1) What is Medical Imaging?

Medical imaging refers to the process of creating visual representations of the interior
of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Common types of medical
imaging techniques include X-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, positron emission tomography (PET), and
nuclear medicine scans.

2) Benefits of Medical Imaging?

1. Early diagnosis: Detects diseases at an early stage for better treatment
outcomes.
2. Precise treatment planning: Helps plan surgeries and therapies with pinpoint
accuracy.
3. Disease monitoring: Tracks disease progression and response to treatment.
4. Supports research/education: Helps medical research and enhances education.
5. Improves patient understanding: Visual images help patients grasp their
conditions.
6. Enhances precision: Provides detailed and accurate diagnostic info.
7. Critical in emergencies: Quickly assesses injuries or conditions in urgent
situations.
3)Determine and draw the medical diagnostic system?
A medical diagnostic system is a specialized software or hardware solution that assists
healthcare professionals in diagnosing medical conditions and diseases. It typically combines
patient data, medical knowledge, and diagnostic algorithms to provide accurate and timely
assessments of a patient's health. These systems can help with early disease detection, treatment
planning, and improving overall patient care.
4) What precautions we must take for reducing x-ray radiation?
1. Limit X-ray Exams: Only undergo X-ray exams when medically necessary. Avoid
unnecessary X-rays.
2. Inform Healthcare Providers: Inform your healthcare provider about any
previous radiation treatments to avoid duplicate exposures.
3. Pregnancy and Children: Special measures may be needed for pregnant women
and children.
4. Digital X-rays: Choose facilities that use digital X-ray technology, which typically
requires less radiation compared to traditional film-based X-rays.
5. Collimation: Ensure that X-ray equipment is properly collimated to focus the
radiation beam only on the area of interest, reducing unnecessary exposure to
surrounding tissues.
6. Ask About Alternative Imaging: In some cases, alternative imaging methods
like ultrasound or MRI may be safer and equally effective without using ionizing
radiation.
7. Follow Recommendations: Follow your healthcare provider's recommendations
regarding X-ray exams and other diagnostic procedures.

5) Describe the underlaying mechanism of Creation of an

ultrasound Image?
Three steps -
I) Producing a sound wave: Ultrasound imaging generates high-frequency sound
waves using a piezoelectric transducer. It produces a focused sound wave. This
wave travels into the body, reflecting off tissue layers.
II) Receiving the echoes: The returned sound wave vibrates the transducer, and the
transducer turns the vibrations into electrical pulses that travel to the ultrasonic
scanner where they are processed.
III) interpreting those echoes & forming images: To create a digital image, think of it
like a spreadsheet. Echo strength determines cell brightness (white for strong, black
for weak), resulting in a greyscale image.
The Ultrasound Machine

# Advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound

Advantages:

1. Safety: No ionizing radiation, making it safe for pregnant women and children’s.
2. Non-invasive: Painless and low risk, requiring no surgical incisions.
3. Real-time imaging: Enables real-time observation of organ function and blood
flow.
4. Portability and cost-effectiveness: Portable and more affordable than other
imaging modalities.
5. Versatility: Can examine various body parts and systems effectively.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited tissue access: Less effective for imaging deep structures, especially in fat
patients.
2. Operator-dependence: Image quality relies on the operator's skill, leading to
variability in diagnostic accuracy.
3. Artifacts: Ultrasound images can be affected by artifacts.
4. Image interpretation challenges: Complex cases or compromised image quality
can hinder accurate interpretation.
6) Modes of Ultrasound
1. A-Mode (Amplitude Mode):
#Records echo amplitudes over time,
#useful for measuring distances within tissues and identifying boundaries.
2. B-Mode (Brightness Mode):
#Produces a 2D grayscale image representing tissue density,
#allowing visualization of structures like organs, tumors.
3. M-Mode (Motion Mode): Provides a time-motion display, helpful for observing
moving structures like heart valves or fetal heartbeats.
4. Doppler Mode: Evaluates blood flow by measuring the Doppler shift in sound
waves reflected by moving blood cells. It's used in vascular and cardiac studies.
5. Color Doppler: Displays blood flow direction.

7)Describe the mechanism of B-mode and D-mode

operations of ultrasound imaging?
B-Mode ultrasound imaging:

1. Sound Emission: High-frequency sound waves (2-18 MHz) are emitted by a

transducer.
2. Propagation: Sound waves travel into the body, reflecting off different tissues
and structures.
3. Echo Reception: The same transducer receives echoes from tissues.
4. Processing: The ultrasound machine analyzes echo timing and strength,
creating a grayscale image. Brightness corresponds to echo intensity.
5. Display: A 2D grayscale image appears on the screen, visualizing internal
structures.
D-Mode ultrasound imaging:

1. Sound Emission: High-frequency sound waves, similar to B-Mode, are emitted

by a transducer.
2. Propagation: These waves travel into the body and interact with moving blood
cells.
3. Doppler Effect: Blood cell motion alters wave frequency (Doppler shift).
4. Echo Reception: The transducer receives reflected waves, including Doppler-
shifted frequencies.
5. Processing: The machine calculates blood flow speed and direction from
frequency shifts.
6. Display: Doppler imaging reveals blood flow patterns, especially in arteries, veins,
and the heart.

8) Compare the Doppler ultrasound and contrast ultrasound

system?

Doppler Ultrasound: Doppler ultrasound is a medical imaging technique that counts

blood flow within the body by measuring changes in the frequency of reflected sound
waves from moving blood cells.

Contrast Ultrasound: Contrast ultrasound is a medical imaging technique that

enhances the visualization of blood vessels and organs.

Aspect Doppler Ultrasound Contrast Ultrasound

Purpose Counts blood flow Enhance vessel visualization.

Applications Vascular studies Cardiology, liver imaging

Aspect Doppler Ultrasound Contrast Ultrasound

Contrast Agent Contrast Agent not needed Needed

Visualization Quality Blood flow details Improved contrast and detail

Safety Generally safe Involves contrast agent risk

• 9) Brain scanning techniques are medical and scientific methods used to visualize
and examine the brain's anatomy, function, and activity.

• Structural MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

• Functional MRI (fMRI)

• PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

• SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography)

• EEG (Electroencephalography)

• MEG (Magnetoencephalography)

• DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging)

• CT (Computed Tomography)
10)Working principle of CT scans, X-ray, MRI?

CT-SCANS-
1. X-ray Beams: A CT scanner sends out X-ray beams, which are like invisible rays
of light.
2. Patient in Scanner: You lie on a table, and the scanner moves you.The machine
rotates around you, taking X-ray pictures from many angles.
3. X-ray Absorption: Different parts of your body absorb X-rays differently. Bones
absorb more, while soft tissues absorb less.
4. Computer Magic: A computer combines all the X-ray pictures to create detailed
cross-sectional images of your body.
5. Image Results: These images help doctors see inside your body, find issues like
tumors or injuries, and plan treatments.

# artifacts in CT imaging:

1. Metallic artifacts: Distortions caused by metal objects like dental fillings or

implants, leading to streaks in the image.
2. Motion artifacts: Blurring or ghosting caused by patient movement during
scanning.
3. Partial volume artifacts: Blurring at the edges of different tissues due to
overlapping densities.
4. Ring artifacts: Circular patterns in images due to issues with the CT scanner's
detectors.
5. Noise artifacts: Grainy patterns caused by low image quality, affecting clarity.

X-ray:
1. X-ray Machine: The X-ray machine contains an X-ray tube which is the source of
x-ray. The tube consist of a cathode and an anode. Electrons produced at the
cathode are accelerated toward the anode, creating X-rays.
2. Patient's Position: The person is placed in front of the X-ray machine.
3. X-ray Absorption: X-rays go through the body, but different parts of the body
absorb them differently. Bones absorb a lot (show up white), while softer parts
absorb less (appear darker).
4. X-ray Detector: On the other side of the body, there's a detector that captures
the X-rays that come through.
5. Image Creation: The detector records the X-rays and turns them into a picture
on a computer. This picture shows the insides of the body.
6. Doctor's Review: A doctor looks at the X-ray picture to check for any problems
or conditions.

MRI:
1. Big Magnet: MRI uses a giant magnet.
2. Inside the Magnet: When you go inside the MRI machine, the magnet makes
the water molecules in your body line up.
3. Radio Waves: Then, the machine sends radio waves into your body.
4. Signal Emission: The radio waves make the water molecules move, and when
they stop moving, they send out signals.
5. Signal Detection: Special detectors pick up these signals and send them to a
computer.
6. Image Creation: The computer uses signals to create detailed images of the
inside of your body.
7. Doctor's Analysis: Doctors look at these images to see your organs, bones, and
other body parts, helping with diagnoses and treatments.
11)Compare the X-ray ,CT and MRI system based on their
advantages, disadvantages and applications?

Aspect X-ray CT Scan MRI

Detailed cross-sectional images

Quick and widely available Excellent soft tissue images

Visualizes organs and soft

Good for bones and lungs tissues. Safe, no radiation

Advantages Lower cost Detects tumors and injuries Good for brain and joints

Longer scan times.

Uses radiation, potentially Involves radiation, higher cancer Not suitable for some
harmful. risk. patients

Disadvantages Limited soft tissue detail Not safe during pregnancy Higher cost

Soft tissues like brain,

Detailed internal structures muscles

Applications Bone fractures, lung issues

12)Differences between MRI and fMRI?

Aspect MRI fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging )

Visualizes anatomical structures and

Purpose tissues. Measures brain activity and function

Produces detailed anatomical images of Generates dynamic images showing brain activity
Image Type the body. over time.

Main Used for diagnosing medical conditions

Application and anatomical studies used in neuroscience to study brain function

Image Shows static and high-resolution Presents dynamic and time-varying images
Appearance images of body structures with color-coded activation maps

13)CT artifacts:
1. CT Artifacts: CT artifacts are like glitches or errors in CT scan pictures.
2. Sources: They can happen because of things like patients moving, metal
objects in the body, or problems with the CT machine.
3. Effects: These errors can make the CT images unclear, making it challenging for
doctors to see what's happening inside the body.
4. Prevention: Radiology experts work to prevent and reduce these artifacts by
adjusting settings, using contrast, and maintaining the CT machine.
5. Importance: Reducing artifacts is crucial because clear and accurate CT images
are essential for diagnosing and treating medical conditions.
14)Advantages and disadvantages of DTI-

Advantages of DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging):

1. Shows Brain Wiring: DTI helps see how the brain's "wires" are connected.
2. Detects Brain Issues: It can spot problems like brain injuries, tumors, and
diseases.
3. Useful in Research: Scientists use DTI to study the brain and learn about
conditions and brain functions.

Disadvantages of DTI:

1. Complex Data: DTI data can be hard to understand and needs experts to
interpret.
2. Sensitive to Movement: Even small patient movements can mess up the images.
3. Not for Everything: It's not the best for tiny brain structures and may not work
well in some brain areas.
4. Needs Other Tests: Usually, DTI is used with other tests to make a full diagnosis.

15)Advantages and disadvantages of DOT-

Advantages of DOT(Diffuse Optical Tomography):

1. Safe and Non-Invasive: DOT doesn't use harmful radiation or contrast

agents, making it safe for patients.
2. Good for Soft Tissues: It's great at imaging soft tissues like the brain and
muscles.
3. Functional Info: DOT can show how tissues work, such as measuring blood
flow and oxygen levels.

Disadvantages of DOT:
1. Shallow Imaging: It can't see deep into the body; it's best for near-surface
tissues.
2. Not Very Detailed: DOT doesn't provide very detailed images, so it's not great
for small structures.
3. Slower Imaging: It takes longer to get images with DOT, which might not work
for some situations or restless patients.

Q16.Difference between radiology and radiography?

Q. Nuclear Medicine: uses radioactive materials to diagnose and treat various

conditions. It provides insights into organ function and metabolism. Some common

nuclear medicine techniques include: SPECT, PET, Thyroid scans, renal scans etc. Nuclear
medicine plays a crucial role in cancer staging, evaluating brain function, and assessing
organ health.
Q. The uses of nuclear medicine:
Diagnostic Imaging: Identifying tumors, assessing organ function, evaluating bone
health, and monitoring thyroid conditions.
Cancer Management: Staging tumors, assessing treatment efficacy, and delivering
targeted therapies.
Cardiovascular Assessment: Evaluating cardiac function, diagnosing heart conditions,
and assessing blood flow.
Therapeutic Applications: Treating thyroid disorders and providing targeted radiation
therapy for specific cancers.

Q Endoscopy:
Endoscopy is a medical procedure that involves inserting a flexible, illuminated tube
(endoscope) with a camera or light source on its tip into the body to visualize internal
structures. Endoscopy is used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, including the
examination of abnormal tissues, biopsies, removal of polyps, and placement of stents.

Q. SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography): SPECT is a nuclear

medicine imaging technique that uses gamma-ray to create three-dimensional
images of the distribution of radioactivity within the body. It involves rotating a gamma
camera around the patient to acquire multiple images from different angles, which are
then reconstructed to produce cross-sectional images.

Q. PET (Positron Emission Tomography): PET is another nuclear medicine imaging

technique that involves injecting a positron-emitting radioactive materials into the
body. As the positrons interact with electrons, they emit gamma rays that are
detected by a PET scanner. PET provides functional information about metabolic
activity and tissue function. It's used to study cancer, neurological disorders, and
cardiovascular diseases.

Q.differences between ECG and EEG tabular representation?

Characteristics ECG (Electrocardiogram) EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Purpose Measures the electrical activity of the Measures the electrical activity of the brain
heart

Electrode Placed on the chest and limbs Placed on the scalp

Placement

Typical Waveform P, Q, R, S, and T waves representing Alpha, beta, delta, and theta waves
cardiac activity representing brain activity

Frequency Range Lower frequency range Higher frequency range

Q. Noise in medical imaging refers to unwanted distortions in the acquired image.

Q.Here's a tabular representation of common types of noise in medical imaging and

their corresponding filters used for noise reduction:

Type of Noise Corresponding Filter

Gaussian noise Gaussian filter

Salt and Pepper noise Median filter

Speckle noise Anisotropic diffusion filter

Motion artifacts Motion compensation filter

Ring artifacts Ring artifact correction filter

Type of Noise Corresponding Filter

Partial volume effect Partial volume correction filter

Q. the adaptive median filter has three purposes:

-Remove impulse noise

-Provide smoothing of other noise

-Reduce distortion

Q. We can consider a noisy image to be modelled as follows:

g(x,y)=f(x,y)+ η (x,y)

where f(x, y) is the original image pixel,

η(x, y) is the noise term and g(x, y) is the

resulting noisy pixel
Q. Working principle of medical thermography with proper
diagram?

Infrared radiation detection: Infrared cameras detect the heat radiating from the
body's surface.
Heat patterns and temperature distribution: Temperature variations are translated
into a color-coded thermal image, where warmer areas appear as lighter colors and
cooler areas as darker colors.
Physiological significance: Abnormal temperature patterns can signify physiological
changes such as inflammation, altered blood flow, or metabolic activity, indicating
potential health conditions.