of the research study and the planned
research design often is determined by the stated hypotheses.

Types of research hypothesis

1. Simple hypothesis- A simple hypothesis sis a predictable

relationship between two variables, the independent and the dependent
variable.

2. Complex hypothesis- The complex hypothesis reflects the

relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

3. Empirical hypothesis- An empirical hypothesis is also called as the

“working hypothesis.” It presumed to explain certain facts and relationships
of phenomena.

4. Logical hypothesis- Logical hypothesis expresses explanation with

limited evidence that can be verified logically.
5. Statistical hypothesis- A statistical hypothesis is an analysis of a
portion of a population.

6. Null hypothesis- It exists when you consider that there is no

relationship among the variables. It is denoted as (Ho)

7. Alternative hypothesis- It as an alternate statement expressed to

be tested in order to generate the desired output when the empirical or
working hypothesis is not accepted. It is denoted as (Ha)

These guidelines must be observed in formulating your

hypothesis.

1. Before writing your specific hypothesis, spend more time

researching about the topic you are interested in. Focus on information and
previous studies related to your topic.
2. Your independent variable and dependent variable must
be included in your hypothesis.
3. The relationship of your variables must be reflected in your
hypothesis. Will your independent variable affects
your dependent variable?
4. Your hypothesis should be simple and specific as possible. If your
hypothesis is vague and complicated, it would be difficult to find the
answer to your question.
5. Your hypothesis should be concise and comprises clear and simple
language. Make it short and simple for it to be easily understood
and avoid any misconceptions or misunderstandings.
6. Your hypothesis should be testable without violating ethical
standards. It means that it could be investigated and measured through
scientific methods such as statistical analysis and data interpretation.

7. Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. It means that your hypothesis

can be proven wrong through experiments or empirical data. There are no
absolute answers to research questions, but there is a possibility of
validating the hypotheses to be true beyond a reasonable doubt.

Scope and Delimitation

The scope and delimitations of a research paper or thesis are two

components. The scope of a study describes the extent to which the
research topic will be investigated in the work and specifies the parameters
within which the study will operate. Assume a researcher wants to
investigate the impact of mobile phones on elementary school children's
behavior patterns. However, the researcher will not be able to cover every
aspect of the topic.

Thus, delimitations are the characteristics that limit the scope of the
study and describe its boundaries, such as sample size, geographical
location or setting in which the study takes place, population traits, and so
on. Furthermore, the researcher may choose to collect data using some
research tools and methodologies but not others. These constraints may be
imposed for practical reasons, such as a lack of time or financial resources
to conduct a more comprehensive investigation.

Guidelines on how to write a scope and delimitation

A good scope statement will answer the following six questions:

 Why– the general aims and objectives (purpose) of the research.

 What– the subject to be investigated, and the included variables.
 Where– the location or setting of the study, i.e. where the data will
be gathered and to which entity the data will belong.
 When– the timeframe within which the data is to be collected.
 Who– the subject matter of the study and the population from which
they will be selected. This population needs to be large enough to be
able to make generalizations.
 How– how the research is to be conducted, including a description
of the research design
Definition of Terms

Definition of terms is also called as Operational Definition of

Variables. The work operational refers to “how the word/ term was used in
the study. At the same time, the variables are the elements of essential
study.

Two ways in defining terms,

1. The conceptual definition is the meaning of the term that is based

on how it is defined in the dictionary or encyclopedia.

2. Operational definitions on the other hand is the meaning of a term

based on how it was used in the study.

Guidelines on how to write the definition of terms

1. Write a brief introductory statement. It shortly describes the
content of the definition of terms.
2.List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would
be included (make sure that the variables and key terms found in the title
are included).
3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
4. Indention should be applied to each term.
5. The term should be followed with a period.
6. It can be underlined or not.
7. It can be bold and italic or not.
8. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point).
9. Acronym/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should
be written first, followed by the acronym/ initials in open- close
parenthesis, then the definition/ meaning.
10. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and
significant to the study).
11. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more
in the body of your paper.
Chapter II: Review of Related Literature

A Review of Related Literature is a collection of studies on a

particular topic. It assesses, categorizes, and summarizes all previous
studies conducted on a specific topic. It is also intended to justify your
research by highlighting the gaps in previous studies. It is critical that you
centralize your literature review. As a result, rather than collecting a broad
range of studies that are already irrelevant to the research, you should
select studies that are specific to you.
The review of the literature has a significant impact on the discussion
of the results and findings. The discussion of results and findings should
center on your research rather than previous research. As a result, the
literature review should be used only as support, evidence, and further
explanation for your study in the discussion. The three ways to use a
literature review in your study discussion are as follows:

 providing context as a foundation to develop your ideas,

 comparing your findings to other previous related studies, and
 stating what contribution your study has made to the field.

Structure of Literature Review

This is how you are going to structure your review of related

literature. The main goal for doing this is to make the reader understand
easily the different studies and how they are relevant to your study.

1. Introduction - The introduction somehow presents the

fundamental idea of the particular study of the literature review.
2. Main Body - The main body is consists of the organized
discussion of sources. This is where you summarize and synthesize your
literature review and reflect how they related to your study.

3. Conclusion/ Recommendation – Conclusion and

recommendation emphasized what you have learned from reviewing the
literature and where would your study leads to

Types of literature review

 Context review
 Historical review
 Integrative review
 Methodological review
 Self-study review
 Theoretical review

Where can you find review of literature?

 Books
 Scholarly Journals
 Dissertations
 Government Documents
 Policy Reports and Presented Papers
 Periodicals
Steps in Writing Literature Review

1. Find/Search for the Relevant Literature

There are many ways on how to find relevant research studies. You
may use the following:

a. Search engines to facilitate your information inquiry. Make sure

that they are reliable.

b. University online library

c. Snowballing

d. Related dissertations

2. Log, Catalogue and Synthesize

After searching and gathering the different relevant studies, you need
to arrange them in order for you to organize them easily.

a. Log the reference information. You may use reference

management software.

b. Catalogue all relevant articles. You may use excel so that it

will be organize and systematic. You can make your own template so that
you will be efficient.

c. Digest and synthesize. Organize the different ideas from

different sources. Arrange them according to the criteria that you made in
your excel template. This would make the connections of the different
studies easier to identify.
3. Outlining and Writing Up

In-depth planning and enough time should be given importance during

this period since you will need to concentrate and have focus in writing up
your paper.

a. Draw up your outline. You need to make an outline first for the
structuring of your literature review. Thorough reading and understanding
should be done for you to be able to plan and structure the ideas from
your different sources. You can use the different approaches like
chronological, thematic, theoretical, etc.

b. Write it up. After formulating the outline, you can now begin
writing your first draft. It is expected that your first draft is still rough. Your
second draft involves tightening up and improving the flow. There would
be several drafts needed for your paper to be polished.

c. Recap. When you are finish with your paper, have it read by
others who are qualified (expert in the field) for further improvements.
Comprehend and incorporate their corrections and suggestions for the
betterment of your study. It is so much better if there will be more
qualified people that can proof-read your paper.
In-text Citation and Referencing Styles in the Text

A citation is a reference to a piece of literature that was used in your

study. It is a method of acknowledging the author to whom you have
referred for their intellectual works and creativity as a support or
foundation for your research. Citations typically include the author's name,
date, publisher information, journal information, and/or DOI (Digital
Objective Identifier), if available.

An in-text citation, as the name suggests, is a reference made

within the body of the paper's text. It directs the reader to a source from
which a specific piece of information has been extracted. When you refer
to, paraphrase, summarize, or quote another author, an in-text citation
should be used.

A reference typically includes only the sources that you have

mentioned or cited in-text in your paper, whereas a bibliography is a list
of all sources you used to generate your ideas about your research, even if
they were not mentioned or cited in your paper.
Chapter III: Methodology

Methodology is the systematic, theoretical examination of the

methods used in a field of study. It consists of a theoretical examination of
the body of methods and principles associated with a specific field of
knowledge. A methodology is not the same as a method because it is not
intended to provide solutions.

Methodology is simply the means by which we collect and analyze data. As

a result, how we arrive at results is as important as the results themselves.
The significance is associated with not only the validity of the research
itself, but also the means by which others can replicate what we've done in
the research.

Research Design
Research design is defined as the logical and coherent overall
strategy that the researcher uses to integrate all the components of the
research study (Barrot, 2017, p 102).In order to find meaning in the overall
process of doing your research study, a step-by-step process will be helpful
to you. In quantitative research, you are going to have a great deal of
abstraction and numerical analysis. According to Fraenkel and Wallen
(2007, p 15), the research designs in quantitative research are mostly pre-
established. Hence having an appropriate research design in quantitative
research, the researcher will have a clearer comprehension of what heis
trying to analyze and interpret.
Five general classification of quantitative research design

Descriptive Research. When little is known about the research

problem, then it is appropriate to use descriptive research design. It is a
design that is exploratory in nature. The purpose of descriptive research is
basically to answer questions such as who, what, where, when, and how
much. So this design is best used when the main objective of the study is
just to observe and report a certain phenomenon as it is happening.

Correlational Research. The main goal of this design is to

determine if variable increases or decreases as another variable increases
or decreases. This design seeks to establish an association between
variables. It does not seek cause and effect relationship like descriptive
research; it measures variables as it occurs. It has two major purposes: (a)
to clarify the relationship between variables and (b) predict the magnitude
of the association. However, the extent of the purpose of correlational
research depends on the scope and delimitation of the study.

Ex Post Facto. If the objective of the study is to measure a cause

from pre-existing effects, then Ex Post Facto research design is more
appropriate to use. In this design, the researcher has no control over the
variables in the research study. Thus, one cannot conclude that the
changes measured happen during the actual conduct of the study.

The last two types of quantitative research designs are identifiable

for the existence of treatment or intervention applied to the current
research study. Intervention or treatment pertains to controlling or
manipulating the independent variable in an experiment. It is assumed that
the changes in dependent variables were caused by the independent
variable.

There are also two groups of subjects, participants, or respondents in

quasi-experimental and experimental research. The treatment group refers
to the group subjected to treatment or intervention. The group not subject
to treatment or intervention is called the control group.

Quasi-Experimental. The term means partly, partially, or almost –

pronounced askwahz-eye. This research design aims to measure the causal
relationship between variables. The effect measured is considered to have
occurred during the conduct of the current study. The partiality of quasi-
experimental design comes from assigning subjects, participants, or
respondents into their groups. The groups are known to be already
established before the study, such as age educational background and
nationality. Since the assignment of subjects, participants, or respondents
are not randomly assigned into an experimental or control groups, the
conclusion of results is limited.

Experimental Research. This research design is based on the

scientific method called experiment with a procedure of gathering data
under a controlled or manipulated environment. It is also known as true
experimental design since it applies treatment and manipulation more
extensively compared to quasi-experimental design. Random assignment of
subjects or participants into treatment and control group is done increasing
the validity of the study. Experimental research, therefore, attempts to
affect a certain variable by directly manipulating the independent variable.
Research Population and Sample

The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the

population of the topic of interest. The population is the totality of all the
objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is
understood that this population possesses common characteristics about
which the research aims to explore. There are two types of population:
target population and accessible population.

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each

member of the population has an equal chance, or probability, of being
selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual
in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers to
decide which individuals to include. 1 For example, if you have a sampling
frame of 1000 individuals, labeled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from
the random number table to pick your sample. So, if the first three
numbers from the random number table were 094, select the individual
labeled “94”, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling

allows the sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A
specific advantage is that it is the most straightforward method of
probability sampling. A disadvantage of simple random sampling is that you
may not select enough individuals with your characteristic of interest,
especially if that characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to
define a complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them,
especially if different forms of contact are required (email, phone, post)
and your sample units are scattered over a wide geographical area.
 

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame.

The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a
sample size n  from a population of size x, you should select
every x/nth individual for the sample.  For example, if you wanted a sample
size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100 =
10th member of the sampling frame.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random

sampling, and it is easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias,
for example if there are underlying patterns in the order of the individuals
in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique coincides with the
periodicity of the underlying pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group
of students were being sampled to gain their opinions on college facilities,
but the Student Record Department’s central list of all students was
arranged such that the sex of students alternated between male and
female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20 th student) would result in
a sample of all males or all females. Whilst in this example the bias is
obvious and should be easily corrected, this may not always be the case.
 
3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or

strata) who all share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might
reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary between the
different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the
subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify
the population by sex, to ensure equal representation of men and women.
The study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each
stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate to choose non-
equal sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the
health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three hospitals
each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses,
hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate
to choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10
from hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a
more realistic and accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses
across the county, whereas simple random sampling would over-represent
nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was stratified
should be taken into account at the analysis stage.
Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of
the results by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of
the appropriate characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of which
are not always available), and it can be difficult to decide which
characteristic(s) to stratify by.
 
4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the

sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into
subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected to be included
in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual GP
practices or towns could be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster
sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then included in the
study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each
cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion. Clustering should be taken
into account in the analysis. The General Household survey, which is
undertaken annually in England, is a good example of a (one-stage) cluster
sample. All members of the selected households (clusters) are included in
the survey.1

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling,

especially where a study takes place over a wide geographical region. For
instance, it is easier to contact lots of individuals in a few GP practices than
a few individuals in many different GP practices. Disadvantages include an
increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are not representative of the
population, resulting in an increased sampling error.
Research Instruments

Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data

for specific research problems. Common instruments are performance
tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation checklist. The first two
instruments are usually used in quantitative research, while the last two
instruments are often in qualitative research. However, interviews and
observation checklists can still be used in quantitative research once the
information gathered is translated into numerical data.

In constructing the research instrument of the study, there are many

factors to be considered. The type of instrument, reasons for choosing the
type, and the description and conceptual definition of its parts are some of
the factors that need to be decided before constructing a research
instrument. Furthermore, it is also very important to understand the
concepts of scales of research instruments and how to establish validity
and reliability of instruments.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

Concise. Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of
its length, you just pick the answer without even reading it? A good
research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data.

Sequential. Questions or items must be arranged well. It is

recommended to arrange it from simplest to the most complex. In this
way, the instrument will be more favorable to the respondents to answer.
Valid and reliable. The instrument should pass the tests of validity
and reliability to get more appropriate and accurate information.

Easily tabulated. Since you will be constructing an instrument for

quantitative research, this factor should be considered. Hence, before
crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the variable and
research questions are established. These will be an important basis for
making items in the research instruments.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument

There are three ways you can consider in developing the research
instrument for your study. First is adopting an instrument from the already
utilized instruments from previous related studies. The second way is
modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do
not yield the exact data that will answer the research problem. And the
third way is when the researcher made his own instrument that
corresponds to the variable and scope of his current study.
Research Validity of Instruments

Reliability and validity are important aspects of selecting a survey

instrument.  Reliability refers to the extent that the instrument yields the
same results over multiple trials.  Validity refers to the extent that the
instrument measures what it was designed to measure.  In research, there
are three ways to approach validity and they include content validity,
construct validity, and criterion-related validity.

Types of Validity of Instrument

Face Validity.
It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an
initiative judgment of the instruments as it “appear.” Just by
looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.

Content Validity.
An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the
objectives of the study. It is done by checking the statements or questions
if this elicits the needed information. Experts in the field of interest can
also provide specific elements that should be measured by the instrument.

Construct Validity.
It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the
theoretical construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific measure
relates to other measures.
Concurrent Validity.
When the instrument can predict results similar to those similar tests
already validated, it has concurrent validity.

Predictive Validity.
When the instrument is able to produce results similar to those
similar tests that will be employed in the future, it has predictive validity.
This is particularly useful for the aptitude test.
Reliability of Instrument
Test-retest Reliability.
It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of
respondents twice. The consistency of the two scores will be checked.

Equivalent Forms Reliability.

It is established by administering two identical tests except for
wordings to the same group of respondents.

Internal Consistency Reliability.

It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is
reasonable that when a respondent gets a high score in one item, he will
also get one in similar items. There are three ways to measure the internal
consistency; through the split-half coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and
Kuder-Richardson formula.
Data Collection Procedure

Data collection is defined as the procedure of collecting, measuring

and analyzing accurate insights for research using standard validated
techniques. A researcher can evaluate their hypothesis on the basis of
collected data. In most cases, data collection is the primary and most
important step for research, irrespective of the field of research. The
approach of data collection is different for different fields of study,
depending on the required information.

Techniques in Collecting Quantitative DataThe following are the

common quantitative data gathering technique. Each technique
corresponds to specific instrument.

Observation.
It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses.
The researcher records the observation as seen and heard. This is done by
direct observation or indirect observation by the use of gadgets or
apparatus. An observation checklist aid the researcher in recording the
data gathered.

Survey.
Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means
of questionnaire you use series of questions or statements that
respondents will have to answer. Basically, respondents write or choose
their answer from given choices. On the other hand, interview is when you
ask respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are doing
quantitative research, it is expected that responses have numerical value
either it is nominal or ordinal in form.

Experiment.
When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed
in the previous lesson that it would use treatment or intervention. After the
chosen subjects, participants, or respondents undergone the intervention,
the effects of such treatment will be measured.
Data Analysis
Data analysis in research is a process in which gathered
information are summarized in such a manner that it will yield answers to
the research questions. During quantitative data analysis gathered
information were break down and ordered into categories in order to draw
trends or patterns in a certain condition. In quantitative research, the
numerical data collected is not taken as a whole. In order to understand it
better, it is analyze into components based on the chosen research
variables and research questions you are going to answer.

Planning your Data Analysis

Before choosing what statistical test is appropriate for your research
study it is important to determine what statistical formation is applicable to
your current study. In immersing yourself into planning your data analysis,
you have to decide what basic descriptive statistical technique you are
going to use. Although this technique does not give you the degree of
association or effect between variables, this will help you to code and
simply tabulate your data.

Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a summary of

the ordered or sequenced data from your research sample. Frequency
distribution, measure of central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and
standard deviation are the sets of data from descriptive statistics.
Inferential Statistics is used when the research study focuses on finding
predictions; testing hypothesis; and finding interpretations, generalizations,
and conclusions. Since this statistical method is more complex and has
more advanced mathematical computations, you can use computer
software to aid your analysis.

You also have to identify types of statistical analysis of variable in

your quantitative research. A univariate analysis means analysis of one
variable. Analysis of two variables such as independent and dependent
variables refers to bivariate analysis while the multivariate analysis
involves analysis of the multiple relations between multiple variables.

Test of Relationship between Two Variables

 Pearson’s r (parametric)
 Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous
variables)
 Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One Group
 T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
 McNemar change test (non-parametric for nominal and
dichotomous
variables)
 Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two Different

Groups
 T-test for independent samples (parametric)
 Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable)
 Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test More than Two Population Means

 Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric)

Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact

 Regression (parametric)
Chapter IV: Results

The results section is where you report your study's findings based
on the methodology [or methodologies] you used to collect data. The
findings of the research should be stated in a logical sequence, without
bias or interpretation, in the results section. A section describing results is
especially important if your paper includes data from your own research.

The Importance of a Good Results Section

When writing the results section, keep in mind that the findings of a
study do not prove anything. Findings can only confirm or refute the
hypothesis that underpins your research. The act of articulating the results,
on the other hand, assists you in understanding the problem from within,
breaking it down into pieces, and viewing the research problem from
various perspectives.

The amount and type of data to be reported determine the page

length of this section. To present findings more effectively, be concise and
make appropriate use of non-textual elements such as figures and tables.
You must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in
a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be
included as an appendix when deciding what data to describe in your
results section. In general, unless specifically requested by your professor,
raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main
text of your paper.
Avoid providing information that isn't necessary for answering the
research question. Any additional context or explanation required to
understand the results should be provided by the background information
you described in the introduction section. A good strategy is to always re-
read your paper's background section after you've written up your results
to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results
[and, later, how you interpreted the results in your paper's discussion
section].

In general, the following items should be included in your results

section:

 By restating the research problem that underpins your study, you can
provide an introductory context for understanding the results. This is
useful for returning the reader's attention to the research problem
after reading the literature review and your explanation of data
collection and analysis methods.
 Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as figures, charts, photos,
maps, tables, and so on, to further illustrate key findings, if
applicable. Rather than relying solely on descriptive text, consider
how your findings can be presented visually. is a useful method for
condensing a large amount of information into a single location that
can then be referred to in the text. If there are many non-textual
elements, consider referring to appendices.
 A systematic description of your findings, emphasizing observations
that are most relevant to the topic under investigation for the reader.
Not all of the outcomes of the information-gathering methodology
may be related to answering the "So What?" question. Do not
confuse observations with interpretations; in this context,
observations refer to highlighting important findings discovered
through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
 The amount and type of data to be reported determine the page
length of your results section. However, concentrate on findings that
are significant and relevant to resolving the research problem. It is
not uncommon to receive unexpected results that are unrelated to
the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge
tangential findings; in fact, they can be referred to as areas for
further research in your paper's conclusion. Spending time in the
results section describing tangential findings, on the other hand,
clutters your overall results section.

A brief paragraph that summarizes the study's key findings and

concludes the results section. As readers move into the discussion section,
highlight the most important findings you want them to remember. This is
especially important if there are a large number of results to report, the
findings are complicated or unexpected, or they are impactful or actionable
in some way [i.e., can be pursued in a feasible way and applied to
practice].
Quantitative analysis
Quantitative data analysis can be understood as explaining situations
by means of numerical data. In quantitative analysis, we collect numerical
data and analyze it using mathematic methods (in particular statistics). In
order to be able to use mathematic methods, our data has to be in a
numerical form 1.
As quantitative analysis is about collecting numerical data, the
following four specific phenomena are best suited to analyse quantitatively:
a. Questions that demand a quantitative answer, such as: ‘How many
students choose to study social science at higher education?’ Or: ‘How
many maths teachers do we need? Or: How many have we got in our
school/district?’
b. Comparisons of numerical values, for example change prior,
during, or past a time period, or numerical characteristics of
individuals/social groups, such as: ‘Are the numbers of students in our
university rising or falling?’ ‘Is learning achievement going up or down?’
c. Understanding the state of something, or other or to identify
factors for the situation or the change, e.g., factors which predict the
recruitment of math’s teachers. What factors are related to changes in
student achievement over time?
d. The study which needs testing of hypotheses – e.g. whether there
is a relationship between a pupil’s achievement and their self-esteem and
social background. By looking at the theory, a possible hypothesis to test,
would be that a lower social class background leads to low self-esteem,
which would in turn be related to low achievement. Quantitative analysis
can test this kind of model.

The essence of quantitative analysis is to confirm an assumption, or

hypothesis by identifying patterns among a larger sample from a
population and this approach is useful in policymaking and planning.
Chapter V: Discussions

The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the

significance of your findings in light of what was already known about
the research problem being investigated and to explain any new
understanding or insights that emerged as a result of your study of
the problem. The discussion will always connect to the introduction
by way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and the
literature you reviewed, but the discussion does not simply repeat or
rearrange the first parts of your paper; the discussion clearly explain
how your study advanced the reader's understanding of the research
problem from where you left them at the end of your review of prior
research.

How to write a discussion section

The discussion chapter is where you delve into the meaning, importance
and relevance of your results. It should focus on explaining and evaluating
what you found, showing how it relates to your literature
review and research questions, and making an argument in support of your
overall conclusion. There are many different ways to write this section, but
you can focus your discussion around four key elements:

 Interpretations: what do the results mean?

 Implications: why do the results matter?
 Limitations: what can’t the results tell us?
 Recommendations: what practical actions or scientific studies
should follow?
There is often overlap between the discussion and conclusion, and in
some dissertations these two sections are included in a single chapter.
Occasionally, the results and discussion will be combined into one chapter.
If you’re unsure of the best structure for your research, look at sample
dissertations in your field or consult your supervisor.

Summarize your key findings

Start this chapter by reiterating your research problem and concisely

summarizing your major findings. Don’t just repeat all the data you have
already reported – aim for a clear statement of the overall result that
directly answers your main research question. This should be no more than
one paragraph.

Examples

 The results indicate that…

 The study demonstrates a correlation between…
 This analysis supports the theory that…
 The data suggests that…

Give your interpretations

The meaning of the results might seem obvious to you, but it’s
important to spell out their significance for the reader and show exactly
how they answer your research questions.

The form of your interpretations will depend on the type of research,

but some typical approaches to interpreting the data include:
 Identifying correlations, patterns and relationships among the data
 Discussing whether the results met your expectations or supported
your hypotheses
 Contextualizing your findings within previous research and theory
 Explaining unexpected results and evaluating their significance
 Considering possible alternative explanations and making an
argument for your position

You can organize your discussion around key themes, hypotheses or

research questions, following the same structure as your results section.
You can also begin by highlighting the most significant or unexpected
results.

Examples

 In line with the hypothesis…

 Contrary to the hypothesized association…
 The results contradict the claims of Smith (2007) that…
 The results might suggest that X. However, based on the findings of
similar studies, a more plausible explanation is Y.

Discuss the implications

As well as giving your own interpretations, make sure to relate your

results back to the scholarly work that you surveyed in the literature
review. The discussion should show how your findings fit with existing
knowledge, what new insights they contribute, and what consequences
they have for theory or practice. Ask yourself these questions:
 Do your results agree with previous research? If so, what do they
add to it?
 Are your findings very different from other studies? If so, why might
this be?
 Do the results support or challenge existing theories?
 Are there any practical implications?

Your overall aim is to show the reader exactly what your research has
contributed and why they should care.

Examples

 These results build on existing evidence of…

 The results do not fit with the theory that…
 The experiment provides a new insight into the relationship
between…
 These results should be taken into account when considering how
to…
 The data contributes a clearer understanding of…
 While previous research has focused on X, these results demonstrate
that Y.

Acknowledge the limitations

Even the best research has some limitations, and acknowledging

these is important to demonstrate your credibility. Limitations aren’t about
listing your errors, but about providing an accurate picture of what can and
cannot be concluded from your study.

Limitations might be due to your overall research design,

specific methodological choices, or unanticipated obstacles that emerged
during the research process. You should only mention limitations that are
directly relevant to your research objectives, and evaluate how much
impact they had on achieving the aims of the research.

For example, if your sample size was small or limited to a specific

group of people, note that this limits its generalizability. If you encountered
problems when gathering or analyzing data, explain how these influenced
the results. If there are potential confounding variables that you were
unable to control, acknowledge the effect these may have had.

After noting the limitations, you can reiterate why the results are
nonetheless valid for the purpose of answering your research questions.

Examples

 The generalizability of the results is limited by…

 The reliability of this data is impacted by…
 Due to the lack of data on X, the results cannot confirm…
 The methodological choices were constrained by…
 It is beyond the scope of this study to…

What to leave out of the discussion

There are a few common mistakes to avoid when writing the discussion
section of your dissertation.

 Don’t introduce new results – you should only discuss the data that
you have already reported in the results chapter.
 Don’t make inflated claims – avoid over interpretation and
speculation that isn’t supported by your data.
 Don’t undermine your research – the discussion of limitations should
aim to strengthen your credibility, not emphasize weaknesses or
failures.
Chapter VI: Conclusion and Recommendations

How to write a thesis conclusion

The conclusion is the very last part of your thesis or dissertation. Its
main purposes are to:

 Clearly state the answer to the main research question

 Summarize and reflect on the research
 Make recommendations for future work on the topic
 Show what new knowledge you have contributed

The conclusion should be concise and engaging. Aim to leave the reader
with a clear understanding of the main discovery or argument that your
research has advanced.

Discussion vs. conclusion

The conclusion contains similar elements to the discussion, and
sometimes these two sections are combined (especially in shorter papers
and journal articles). But in a thesis or dissertation, it’s usual to include a
final chapter that wraps up your research and gives the reader a final
impression of your work.

The conclusion chapter should be shorter and more general than the
discussion. Instead of discussing specific results and interpreting the data
in detail, here you make broad statements that sum up the most important
insights of the research.

The conclusion should not introduce new data, interpretations, or

arguments.

Length of the conclusion

Depending on the type of thesis, the conclusion should typically be
around 5-7% of the overall word count. An empirical scientific study will
often have a short conclusion that concisely states the main findings and
recommendations, while a humanities thesis might require more space to
conclude its analysis and tie all the chapters together in an overall
argument.

Answer the research question

The conclusion should begin from the main question that your thesis
or dissertation aimed to address. This is your final chance to show that
you’ve done what you set out to do, so make sure to formulate a clear,
concise answer.

Don’t repeat a list of all the results that you already discussed, but
synthesize them into a final takeaway that the reader will remember.

Summarize and reflect on the research

The conclusion is an opportunity to remind the reader why you took
the approach you did, what you expected to find, and how well the results
matched your expectations.

To avoid repetition, instead of just writing a summary of each

chapter, you can write more reflectively here. You might consider how
effective your methodology was in answering your research questions, and
whether any new questions or unexpected insights arose in the process.

You can also mention any limitations of your research if you haven’t
already included these in the discussion. Don’t dwell on them at length,
though – focus on the positives of your work.

Examples

 While X limits the generalizability of the results, this approach

provides new insight into Y.
 This research clearly illustrates X, but it also raises the question of Y.
Make recommendations
You might already have made recommendations for future research
in the discussion, but the conclusion is a good place to elaborate and look
ahead, considering the implications of your findings for theory and practice.

Examples

 Based on these conclusions, practitioners should consider…

 To better understand the implications of these results, future studies
could address…
 Further research is needed to determine the causes of/effects
of/relationship between…

Avoid exaggerating the applicability of your research. If you’re making

recommendations for policy, business or other practical implementation, it’s
generally best to frame them as suggestions rather than imperatives – the
purpose of academic research is to inform, explain and explore, not to
instruct.

If you’re making recommendations for further research, be sure not

to undermine your own work. Future studies might confirm, build on or
enrich your conclusions, but they shouldn’t be required to complete them.

Emphasize your contributions

Make sure your reader is left with a strong impression of what your
research has contributed to knowledge in your field. Some strategies to
achieve this include:

 Returning to your problem statement to explain how your research

helps solve the problem.
 Referring back to the literature review and showing how you have
addressed a gap in knowledge.
 Discussing how your findings confirm or challenge an existing theory
or assumption.
Again, here, try to avoid simply repeating what you’ve already covered
in the discussion. Pick out the most important points and sum them up
with a succinct overview that situates your project in its broader context.

Finish your thesis

The end is near! Once you’ve finished writing your conclusion and
recommendation, it’s time to wrap up your thesis with a few final steps.

It’s a good idea to write the abstract next, while the research is still
fresh in your mind. If you’re not sure where to begin, read our guide
on how to write an abstract.

Then you need to make sure your reference list is complete and

correctly formatted. To speed up the process, you can use our free APA
citation generator.

Once you’ve added any appendices, you can create a table of

contents and title page. Finally, read through the whole document again to
make sure your thesis is clearly written and free from language errors. You
can proofread it yourself, ask a friend.
Research
Portfolio

Mitch L. Rivera
Student

Matthew Garlan
Teacher