MEDICAL IMAGING

Definition

Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to create

images of the human body (or parts thereof) for clinical purposes
(medical procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose or examine disease) or
medical science (including the study of normal anatomy and physiology).

As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part of biological imaging and

incorporates radiology (in the wider sense), radiological sciences,
endoscopy, (medical) thermography, medical photography and
microscopy (e.g. for human pathological investigations).

Measurement and recording techniques which are not primarily designed

to produce images, such as electroencephalography (EEG) and
magnetoencephalography (MEG) and others, but which produce data
susceptible to be represented as maps (i.e. containing positional
information), can be seen as forms of medical imaging.
As a field of scientific investigation, medical imaging
constitutes a sub-discipline of biomedical engineering,
medical physics or medicine depending on the context:
Research and development in the area of
instrumentation, image acquisition (e.g. radiography),
modelling and quantification are usually the preserve of
biomedical engineering, medical physics and computer
science; Research into the application and interpretation
of medical images is usually the preserve of radiology
and the medical sub-discipline relevant to medical
condition or area of medical science (neuroscience,
cardiology, psychiatry, psychology, etc) under
investigation. Many of the techniques developed for
medical imaging also have scientific and industrial
applications.
MODERN IMAGING TECHNOLOGY
• Electron microscopy
• The electron microscope is a microscope that can magnify very
small details with high resolving power due to the use of electrons
as the source of illumination, magnifying at levels up to 10,000,000
times and resolution better than 50pm(pico meter)
• Electron microscopy is employed in anatomic pathology to identify
organelles within the cells. Electron microscopes are used to
investigate the ultrastructure of a wide range of biological and
inorganic specimens including microorganisms, cells,
large molecules, biopsy samples, metals, and crystals.
• Fluoroscopy
• Fluoroscopy produces real-time images of internal structures of the
body in a similar fashion to radiography, but employs a constant
input of x rays. Contrast media, such as barium, iodine, and air are
used to visualize internal organs as they work. Fluoroscopy is also
used in image-guided procedures when constant feedback during a
procedure is required.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• A Magnetic Resonance Imaging instrument (MRI scanner) uses powerful
magnets to polarise and excite hydrogen nuclei (single proton) in water
molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable signal which is spatially
encoded resulting in images of the body. In brief, MRI involves the use of
three kinds of electromagnetic field: a very strong (of the order of units of
teslas) static magnetic field to polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the static
field; a weaker time-varying (of the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding,
called the gradient field(s); and a weak radio-frequency (RF) field for
manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce measurable signals,
collected through an RF antenna.
• Nuclear medicine
• Images from gamma cameras are used in Nuclear Medicine to detect
regions of biological activity that are often associated with diseases. A short
lived isotope, such as 99mTc(Technitium-99m) is administered to the patient.
These isotopes are more readily absorbed by biologically active regions of
the body, such as tumors or fracture points in bones.
• Photoacoustic imaging
• Photoacoustic imaging or optoacoustic imaging is a biomedical imaging
modality based on the photoacoustic effect. Non-ionizing laser pulses are
delivered into biological tissues and part of the energy will be absorbed and
converted into heat and produces ultrasonic emission.Recent studies have
shown that photoacoustic imaging can be used in vivo for tumor
angiogenesis monitoring, blood oxygenation mapping, functional brain
imaging, and skin melanoma detection etc.
• Positron emission tomography (PET)
• Positron emission tomography is primarily used to detect diseases of the
brain and heart. Similarly to nuclear medicine, a short-lived isotope, such as
18F, is incorporated into a substance used by the body such as glucose
which is absorbed by the tumor of interest. PET scans are often viewed
alongside computed tomography scans, which can be performed on the
same equipment without moving the patient. This allows the tumors
detected by the PET scan to be viewed next to the rest of the patient's
anatomy detected by the CT scan.
• Projection radiography
• Radiographs, more commonly known as x-rays,
are often used to determine the type and extent
of a fracture as well as for detecting pathological
changes in the lungs. With the use of radio-
opaque contrast media, such as barium, they
can also be used to visualize the structure of the
stomach and intestines - this can help diagnose
ulcers or certain types of colon cancer.

• Non-diagnostic imaging
• Neuroimaging has also been used in
experimental circumstances to allow people
(especially disabled persons) to control outside
devices, acting as a brain computer interface
• Tomography
• Tomography is the method of imaging a single plane, or slice, of an
object resulting in a tomogram. There are several forms of
tomography:

• Computed Tomography (CT), or Computed Axial

Tomography (CAT):
• A CT scan, also known as a CAT scan, is a helical tomography
(latest generation), which traditionally produces a 2D image of the
structures in a thin section of the body. It uses X-rays. It has a
greater ionizing radiation dose burden than projection radiography;
repeated scans must be limited to avoid health effects.
• Ultrasound

• Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper

audible limit of human hearing. Ultrasound devices operate with
frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz.
• Ultrasonic devices are used to detect objects and measure
distances
• An ultrasound scan uses high-frequency sound waves to create
images of the inside of the body. It is suitable for use during
pregnancy.
• Ultrasound scans, or sonography, are safe because they use sound
waves or echoes to make an image, instead of radiation.
• Ultrasound scans are used to evaluate fetal development, and they
can detect problems in the liver, heart, kidney, or abdomen. They
may also assist in performing certain types of biopsy.
• The image produced is called a sonogram.
MEDICAL IMAGING TOPICS
• Creation of three-dimensional images

• Recently, techniques have been developed to enable CT, MRI and

ultrasound scanning software to produce 3D images for the
physician. Traditionally CT and MRI scans produced 2D static
output on film. To produce 3D images, many scans are made, then
combined by computers to produce a 3D model, which can then be
manipulated by the physician. 3D ultrasounds are produced using a
somewhat similar technique.

• With the ability to visualize important structures in great detail, 3D

visualization methods are a valuable resource for the diagnosis and
surgical treatment of many pathologies. It was a key resource for the
famous, but ultimately unsuccessful attempt by Singaporean
surgeons to separate Iranian twins Ladan and Laleh Bijani in 2003.
The 3D equipment was used previously for similar operations with
great success.
• Other developed techniques include:
• Diffuse optical tomography
• Elastography
• Electrical impedance tomography
• Optoacoustic imaging
• Ophthalmology
– A-scan
– B-scan
– Corneal topography
– Optical coherence tomography
– Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy