The History Student’s Handbook

A Short Guide to Writing History Essays

© 2022 Department of History, University of Calgary

Table of Contents
Introduction 2

Part I: The Pre-Writing Process 3

Finding a Topic 3
Formulating Research Questions 4
Finding Sources 5
Evaluating Printed and Internet Sources 6
Interrogating Sources 6
Reading and Note Taking 8
Preparing a Proposal 9
Composing a Thesis Statement 9
Assembling Notes and Preparing an Outline 10

Part II: The Writing Process 11

Audience, Voice and Tense 11
The Introduction 11
The Body 12
Using Quotations Effectively 13
Reference Notes and Introducing Sources 14
Plagiarism 15
The Conclusion 16
Rewriting and Proofreading 16

Part III: Reviews and Analyses 17

The Art of Criticism 17
The Introduction 17
The Body 18
Quotations and Referencing 19
The Conclusion 19

Part IV: Style and Referencing 21

Presentation 21
Grammar and Style 22
Common Grammar and Punctuation Mistakes 22
Notes and Bibliographies 24
Note Format 24
Examples of Citations 26
Bibliographical Format 34
Annotated Bibliographies 34

Appendices 35

Further Resources 38

1
Introduction
History is a discipline based on interpretation, debate, analysis, and synthe-
sis. Because of this, history essays are more than narrative accounts of the
past. The purpose of a history essay is to communicate useful conclusions
about past events in a purposeful and persuasive manner. History essays
that are mere narratives of historical events without being analytical are,
therefore, of limited value. Analytical essays are also called argumentative
ones, because you are trying (which is what essayer means in French) to
convince the reader of your point of view. The argument developed
throughout the paper must be persuasive, which means that it is supported
with evidence and analysis. This is not the same as an argument that is
merely asserted, which, though often written using confident language,
lacks evidence and analysis. To make your argument as objective and per-
suasive as possible, use counter-arguments and counter-evidence to show
why your idea is the more correct one.

No matter what historians choose to study, our principal task is to under-

stand events with objectivity (without bias) and in relation to their proper
historical context, which is also known as empathy. This means examining
and explaining events of the past according to the beliefs, rules, and cus-
toms governing that society, rather than according to one’s personal be-
liefs, one’s own culture, or the modern world. For example, it would not
make sense to criticize a seventeenth-century absolutist government on the
grounds that it was not democratic, because the notion of democracy was
not established until much later. Such arguments are anachronistic, which
means imposing modern ideas on the past. This approach does not main-
tain historical perspective or empathy because people cannot be expected
to hold ideas that did not exist in their time.

Displaying objectivity and perspective also means not making moralistic

arguments or value judgments. We are often troubled by the amount of
violence in history and are shocked to learn about abuses of what we today
call human rights. Although statements about the particular immorality or
injustice of an individual or state are not always out of place in historical
essays, we must be careful to take into account the prevailing norms and
practices of the period in question. Your job is to explain how and why an
event occurred, not to criticize the fact that it occurred. It would be inap-
propriate to argue that the Spanish should not have conquered the Aztec
in the sixteenth century, because the simple fact is that these events did
happen. Objectively explaining events that seem amoral to you does not
mean that you morally agree with what happened, but rather shows that
you can understand these events in their proper, historical context.

2
Part I: The Pre-Writing Process
Writing a history paper requires much more than just sitting down at a
computer. It involves a lot of early planning, detailed research, critical
thinking, skilled organization, and careful writing and rewriting. The first
rule of essay writing is to start early so that you have plenty of time to
follow these steps. An essay that is hastily conceived, researched, orga-
nized, or written will inevitably be lacking in essential components, which
will always result in a lower grade.

Historical Method

Historians usually use the inductive rather than the deductive method when
writing essays. The inductive method involves moving from the specific (a
focused topic and research question) to the general, using fact- and inter-
pretation-based analysis of discrete historical evidence to arrive at conclu-
sions that reflect on phenomena beyond the topic under investigation. The
deductive method, by contrast, involves moving from the general (a hy-
pothesis, theory, or informed assumption) to the specific and arriving at
conclusions by testing the validity of the initial assumption. Although cer-
tain historians employ the deductive method (or a “top down” approach),
most employ the inductive method (or a “bottom up” approach) to allow
for an open-ended inquiry into their topic without preexisting assump-
tions.

Finding a Topic

Sometimes your instructor will assign a specific topic for investigation and
provide the research materials that are necessary to complete the paper.
More commonly, you will be required to select your own subject and then
conduct a search for materials. The topic should be one that is interesting
to you. A topic that engages your interest will be more enjoyable to re-
search and write about, will result in more valuable findings, and will sus-
tain your enthusiasm for an extended period of time. If you feel compelled
to choose a topic about which you have a strong moral or ethical opinion,
be careful to gather materials that express opinions on all sides so that your
own biases do not overwhelm the paper. The topic you choose must also
be relevant to the themes, questions, or issues addressed in your course.
Reviewing your class notes or speaking to your instructor about a topic
raised in class or readings will help you select a topic that will contribute
specific knowledge to the course. After selecting a topic, ask yourself the
following questions:

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Is the topic sufficiently focused and narrow? If not, you might not be able to do justice to the
topic in the prescribed length or scope of the assignment.

Is the topic feasible? If there are not likely to be enough sources available, or if you do not
have the necessary technical or language skills, think about another topic.

Does the topic have enough originality and probative value? Because the key purpose of writing a
history essay is to put forward an argument, a topic about which a lot has been written or
about which there is no debate might not lend itself to these goals. The topic should
contribute to existing scholarship and should not be excessively petty.

Can I use the subject to demonstrate my ability to research, interpret, organize, and convey important
ideas? These, in addition to a good writing style and presentation, are the aspects of the
paper that professors are evaluating.

If the answer to any of these questions is “no”, consider revising your topic
or choosing a new one. Most people will select and reject several topics
before finding one that meets all of these criteria.

Formulating Research Questions

After choosing your topic, develop one or two questions that you must
answer to make a contribution to knowledge in the subject area. Preparing
such questions in advance, even though they are likely to change as you
perform your research, will help you choose appropriate sources, read
them more effectively, and avoid the tendency merely to narrate facts and
events with no specific purpose in mind. It is important that your research
questions are able to be answered using proper historical research tech-
niques. They should also reflect the time period and subject matter being
studied, and avoid anachronism, modern prejudice, moral judgement, and
bias. For example, a question such as “How could people believe in witch-
craft in early modern Europe?” is not appropriate because it is not empa-
thetic to the time period, and a question such as “What would have hap-
pened if Adolf Hitler won World War II?” is not appropriate, because it is
counter-factual, or ahistorical.

Research questions should be open-ended (rather than having simple yes-

no answers) and have the potential to offer complex answers that will ad-
vance research and knowledge. Thus, avoid questions such as “How many
people died during the Vietnam War?” or “When did Marco Polo travel to
China?,” which are easily answered and will not lead to valuable conclu-
sions. Beginning research questions with phrases such as “To what ex-
tent,” “How did,” “Why did,” or “In what ways,” are helpful ways to pro-
duce open-ended, empathetic questions. Because history uses an inductive
rather than a deductive method, avoid questions are that framed as hy-
potheses subject to testing.

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Finding Sources

After arriving at your topic and principal research questions it is time to

look for appropriate source materials. Remember to use the range and
number of sources required by your instructor. Many history essays will
require the use of both primary and secondary sources and can be re-
searched using tertiary sources.

Primary sources are documents or artifacts that were written or created in

the time period you are studying. They can be manuscripts (handwritten),
which are sometimes transcribed and assembled into digital collections or
books; typed, unpublished documents (such as letters and memoranda); or
published documents (such as novels or court cases), which are sometimes
available as, or assembled into, books. Primary sources are not always easy
to find and sometimes their availability will help to determine or narrow
your project. The internet is sometimes a good place to look for primary
sources, provided that they come from a reliable institution.
Examples of Primary Sources
Diaries and journals
Newspapers and magazines
Census data and statistics
Fictional literature (poetry, novels, and plays)
Non-fictional literature (scholarly treatises, propaganda, conduct books)
Official records (memoranda, position papers, charters, court cases)
Artifacts (coins, stamps, maps)

Secondary sources are scholars’ interpretations of primary sources or cri-

tiques of other scholars’ ideas. Secondary sources can be found in univer-
sity and public libraries and on the internet using search engines such as
JSTOR and Historical Abstracts, which may be accessed through the Univer-
sity of Calgary library website.
Examples of Secondary Sources
Journal articles provide the results of research on a focused subject
Monographs are books that address, in detail, a single subject
Edited collections are essays bound in a book covering a single subject
Book reviews are historians’ critiques of monographs and collections

Tertiary sources summarize, consolidate, or identify primary and second-

ary sources but do not offer original testimony or conclusions. They can
help with locating materials on your topic quickly and efficiently.
Examples of Tertiary Sources
Tables of contents, timelines, and indexes
Concordances (lists of words used in bodies of work)
Databases (often located through library websites)
Encyclopedia entries
Footnotes and bibliographies (useful for citation-mining in order to find relevant)

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Evaluating Printed and Internet Sources

Always evaluate the usefulness of a source before devoting too much time
to reading it. Poor sources often lack the academic rigour that is present in
better sources and their use can result in weak argumentation and errors
of fact or interpretation.
Examples of Poor Sources
Popular history (works written by amateurs or published by non-academic presses)
Textbooks and class lecture notes (these works are not well referenced)
Encyclopedia and dictionaries (good for facts but not analysis)
Works with obvious biases that are unsupported by reputable historical evidence
Personal web sites or sites that come from a commercial institution
Works that do not look scholarly or professional (no notes or poor quality)

Examples of Better Sources

Works whose argument is still relevant (it has not become outdated or superseded by
more recent scholarship)
Books or journals published by university presses or other academic presses
(these works have been reviewed by other scholars prior to publication)
Works with extensive notes and/or bibliographies
Internet sources from reliable institutions

Students must be cautious when seeking information on the internet. Be

wary of materials from interest groups, certain political parties or individ-
uals, fringe news outlets, and social media. Just because the opinions ex-
pressed on these sites are published, this does not make them true or reli-
able. Reliable internet sites are usually (though not always) those with ex-
tensions such as .edu (an educational institution) and .ca, .uk, and .gov
(material deriving from Canadian, British, and American governments).
Major news outlets, such as CNN, BBC, CBC, etcetera, are likely to be
objective, but you should verify all information you get from these sites.
Avoid sites ending in .com, as these are commercial sites that can be pur-
chased by anybody. Never reference Wikipedia or similar online sources
unless this is explicitly allowed in the assignment. Material that appears
elsewhere in print (especially academic journal articles) should be cited in-
stead of the electronic version. When in doubt, ask your instructor about
using internet sources.

Interrogating Sources

In addition to evaluating the overall quality and value of a source, it is also

necessary to interrogate sources, or ask a series of questions about them.
Reading historical sources presents challenges for historians because they
are not always (or even usually) objective accounts of the past. To use the
source effectively and account for its limitations, it is necessary to interro-
gate each source by asking and answering a series of questions. As a start-
ing point, for each source ask the “five W’s”:

6
Who wrote the source?
When was the source created?
Why was the source created?
Where was the source created?
What does the source reveal about historical events?

In some cases, it might not be possible to answer each of these questions.

For example, some sources are written anonymously and the author re-
mains unknown. In the case of manuscripts and similar documents, it can
be difficult to date the sources precisely, or to know where they were pro-
duced. For most sources, deeper levels of interrogation are necessary to
make the most effective use of the source and ensure that your interpreta-
tion of it is not limited by simply accepting the source at face value.
Questions for Primary Sources

Is the source authentic? Is the source what it purports to be? Could it be a forgery? Historians
use techniques such as paleography (examining handwriting styles), philology (examining
the structure of language), diplomatics (assessing conventions, formulae, and protocol at
the time the source was allegedly written), and the dating of paper and ink to ensure that
the source is authentic. Not all of these techniques will be possible unless the historian is
using the document in its original form.

How reliable is the source? Was the author in a position to comment on the historical events?
Was she or he present when the events occurred or is this third-party testimony? It is
based on immediate reporting or later reflection? Is the account consistent with other
versions of the event being examined?

Is there evidence of influence or bias? What compelled the author to produce the source? Was
she or he paid or asked to prepare it and, if so, does this impact its content? Did the
author’s (or influencer’s) position, beliefs, racial or ethnic prejudices, educational level,
gender, or other factors, motivate him or her to narrate events in a certain way? Be cau-
tious, however, not to assume bias merely because of the presence of these factors; evi-
dence of bias must also be present in the text. Was the work subject to censorship, polit-
ical correctness, or other factors that might have distorted the text?

Is there evidence of unwitting testimony? Unwitting testimony is evidence that was not intended
to be provided by the author but which can be helpful in revealing cultural norms and
beliefs, the author’s personal opinions, or interpretations of events. Sometimes, unwitting
testimony can be more useful to historians because authors become “witnesses in spite
of themselves.” By contrast, witting testimony is deliberate or intentional evidence given
by the author, which might have been designed to communicate a specific meaning or
message and can sometimes be less valuable.

Questions for Secondary Sources

What methodology or theory is employed in the source? Does the author rely on empirical evidence,
statistics, debate, analysis, a particular theory or type of historical inquiry? Does this ap-
proach suggest strengths or limitations in the analysis? Does it reflect a valid historical
methodology?

7
What is the intended audience of the source? Was it written for academics, students, the general
public, government officials, or museum attendees? How does this impact the quality or
effectiveness of the source for historical research?

What is the author’s source base? Is the source grounded in primary or secondary sources?
What is the balance between different types of sources and is this balance effective in
producing high-quality scholarship? How are the sources used (for example, as back-
ground, evidence, or critical engagement)? Are there limitations in the sources (for exam-
ple, incomplete sets of records on a particular event), and are there weaknesses in how
the sources are used (for example, too much dependence on unreliable testimony)?

What are the author’s arguments and conclusions? Is there a clearly-stated thesis statement or
argument? Does it answer the research questions and reflect the evidence presented?
Does it develop from a natural spirit or logic of inquiry? Is it based too much on assertion
and inference rather than evidence and analysis? Does the evidence used suggest another
argument or interpretation?

The answers to these various questions do not necessarily render a source

useless for historical research, as all sources have strengths, weaknesses,
and limitations, but they should be taken into account and balanced with
other sources to arrive at the most accurate, fact- and interpretation-based
understanding of the topic under investigation.

Reading and Note Taking

Historians read source material carefully and smartly. It is not always nec-
essary to read every word, nor to read an entire book or article if the ma-
terial you require is represented in a small portion of the complete work.
Tertiary sources such as indexes and tables of contents can help you locate
the information you need without having to read material that is not help-
ful in answering the research questions. Good writers will have their argu-
ment and structure laid out in the introduction and conclusion and will
often begin paragraphs with topic sentences. These will help you determine
the usefulness of a source or a portion of a source quickly. While reading,
take notes that will help you understand, evaluate, and synthesize your sub-
ject. Although some students prefer today to take notes on a computer, a
pad of paper is often best, because this reduces the recording of irrelevant
information and might be easier to organize later. Above all, your notes
should focus on answering your research questions. Direct quotations
should be recorded sparingly, because they will be used sparingly in the
essay. Instead, paraphrase and summarize the author’s argument. Before
moving on to the next source, jot down your own ideas about the source,
so that you can build on this in the essay. Remember to record the com-
plete citation (see Part IV below) and page numbers of all quoted and par-
aphrased materials. Failure to do so may result in a desperate return to the
library to find citation details that you should have recorded in the first
place. Careless note-taking is also a leading cause of unintentional plagia-
rism, which is discussed in more detail in Part II.

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Composing a Thesis Statement

After you have read and taken notes on your source material, it is time to
prepare a thesis statement, or argument. This statement, usually consisting
of one, complex sentence, is the answer to your principal research ques-
tion, not the question itself. It is the sole argument to be proven through-
out the paper and all of your evidence must relate somehow to the thesis
statement. A good thesis statement is one whose argument is aggressive, sus-
tainable, and stands in need of proof to be correct. A weak thesis statement is
one whose argument is obvious to the reader, cannot be proven objec-
tively, or does not stand in need of proof. Be careful not to develop a thesis
statement that contains broad generalizations or personal opinion. Con-
sider the following examples:

World War I was the worst war in history. This statement is aggressive and stands in need of
proof, but it is not sustainable because it is a personal opinion that cannot be proven in
an objective manner.

World War I was a conflict between European powers. This statement contains a weak, obvious
generality without an argument to be proven. It is not aggressive and does not stand in
need of proof.

World War I was the result of various international power struggles in Europe. This statement is
sustainable and stands in need of proof, but it is not very aggressive and is too broad to
be proven.

World War I resulted from the coming together of various long-term and short-term international power
struggles, best characterized by a series of preconditions, precipitants, and triggers. This statement is
aggressive, sustainable, and stands in need of proof. It also indicates the structure of the
paper, which is an optional component of a thesis statement.

Preparing a Proposal

At this stage of the project, your instructor will sometimes ask for an essay
proposal. The purpose of the proposal is to convince the reader that the
project is sustainable, that the sources selected are sufficient and useful,
and that a persuasive argument can or has been formulated. Proposals are
normally between one and four pages long, and might also be accompanied
by an annotated bibliography of sources (see Part IV below.) The proposal
– which must be written in prose, not point form – answers the following
questions:

ü What is your topic and how is it defined (thematically, chronologically)?

ü What is/are your principal research question(s) and why?
ü Why is your project interesting and important?
ü What sources are you going to use? Why are these the best sources?
ü Is there a methodology you are applying and, if so, why is it appropriate?
ü What preliminary conclusions have you formed?

9
Once the proposal is returned with comments, it might be necessary to
focus the topic more, return to the library for additional sources, modify
your research questions, develop a more persuasive argument, or even
abandon the project and begin a new one.

Assembling Notes and Preparing an Outline

Now that you have a thesis statement that needs to be proven, develop an
outline. Sometimes it is helpful to “brainstorm” the topic for five minutes.
Take out a piece of paper, set a timer, and write down everything you know
about your topic in a flow chart. When the timer goes off, look at your
results and pull the ideas together to form various sub-themes of your
topic. Then prepare the outline, which will help to ensure that the paper is
highly organized, focused on the thesis statement, and contains all the ev-
idence necessary to prove your argument. For example:

I. Introduction: state topic and thesis statement, give structure of paper

II. Preconditions (“Long term” causes)
a. Anglo and Franco-German Rivalry (arms race)
b. Triple Entente and Triple Alliance
c. African imperialism
III. Precipitants (“Short term” causes)
a. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
b. “48-hour ultimatum”
c. The Forming of Alliances
IV. Triggers (“Immediate” causes)
a. Schlieffen Plan
b. Invasion of Belgium
c. British ultimatum
V. Conclusion: restate thesis statement; why is this paper important?

Outlines can be much more complex than the one in this example. They
often include the specific pieces of evidence that will be used to prove each
theme and sub-theme. Good writers often go through several outlines be-
fore arriving at one that will result in a top-quality essay. After you have
completed the outline, look at each theme to be addressed closely and
identify any weak areas. Once the outline is completed to your satisfaction,
assemble your notes in the order you will need them during the writing
process. It might be necessary at this point to make a final trip to the library
to research specific items.

10
Part II: The Writing Process
There are numerous techniques writers use to prepare the draft of an essay.
Some begin with the introduction and write the paper to its conclusion.
Others write paragraphs for each theme, assemble the paper, and then
write the introduction and conclusion. Whatever system you use, all history
papers are written for a certain audience, and they all require an introduc-
tion, body, and conclusion.

Audience, Voice and Tense

Essays are always written for an audience, which is the person who will be
reading the paper. Unless you are told otherwise, assume that your audi-
ence is a person exactly like yourself: mature, intelligent, and interested,
with a similar educational background and body of knowledge but not nec-
essarily an expert. This is sometimes called the “enthusiastic amateur” au-
dience. Do not assume that your audience is your instructor – even though
this is usually the case – and that, therefore, you do not have to explain key
terms or write in a manner that reflects clarity, conciseness, and precision.
If you or a fellow student would require a definition, clarification, or ex-
planation, then provide these to your reader.

Always write in the active voice. This means writing prose that is direct
and persuasive. Passive writing is weak, wordy, and less compelling. An
example of passive writing would be, “You should try to make sure that
your writing is done in the active voice,” instead of the shorter and more
compelling version written above. Voice also refers to who is doing the
speaking. Be careful to indicate whether the ideas you express are your own
or are derived from a primary or secondary source. Although it is accepta-
ble today to use the pronoun “I” to indicate your own voice, ensure that it
is used in an objective rather than a subjective manner. (When in doubt,
speak to your instructor.) Historians, as opposed to writers in related dis-
ciplines, such as literature and political science, generally write about the
past in the past tense and reserve the present tense only for present-day
events. Using words that imply the past tense infuse a correct historical
perspective into your writing.

The Introduction

An introduction fulfills a number of tasks. It reveals your topic and its

relevance, establishes the chronological and thematic parameters of the pa-
per, provides any necessary definitions, and states the argument and the
manner in which the paper will proceed to prove the thesis statement. If

11
your topic is one that has been debated by historians, it will also be neces-
sary in the introduction to position your argument within the current de-
bate. Although the introduction is often referred to as a “reverse pyramid,”
moving from the general to the specific, do not begin your paper with
broad generalities and rhetorical statements such as “Since the beginning
of time” or “Throughout recorded history.” Be careful that your introduc-
tion, and indeed the entire paper, does not contain value judgments or
subjective ideas, such as “I think World War I was a bad war that should
not have happened,” which reveal poor historical perspective and are im-
possible to prove using historical evidence. In most undergraduate history
papers, the introduction is one paragraph long, although papers written for
senior courses might be several pages so that the nature of the debate can
be explained fully. The introduction is normally about 10% of the total
length of the paper. Although many students write the introduction quickly
in order to move to the body of the essay, this is a mistake. A clear, concise,
and precise statement of your topic, thesis, and structure sets the tone for
the essay and can make the difference between “A” and “B” papers.

The Body

The body of the paper is where you introduce each theme, explain its rel-
evance to the thesis statement, and offer the evidence, interpretation, and
critical and abstract thinking necessary to prove your argument. The struc-
ture of your essay will depend on the topic and the thesis. Contrary to what
we are often told, the formulaic “five paragraph essay,” with an introduc-
tion, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion, is rarely useful. Instead, the
essay will require as many paragraphs as you have themes and sub-themes
to develop. Nor should essays be structured according to the strategic
placement of “stronger” and “weaker” arguments. There is no place for a
weak argument in a history essay. The structure of most history essays is
either chronological (maintaining the timeline of events), thematic (dis-
cussing similar types of evidence, events, individuals, or works together),
or a combination of the two so that you can reflect on cause (why some-
thing happened) and effect (what changes it caused).

Essays are always written in paragraph form and lengthier papers (15 pages
or more) are sometimes divided into sub-headings to indicate the transition
between themes. Sub-headings are discouraged in shorter papers because
often the result is an essay that is choppy and poorly organized. Avoid the
use of paragraphs that are too small or too large. Small paragraphs, usually
of only one or two sentences, are ineffective and suggest poor organization
and journalistic writing (that is, writing for a popular rather than an aca-
demic audience). Large paragraphs, of greater than one page, suggest that
the author has not taken enough time during the outline stage to group the
evidence together effectively. As a rule of thumb, good paragraphs are

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about 100 to 250 words long, or five to ten sentences. (For example, this
paragraph contains 150 words and seven sentences, and the next paragraph
contains 204 words and nine sentences.)

Paragraphs contain more than a recitation of facts. Each paragraph must

have “singleness of purpose,” also called “unity.” That is, it must have a
central idea, normally stated as the first, or topic, sentence. It must have
evidence that proves the contention of the central idea. It should also have
a conclusion that summarizes the findings reached within the paragraph.
Some paragraphs end with a transition to the next idea by showing how
the central idea in one paragraph logically leads to the central idea in the
next. Depending on the length of the paper, each theme will likely require
the preparation of several paragraphs, which, in addition to each paragraph
having a central idea, should collectively prove the contention of the
theme. In the first theme of the outline provided in Part I above, entitled
“Preconditions,” the central contention is that World War I had several
“long-term” causes. This would be proven through several paragraphs
(one on Anglo/Franco-German Rivalry, one on the alliance system, and
one on African imperialism), each with a central idea but each also ulti-
mately contributing to the broader contention about long-term causation.
This process continues until you have completed each of the themes and
sub-themes listed in the outline.

Using Quotations Effectively

Direct quotations from primary and, less frequently, secondary sources can
be useful when offering evidence to prove your thesis statement. They
should be used sparingly and only when the quotation might be misinter-
preted or confused if paraphrased. Papers that are strung together with a
series of direct quotations usually indicate that the author has not offered
an original or argumentative analysis. When they are used, quotations must
reproduce exactly the original author’s words, including spelling, capitali-
zation, and punctuation. If words are added to the quotation for reasons
of grammar or coherence, they must be set off in square brackets ([ ]). An
ellipsis (…) must be used to indicate where words are omitted in a quota-
tion. It is no longer necessary to begin or end quotations with ellipses. Here
is an example that uses the first sentence of this paragraph: “Direct quota-
tions … can be useful when … prov[ing] your thesis statement.”

Short quotations of four lines or fewer should be incorporated into the

text of the essay and enclosed in double quotation marks (“ ”). Quotations
within quotations, as in “Tom said, ‘I want to go home,’ and promptly
left,” should be placed in single quotation marks. Even single-word quo-
tations – such as Foucault’s use of “power” – are placed in double quota-
tion marks. When incorporating quotations, the entire sentence should be

13
written so that it reads in a correct grammatical form; there must not be a
noticeable shift in tense. Commas and periods are placed inside the quota-
tion marks; semi-colons, colons, and questions marks that did not form
part of the original quotation are placed outside the quotation marks.
Lengthy quotations – those of more than four lines – are offset one inch
from the left margin and do not require quotation marks. These “block
quotations” should be used sparingly and only if the quotation will subse-
quently be discussed in detail. In most instances, instead of quoting di-
rectly, paraphrase the author’s words and cite this as you would a quota-
tion. The source of all quotations must be referenced.

Reference Notes and Introducing Sources

Historians use the Chicago Manual of Style for citing primary and secondary
source material. This means using complete footnotes or endnotes and
bibliographies rather than the abbreviated or embedded (also called paren-
thetical) referencing method used in other social sciences and humanities
disciplines. In particular, the common APA (American Psychological As-
sociation) and MLA (Modern Language Association) methods are not ac-
ceptable for history essays, and writers who do not use the proper method
will normally be penalized. Reference numbers are placed in superscript
outside all punctuation at the end of the sentence. For example, “Histori-
ans use the Chicago Manual of Style for citing … source material.”1 Occasion-
ally, it is necessary to place a reference number within the sentence; this
occurs when, for example, only a portion of a sentence is being attributed
to another author, while the remainder is your own idea. In such cases, the
reference number should be placed after the portion derived from the
other source. In general, however, it is preferable that reference numbers
be placed at the end of the sentence or paragraph to which it refers. If
more than one source has been used, reference the sources together in a
single note at the end of the sentence, in the order the sources were used
in the sentence (see the example in Part IV).

Reference notes allow the reader easy access to the material used when
writing the essay. Historians often work with material that is difficult to
access, or that has been printed in numerous editions. If a fact or quotation
is to be checked, the fullest possible citation is required. In addition, a ref-
erence note gives credit to the author of an idea or statement and also
demonstrates to the reader the amount of effort and care that has been put
into the paper. Always reference material or ideas derived from another
source, regardless of whether it is paraphrased or quoted. Ensure that the
sources of all statistics are cited; although these often appear to be “objec-
tive facts,” they are the result of numerous decisions made by an author
during the course of research and are, therefore, subject to interpretation.
It is not necessary to cite sources for facts that are common knowledge

14
(such as that World War I was fought between 1914 and 1918), which
might be defined as material that all university students know before com-
mencing their studies. Some instructors will also allow you to treat as com-
mon knowledge any lecture material discussed in class, although you
should always check with the instructor first.

Although there is no rule about how many footnotes or endnotes are re-
quired in an essay, approximately three or four per page is average. An
eight-page essay with only four or five notes in total is either under-refer-
enced or contains too much opinion and assertion and not enough facts
and evidence to prove the argument. On the other hand, eight or ten notes
per page suggests a random use of evidence placed into your paper without
using your own analytical skills to explain and engage with the material. In
situations where you are citing from the same source or sources through-
out a paragraph or a series of sentences, it is normal to cite the source
material only once, either at the start or end of the related section, rather
than using multiple footnotes. However, if the material is being used in
more than one paragraph, use a new note for each paragraph.

Finally, because you will be providing complete references in the notes, it

is not usually necessary to indicate the title of articles or books in the body
of the essay. For example, instead of writing, “In his article entitled
‘Cleansing and Clarifying: Technology and Perception in Nineteenth-Cen-
tury London,’ Christopher Otter argues that…,” simply write “Christo-
pher Otter argues that…” and include a footnote indicating the complete
title and reference. After you have introduced an author by name for the
first time, subsequent references should include only the author’s last
name, such as “Otter further argues that….” When it is deemed necessary
to include the title of the work within the body of the essay – normally
only when you are discussing multiple works by the same author – the titles
of articles, chapters in books, and unpublished documents are placed in
quotation marks, and book titles are italicized.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism occurs when an author, either deliberately or without the exer-

cise of reasonable judgment, passes off the writing of another as his or her
own. Plagiarism includes using key words, rewording a sentence or para-
graph, or using another author’s ideas, without providing a citation to the
original source. To avoid plagiarizing another’s work, accurately reference
all direct quotations (which should be enclosed in quotation marks) and
paraphrases, ideas or information derived from another source, and all
concepts that are not common knowledge. It is also plagiarism to use ex-
tensive paraphrasing from only one or two sources, even if notes are used;
the majority of words and ideas in an essay should be your own. Plagiarism

15
also occurs when an author submits work that is borrowed, purchased,
ghostwritten, submitted for credit in another course, or has been exten-
sively edited by a third party. Because plagiarism is a serious form of aca-
demic dishonesty and can result in formal sanctions, students must be ex-
tremely careful to avoid committing this offence. When in doubt, you
should contact your instructor.

The Conclusion

The conclusion to the essay helps the reader understand the relevance of
the themes that have been examined throughout the paper. It is often de-
scribed as a “pyramid,” moving inductively from the particular (restating
your thesis statement) to the general (explaining why your conclusions are
important). Do not merely summarize the paper and be careful not to in-
troduce new evidence in the conclusion. Make sure that you answer the
“so what?” question by explaining how and why your paper has made a
contribution to the subject matter. This is a good opportunity to show how
your study has wider implications and to suggest a new direction for re-
search into this topic. Like the introduction and the body, the conclusion
is a vital component of your paper and must not be neglected. Keep in
mind that it is the last thing your instructor will read before assigning a
grade. It should be about 10% of your paper.

Rewriting and Proofreading

Once the draft of your paper is complete, rewriting begins. If possible, set
the draft aside for a few days and return to it with a fresh eye. Read the
paper over slowly – some authors prefer to read the paper aloud – and
identify and correct weak grammar, illogical statements, poor argumenta-
tion, or lack of evidence to prove the thesis statement. You might find that
one paragraph belongs in a different place, or that the introduction does
not lay out the argument clearly. Take this opportunity to correct these
errors. Check your diction to ensure that every word you have used is the
right one. In English, very few words have exact synonyms, so select the
correct word and not one that is merely close in meaning. The re-writing
process is vital to the success of an essay because, when properly and care-
fully done, it usually results in the reduction of non-essential prose, leading
to greater clarity and precision and a taut, logical argument. After rewriting
the paper (twice, if time allows), proofread it carefully to identify and cor-
rect spelling, grammatical, and punctuation errors.

16
Part III: Reviews and Analyses
Reviews and analyses are similar in content, style, and structure, but exam-
ine different types of writing. Reviews, or critiques, assess the argument,
methodology, strengths, and weaknesses of secondary sources produced
by historians. These can range from the review of a single monograph or
collection of essays, to that of several books, chapters, and articles written
by one or more historians. Analyses assess the content, argument, and his-
torical context of primary sources written at the time you are studying.
Whereas reviews usually evaluate works of several hundred pages, docu-
ment analyses can assess works as short as a single page and often evaluate
several documents at the same time. Like essays, reviews and analyses need
to be interpretive and critical, although they usually accomplish their goals
in a limited number of words, usually between 500 and 1500, or 2-6 dou-
ble-spaced pages. It is important to think of this type of report as a short
essay, which means that it, like a research essay, contains an introduction,
argument, body, and conclusion.

The Art of Criticism

Criticism, or evaluation, is at the heart of reviews and analyses. A good

report can tell other historians whether they should read a book or docu-
ment, what they can expect in terms of content and argument, and in what
ways they should be cautious while reading the material. It is not sufficient
merely to summarize what has been written. You must also engage with
the material in a meaningful way. Authors, whether of secondary or pri-
mary materials, make many decisions and encounter many obstacles when
writing their work, most of which you will not be aware of while reading.
Respecting this complex process should prevent you from criticizing just
for the sake of doing so. Criticism must be constructive and you must be
able to back your criticism up by drawing upon your own knowledge or
your careful analysis of the material at hand. It is not enough to write, “I
do not like the way the argument is developed” or “this author was obvi-
ously biased”. What is wrong with the argument and how could it be made
better? What is the nature of the author’s bias and how can it be overcome?

The Introduction

The introduction should begin by stating the author and title of the work
or works under consideration. The introductory paragraph can also indi-
cate the author’s intentions for the work, the argument that is developed
therein, and situate the themes of the work within other, relevant works.
In the case of a document analysis, situate the work within its proper his-
torical context by reflecting on when and why the document was written.

17
Like essays, good reviews and analyses will have a thesis statement, which
is the argument you will be making in the review. For example, in a book
review you might argue that: “In his book Innocence Abroad, historian Ben-
jamin Schmidt offered a revisionist analysis of Dutch activities in the New
World and shows that, contrary to received wisdom, these activities were
critical to the development of Atlantic expansion.” In a review of several
works on a similar theme, you might argue that: “Over the past two dec-
ades, historians have developed deeply polarized views on the origins of
the American Revolution.” In an analysis, you could argue that: “In The
Prince, Nicolò Machiavelli demonstrated his debt to classical forms of gov-
ernment, while also recognizing that true governance was based on the
immediate needs of the society that the government served.” All of these
theses are active in that they make a strong statement and stand in need of
proof, which it is the purpose of the report to provide.

The Body

The body of reviews and analyses is used to answer a number of questions

about the work or works under consideration. While it is not necessary –
or sometimes even possible – to answer all of these questions, or to devote
equal space to each one, the report should be as comprehensive as possi-
ble. A key goal in evaluating the source is to reflect on the questions dis-
cussed in Part I (“Interrogating Sources”), which will be different depend-
ing on whether the source is primary or secondary.

Depending on the nature of the material under examination, additional

questions may arise during the reading of the work or preparation of the
report that can be addressed.

ü What issues, topics, and themes does the work or works cover? It is neither
necessary nor desirable to summarize each work, or chapter, or document. Instead,
discuss the chronological and thematic sweep of the material, the main issues that
are addressed, and how these contribute to the overall theme of the work or works.
It is important that you show a sound understanding of the material.

ü What is relevant about the author(s) and the audience? What other works has
this author (or these authors) written to which this work contributes? Are there spe-
cific aspects of the author’s or authors’ background (race, religion, education, nation-
ality, etc.) that affect (positively or negatively) the author’s interpretation? Who was
this work written for, did this help to determine the methodology or argument, and
was this goal accomplished? Was the work or works prepared to advance a specific
political, intellectual, or social agenda? If so, does this strengthen or weaken the ma-
terial? If more than one work is under consideration, do some of the other works
answer similar questions differently because of alternate personal views or audiences?

ü What historical genre and theoretical approach best fits this material? Is this
biography, economic, cultural, social, intellectual, environmental, political, military,
or religious history? Does the author or authors employ a feminist, Marxist, Whig,

18
Annales, or revisionist methodology? Are there interdisciplinary approaches used
that fit into more than one genre or theoretical approach? Is or was the author or
authors associated with a specific school of thought or branch of literature? Why and
to what extent should historians be skeptical when reading this material? Was there
a propagandist or rhetorical purpose to the material?

ü What evidence and type of argument does the author or authors use? If a re-
view, is the work based on primary or secondary research? Is the primary research
based on archival documents or printed sources, or a combination of the two? If
several works are used, how does each work or author vary in evidence and argument
and what strengths and weaknesses do the different approaches present? If an anal-
ysis, does the author use personal experiences, secondhand information, other types
of documentation, or rhetorical methods? Does the choice to use certain evidence
result in a skewed interpretation? Is there a failure to consider evidence or works that
challenge the interpretation presented? Does the evidence presented suggest an al-
ternate interpretation to you than was suggested by an author? Is the interpretation
based on hard evidence (facts), assertion (personal opinion), or inference (informed
opinion)?

ü How and how well is the information presented? Is the work organized and
structured well? Is the argument developed chronologically or thematically, or does
the author use a combination of both? Are important themes and terms properly and
sufficiently defined? Are there sufficient references to back up the argument? Does
the writing flow well or is it turgid or technically flawed to the point of causing prob-
lems for the reader? Are there intelligent transitions from one theme to the next? If
a review, does the introduction properly introduce the main themes of the book and
provide the argument, and does the conclusion reflect well on the issues addressed?
If this is a document analysis, keep in mind the time period in which the work was
written and assess its merits based on those times rather than the present.

Quotations and Referencing

Although quotations should be used sparingly in reviews and analyses, they

are often useful when relating an author’s specific argument, the use of
new or peculiar terms, passages of special merit, or demonstrating com-
prehension of the text. If a single work (whether secondary or primary) is
under review, quotations and paraphrased passages from that work should
be followed with a parenthetical citation that includes the page number.
For example, (p. 35). All other citations, such as other sources used to
support the analysis, should be placed in footnotes, as discussed in Part IV
below. If several documents or books are being reviewed or analyzed, use
footnotes rather than parenthetical form.

The Conclusion

The concluding paragraph should comment on the overall significance of

the material under consideration. What new questions has the author (or
authors) brought up or answered? If a review, what further work needs to
be done on the subject now that this material has been written and evalu-

19
ated? If an analysis, what individuals or writings were affected by the doc-
ument or documents under consideration? This is also an opportunity to
reflect on the overall strengths and weaknesses of the material. For exam-
ple, if the author or authors has placed too much emphasis on one theme
to the exclusion of another, this is noteworthy. So too is a particularly
strong writing style, or an especially novel approach to the topic, field, or
to historical scholarship in general. Do not use the conclusion, or any part
of the report, to mention minor matters of style (such as occasional typo-
graphical errors). Instead, focus on issues of importance to historians, such
as the contribution of the material to its historical fields.

20
Part IV: Style and Referencing
Presentation, writing style, and referencing are as important as the argu-
ment itself. When done properly, these elements of the essay show the
reader that you are serious about the study of history and organized and
concerned about your work. Make no mistake about it: weak presentation,
writing, or referencing will always result in lower grades. Most importantly,
it only takes a few extra minutes to make sure that your paper is well writ-
ten and properly formatted.

Presentation

The entire essay must be double spaced and written in paragraph form, not
block form. This means that (unlike this handbook) the first line of each
paragraph is indented and there is no additional space between paragraphs,
merely the standard double-spacing. Essays must have a title page, which
includes a proper title for your essay (not “History Essay” or “Essay #1”),
your name and student number, instructor’s and teaching assistant’s name
(if applicable), course number and section (if applicable), and the date. Es-
says should be typewritten, using an easily-readable serif (as opposed to
sans serif) font (Times New Roman or Garamond are favourites), in 12-
point, with 1-inch margins all around. Do not use coloured paper, fancy
fonts, or irrelevant pictures or drawings. Do not put your paper into a du-
otang or have it bound. Instead, a staple (rather than a paper clip, which
can fall off) in the upper-left corner is preferred.

Most instructors will give a word limit for the paper. As a rule of thumb,
ensure that your essay is no more than 10% below or above the word re-
quirement. When an instructor gives a page limit, it is with the understand-
ing that a page has about 300 words, so a 10-page paper is 3000 words. Pay
careful attention to the page or word limit. Cramming more words in using
smaller margins and smaller fonts will not escape the eye of your grader,
and some instructors will refuse to grade papers that are too long. The
ability to write within a prescribed limit is much more challenging than
writing a long, tedious paper, and instructors are also testing your ability to
write in a concise and precise manner. Put page numbers on all pages ex-
cept the title page and remember that the title page and bibliography do
not count toward the page or word limit for the essay.

For examples of a properly-formatted title page, essay page, and bibliog-

raphy, see appendices I–III below.

© 2022 Department of History, University of Calgary

Grammar and Style

Historians use the standard conventions of the English language to com-

municate their findings to their audience. In order to be understood and
persuasive, your writing must conform to the basic rules of grammar and
punctuation. Write in a clear, concise, and precise manner. Simple, direct
writing is always preferable to writing that appears as if a thesaurus was
frequently consulted. Work hard to purge your writing of colourful adjec-
tives, adverbs, repetition, and unwarranted complexity. Essays are always
written in formal language that displays historical objectivity and serious-
ness of purpose. They must not contain contractions (such as don’t and
can’t), journalistic-styled writing (usually defined by tiny sentences and par-
agraphs designed to be read by a popular audience), sarcasm or attempts
at humour, indignance or disrespect for events that occurred in the histor-
ical past, or exclamation points for emphasis.

Common Grammar and Punctuation Mistakes

Especially when frequently or carelessly committed, many common gram-

mar mistakes reflect badly on the credibility of the author. Essays that are
poorly written will always result in a lower grade. Here are ten common
errors that graders dislike.

1. Dangling participles and modifiers. These occur when you modify

the wrong noun or verb in a sentence. To write, for example, that “If well
written, you could get a high grade on the essay,” suggests that you need
to be well written, not the essay. The sentence should read “You could get
a high grade on the essay if it is well written.” Here is another example: “I
saw the Calgary Tower walking downtown.” Was the Calgary Tower walk-
ing downtown, or were you? The sentence should read, “While walking
downtown, I saw the Calgary Tower.”

2. Subject-object and subject-verb disagreements. Sometimes called

singular-plural disagreements, these occur when you alter the tense of a
sentence part-way through. For example: “We study history because you
can apply the skills elsewhere” changes the tense from the plural (“we”) to
the singular (“you”). Writing “John’s statement of grievances were pre-
sented to the president” is incorrect because the singular subject (“state-
ment of grievances”) shifts to a plural verb (“were presented”). The sen-
tence should read: “John’s statement of grievances was presented to the
president.”

3. Shifts between past and present tense. A similar lack of agreement

occurs when you write, for example, that “King Henry VIII was important
because he is responsible for the English Reformation,” or vice versa. Also

22
ensure that you do not shift between past and present in different sen-
tences or paragraphs throughout the essay: not “Stalin wrote” in one sen-
tence and then “He also writes” in the next. As a general rule, history pa-
pers are always written in the past tense.

4. Incomplete sentences and run-on sentences. Incomplete sentences,

also called sentence fragments, are independent or subordinate clauses that
do not have a subject or verb. Such as this sentence. In this example, there is
no subject. Instead, the first two sentences must be joined together using
a comma to be complete. Run-on sentences include two or more complete
clauses (or sentences) that are not correctly joined together, such as “I love
coffee I drink it all the time.” This should read “I love coffee. I drink it all
the time.”

5. Comma splices and semi-colon misuse. A comma splice is the result

of either joining two independent clauses without using a conjunction or
joining two complete sentences together using only a comma. Thus, “The
coffee was fresh, I had a cup” is incorrect. Use either “The coffee was
fresh. I had a cup”; “The coffee was fresh, so I had a cup”; or “The coffee
was fresh; I had a cup.” It is also incorrect to separate the subject from the
object: “Canada, is a very large country” is wrong, while “Canada is a very
large country” is correct. Semi-colons should only be used to separate
items in a list that also contains commas (which is a relatively rare occur-
rence) or to join two complete sentences that relate closely together (such
as “The coffee was fresh; I had a cup.”) Semi-colons are not used in place
of commas; when in doubt, use a comma instead.

6. Colloquialisms, clichés, euphemisms, and metaphors/similes.

Though colourful, these literary devices are usually tiresome, imprecise,
and misleading. It is colloquial to write that “World War I was horrible,”
and it is a cliché to write that during World War I, “Europe was going to
hell in a handbasket.” A euphemism is a polite, yet often meaningless term
used to cover up reality; it should be used sparingly. A short person is not
“vertically challenged” and a trash collector is not a “sanitation engineer.”
Metaphors and similes, while not prohibited, should be used with caution.
Writing statements such as “Henry VIII was the Winton Churchill of his
generation” or “Hitler was like a rabid dog” obscure more than they reveal.

7. Incorrect homophones and diction. Homophones are words that

sound the same as other words, but differ in meaning and spelling, such as
throne and thrown, principal and principle, cite and site, coarse and course, knight
and night, whether and weather, to and too, etcetera. Be careful to use the word
that is correct contextually. Some words are not homophones but sound
similar enough that they are used incorrectly in many essays, such as accept
and except, tenet and tenant, affect and effect, then and than, and report and rapport.

23
When in doubt, consult a dictionary to ensure that the word you are using
is the correct choice.

8. Misusing the apostrophe. Apostrophes are used only to indicate pos-

sessives. Thus, “the man’s car,” the “girls’ hockey team” (in which there is
more than one girl, forcing the apostrophe to go after the “s”), and
“women’s history” (in which the possessive for the plural is placed before
the “s”) are all correct. The same rules apply to possessive forms of names
that end in “s”, when the “s” is not silent; thus, “Dickens’s writings” and
“Yates’s poetry,” but “Dumas’ novels.” Writing “Spain was it’s own worst
enemy” is incorrect because “its” is a pronoun that refers to the antecedent
noun “Spain” and not to a possessive. The sentence should read: “Spain
was its own worst enemy.” Finally, do not use apostrophes to form plurals:
“The Smiths live here” is correct; “The Smith’s live here” is not. One eats
“hamburger buns,” not “hamburger bun’s.”

9. Confusing “that,” “which,” and “who”. “That” is used in restrictive

clauses and “which” is used in non-restrictive clauses. Thus, “It was these
two factors that led to the war” is correct because “that” refers to an es-
sential (restrictive) component of the sentence. “The Great Reform Act,
which gave many middle-class men the right to vote, was passed in 1832”
is correct because “which” refers to a non-essential (non-restrictive) com-
ponent. The sentence would still read correctly if the non-restrictive clause
was removed: “The Great Reform Act was passed in 1832.” “Who” is used
to refer to a person: “It was Caroline who came to dinner,” not “It was
Caroline that came to dinner.”

10. Hyphens and Dashes. A hyphen (-) is used to join compound words
that cannot be spelled as a single word. The words caffeine-free and mass-
produced, for example, and words that might otherwise be misinterpreted
(such as re-creation instead of recreation) require hyphens. Standard com-
pounds, such as birthrate and cooperation, do not. Hyphens are not used to
set off an independent clause. Independent clauses that are too distinct
from the sentence to use commas should be set off by dashes, which are
twice the length of a hyphen (–). The sentence “There is no consensus –
nor need there be – about this matter” is correct. Using hyphens in place
of the dashes in this sentence, however, would lead to confusion: “There
is no consensus-nor need there be-about this matter.”

Note Format

History instructors will insist that you use, consistently and correctly, the
referencing format for footnotes or endnotes that is described in the most
recent edition of the Chicago Manual of Style. Footnotes (single-spaced at the
bottom of each page) and endnotes (double-spaced at the end of the essay

24
before the bibliography) in history essays differ only in their placement.
You can use either footnotes or endnotes (not both) in your essay, alt-
hough instructors generally prefer footnotes for ease of reference. These
notes should normally be in the same font and size as the main text (12pt)
although it is acceptable to set footnotes in a smaller font (10pt) if they are
disruptive to the flow of the essay. Notes must be numbered consecutively
from the beginning of the paper, and although the note number in the
main text must be in superscript (eg. 14 ), in the note itself it can be in
superscript or in regular font followed by a period (eg. 14.). Do not use
Roman numerals or special characters and do not begin the numbering
again with each page or section. All word-processing programs have built-
in footnote and endnote functions that make it easy to place notes, and to
add or delete notes throughout the writing and rewriting processes.

It is difficult to anticipate all possible forms that notes can take because
there are so many different types of sources that can be used. The key is
to be consistent and clear, providing sufficient information to enable the
reader to locate the source. This might include author(s), title and subtitle,
name of editor(s) and/or translator(s), edition or volume number, pub-
lisher and place and date of publication, and page numbers. Any infor-
mation that is missing, which is often the case with older publications,
should be omitted without comment. Second and subsequent references
to sources are made using short form reference. Latin abbreviations are no
longer used in notes, because they can lead to confusion or error, particu-
larly when material is moved around during rewriting. These phrases in-
clude ibid. (“in the same matter”), op. cit. (“in the work cited”), idem. (“by
the same author”), and supra (“above”). However, as these abbreviations
were once commonly used, they will often be found in the notes to pub-
lished sources.

References to entire books may omit page numbers, while references to

specific pages within books, and to articles and chapters within edited col-
lections (whether in their entirety or in part) should indicate page numbers
following the publication information. Avoid citing large page or chapter
ranges (eg. pages 27–122 or chapters 2–6). It is better to indicate the pre-
cise pages or chapters that are relevant to the point being argued. The
standard is to use as few numbers as possible; for example, instead of pages
246–249, use 246–9. In some older books that do not have page numbers,
“signatures” are cited instead, which are combinations of numbers and let-
ters. For example, a page might show “B2” at the bottom. In this case,
when citing a quotation or paraphrased passage, use “B2r,” which refers
to the recto or front of the page, and B2v, which refers to the verso, or back
of the page. In online publications that are not paginated, it is common to
cite paragraph numbers (eg. “para. 14”) if these are listed on the publica-
tion, or section headings (eg. “Note Format”), instead of page numbers.

25
Examples of Citations

Examples of citations are provided below for the main types of sources
used by historians. Each includes the proper format for notes (N) and bib-
liographies (B) which, although they include the same information, are pre-
sented in slightly different formats. The main differences are the order of
the author’s name (eg. “John Smith” in notes and “Smith, John” in bibli-
ographies) and the placement of commas, periods, and parentheses to sep-
arate the various elements of the citation. After a source has been cited the
first time in the essay, use short-form citation (S) for all subsequent refer-
ences to the same work.

1. Single-Author Books

The different elements of book citations are separated by commas in foot-

notes and periods in bibliographies. If the reference applies to the entire
book, no page number is necessary. Otherwise, put the relevant page num-
ber(s) after the year of publication.
N Susan Scott Parrish, American Curiosity: Cultures of Natural History in the Colonial British
Atlantic World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 87.

S Parrish, American Curiosity, 43–56.

B Parrish, Susan Scott. American Curiosity: Culture of Natural History in the Colonial British
Atlantic World. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006. [Note that page
numbers are not provided in the bibliographical citation.]

Books that were written in previous centuries should indicate as much in-
formation as is available and retain original spelling.

N Thomas Harriot, A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (Frankfort,
1590). [Note that there is no publisher information available. If the year of publication is
written in Roman numerals, such as “MDXC”, this should be changed to standard num-
bers (1590).]

S Harriot, Briefe and True Report, 36.

B Harriot, Thomas. A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia. Frankfort,
1590.

In the case of books written anonymously or when the author is unknown,

which are common for primary sources produced in earlier centuries, begin
with the title of the work.

Some books have national, corporate, or organizational authors.

26
N Great Britain, Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts, Calendar of the Manuscripts
of the Most Honourable the Marquis of Salisbury, Preserved at Hatfield House (London: Her Maj-
esty’s Stationer’s Office, 1885), 45. [Note that the highest authority, “Great Britain”, is
indicated first, followed by the next highest authority, “Royal Commission on Historical
Manuscripts”.]

S Manuscripts of … the Marquis of Salisbury, 56. [Note the use of an ellipsis (…) to remove
unnecessary works and keep the citation brief.]

B Great Britain Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts. Calendar of the Manuscripts

of the Most Honourable the Marquis of Salisbury, Preserved at Hatfield House. London: Her Maj-
esty’s Stationer’s Office, 1885.

2. Multi-author books

For books with two or more authors, the authors’ names should be listed
as they appear on the title page.

N Robin W. Winks and Lee Palmer Wandel, Europe in a Wider World, 1350-1650 (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 11-15.

S Winks and Wandel, Europe in a Wider World, 17.

B Winks, Robin W., and Lee Palmer Wandel. Europe in a Wider World, 1350-1650. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2003. [Note that names for second and subsequent au-
thors are in firstname lastname format.]

If there are three or more authors, use “and others,” which is preferable
today to the Latin “et al”.

N John Briggs and others, Crime and Punishment in England: An Introductory History (London:
UCL Press, 1996), 7.

S Briggs, Crime and Punishment, 56.

B Briggs, John, and others. Crime and Punishment in England: An Introductory History. Lon-
don: UCL Press, 1996.

3. Edited Collections and Essays or Documents Within

For complete references to collections of essays or primary sources, indi-

cate the editor, using “and others” if there are three or more editors.

N H. V. Bowen and others, eds., Britain’s Oceanic Empire: Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds,
c. 1550-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

S Bowen and others, eds., Britain’s Oceanic Empire, 68.

B Bowen, H. V., and others, eds.. Britain’s Oceanic Empire: Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds,
c. 1500-1850. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

27
When a specific essay or document is being referred to in an edited collec-
tion, refer to the author and title of the specific work you are using. The
title is placed in quotation marks, while the book’s title is italicized.

N Alfred W. Crosby, “Infectious Disease and the Demography of the Atlantic Peoples,”
in The Atlantic World in the Age of Empire, ed. Thomas Benjamin and Timothy Hall (New
York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 169-79.

S Crosby, “Infectious Disease,” 172. [Note that it is not necessary to repeat the book title
or editors.]

B Crosby, Alfred W. “Infectious Disease and the Demography of the Atlantic Peoples.”
The Atlantic World in the Age of Empire, edited by Thomas Benjamin and Timothy Hall.
New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001.

4. Translated and Edited books

For books that have been edited or translated, place the original author
first and indicate the name of the translator after the title.

N Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New
York: Random House, 1995), 27.

B Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheri-
dan. New York: Random House, 1995.

F Hugo Grotius, The Free Sea, ed., David Armitage, trans. Richard Hakluyt (Indianapolis:
Liberty Fund, 2004), 45.

B Grotius, Hugo. The Free Sea. Edited by David Armitage. Translated by Richard Hakluyt.
Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2004.

5. Multi-Volume or Multi-Edition Works

For books with multiple volumes, indicate the total number of volumes
after the title and indicate the specific volume number being used before
the page number.

N William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols. (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1979), 1: 153.

S Blackstone, Commentaries, 2: 345.

B Blackstone, William. Commentaries on the Laws of England. 4 vols. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1979.

When there are multiple editions of a book, indicate the edition being used,
using “2d ed.”, “3rd ed.”, etc., “rev. ed.” for revised editions, or “enl. ed.”
for enlarged editions. It is not necessary to indicate the edition number if
it is the first.

28
N Thomas H. Greer and Gavin Lewis, A Brief History of the Western World, 8th ed. (To-
ronto: Nelson, 2002).

S Greer and Lewis, Brief History, 56.

B Greer, Thomas H., and Gavin Lewis. A Brief History of the Western World. 8th ed. To-
ronto: Nelson, 2002.

6. Journal Articles

For journal articles, place the title of the article in quotations marks and
underline or italicize the title of the journal. Note the volume (30), year of
publication, and pages numbers following a colon. Most journals number
pages consecutively throughout an entire year; however, when a journal
begins each issue with page one, it is necessary to indicate the issue number
after the volume (30:3). If the entire article is being cited, give the start and
end pages. If less material is cited, give only the pages that are relevant.

N William V. Flores, “New Citizens, New Rights: Undocumented Immigrants and Latino
Cultural Citizenship,” Latin American Perspectives 30 (2003): 87-100.

S Flores, “New Citizens, New Rights,” 89-90.

B Flores, William V. “New Citizens, New Rights: Undocumented Immigrants and Latino
Cultural Citizenship.” Latin American Perspectives 30 (2003): 87-100.

Some journals have distinct series, which reuse the volume numbers. In
such cases, the series must be noted.

N Carole Shammas, “The Space Problem in Early United States Cities,” William and Mary
Quarterly, 3rd. ser., 57 (2000): 505-542.

Journal articles accessed electronically that originally appeared in print (that

is, in a permanent, paper version) should be referenced as above, using the
original page numbers, and without citing an internet URL (uniform re-
source locator). Correct page numbers will be found by downloading the
Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) version of the online file instead of the .html file.
When in doubt, consult the printed version.

Articles that are only on the internet and are not available in print should
include the URL and paragraph number, if available. Because this is a pub-
lished article that will not change, it is not necessary to include the date the
articles was accessed.

N Daniel Gorman, “Wider and Wider Still?: Racial Politics, Intra-Imperial Immigration
and the Absence of an Imperial Citizenship in the British Empire,” Journal of Colonialism
and Colonial History 3 (2002), http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_colonialism_and
_colonial_ history/toc/cch3.3.html, para. 31. [Note that the URL is not hyperlinked.]

29
7. Internet and Electronic Resources

The use of electronic resources is becoming increasingly common and be-

cause there is so much variety of resources their citation must be a clear as
possible. When using an online PDF version of a printed book or journal,
it is acceptable to reference the work as if you consulted the original
printed version, as described above. If the printed work has been modified
in any way (for example, turned into e-book or transcribed into a webpage)
you must provide the URL and, if the website is subject to revision, the
date on which the material was accessed. Some examples of citation from
electronic sources are below:

N Martin Luther, “Address to the Nobility of the German Nation (1520),” in Internet
Modern History Sourcebook, accessed 15 May 2021, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/lu-
ther-nobility.html.

N Virginia Assembly, “Act CII, Run-aways, Laws of Virginia, March, 1661-2,” in Statues
at Large, Being a Collection of all the Laws of Virginia from … 1619, ed. William Waller Hening,
transcribed by Freddie L. Spradlin, accessed November 19, 2018, http://vagen-
web.org/hening/vol02-06.htm.

N Bartholomew Las Casas, “Amerindians and the Garden of Eden,” Western Civilization
Documents CD-ROM (Upper Saddle: Prentice Hall, 2004), doc. 10.4.

N Ken MacMillan, The Atlantic Imperial Constitution: Center and Periphery in the English Atlantic
World (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), chap. 2, Kindle edition. [Note that in this
example, page numbers cannot be cited because this depends on the font size chosen by
the reader. It is acceptable in these cases to include the section in which the reference will
be found. For example, chap. 2, “The Death of Sir Walter Ralegh.”]

8. Book Reviews

Book reviews are referenced by the author of the review, not of the book
being reviewed.

N Heather J. Coleman, review of Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times:

Soviet Russia in the 1930s, by S. Fitzpatrick, Canadian Journal of History 36 (2001): 151–2.

S Coleman, review of Everyday Stalinism, 151.

B Coleman, Heather. Review of Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times:

Soviet Russia in the 1930s, by S. Fitzpatrick. Canadian Journal of History 36 (2001): 151–2.

9. Well-Known Plays, Poems, and Biblical References

Well-known plays, poems, and Biblical references that carry act, scene, sec-
tion, or chapter, line, or verse numbers do not need to be referenced with
publication information unless the edition being used is important to the
discussion of the texts.

30
N William Shakespeare, King Lear, 2.3.12–16.

N King James Bible, 1 Corinthians 13.9.

10. Magazine or Newspaper Articles

References to magazine articles are similar to journal articles:

N Heather Pringle, “Alberta Barren,” Saturday Night, June 1997: 30.

B Pringle, Heather. “Alberta Barren.” Saturday Night, June 1997.

Citations to newspapers include the month and day of the issue but can
leave out page numbers. Cite the edition if the paper has more than one
(ie. morning and evening).

N Ora Morison, “Older job seekers feel ‘not very good’ about prospects,” Globe and Mail,
August 22, 2012 [Note: the article The is left off the title Globe and Mail.]

If you accessed the article online, provide the URL. Use only the main
entrance to the newspaper or service if the full URL will quickly become
invalid, as is usually the case.

N Emily Badger, “The Uncomfortable Politics Behind the History of Urban Fires,” The
Atlantic, 22 August 2012, http://www.theatlantic.com. [Note that the access date is not
necessary unless the article is subject to revision.]

11. Articles in Encyclopedia or Dictionaries

The use of dictionaries and encyclopedia should generally be avoided.

However, historians often cite biographical dictionaries:

N William B. Robison, “Kidd, William (ca. 1645-1701),” in Absolutism and the Scientific Rev-
olution, 1600-1720: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Christopher Baker (Westport: Greenwood
Press, 2002), 205.

S Robison, “Kidd, William,” 205.

B Robison, William B. “Kidd, William (ca. 1645-1701).” In Absolutism and the Scientific
Revolution, 1600-1720: A Biographical Dictionary, edited by Christopher Baker. Westport:
Greenwood Press, 2002.

Well-known reference books, such as the Oxford English Dictionary or Dic-

tionary of Canadian Biography, do not need to be accompanied by the facts of
publication, unless there is potential for confusion or unless a specific edi-
tion has been used. Give the source and the title of the entry but eliminate
the author of the entry unless it is relevant to the argument of the essay.

31
12. Dissertations and Theses

Dissertation and thesis titles are placed in quotations marks because they
are not published. Also include the type of thesis and the place and year of
completion.

N Meshal Al-Rabea, “Orphaning the Victorian Child: A Study in Eight Victorian Novels,”
(PhD diss., University of Calgary, Canada, 2007), 87.

B Al-Rabea, Meshal. “Orphaning the Victorian Child: A Study in Eight Victorian Nov-
els.” PhD diss., University of Calgary, Canada, 2007.

13. Archival and Manuscript Sources

The method of referencing archival sources differs considerably depend-

ing on where they are housed. In general, the source should be described
as fully and as consistently as possible, citing author, title (in quotation
marks, because they are not printed sources), the archive where the docu-
ment is housed, its series (or fonds), and its shelfmark (library locator in-
formation). It is best to refer to the archive’s website or to books that ref-
erence documents from that archive to determine how the reference
should appear. Unknown information may be silently omitted. Many man-
uscript sources provide numbers only on the front page of a folio rather
than on the front and back. In such instances, use r and v to refer to recto
(front) or verso (back) of the page.

14. Interviews

If you are referencing an interview that was broadcast or published, the

citation should include the name of the person interviewed, the title of the
interview (if applicable), the interviewer's name (if this was you, write “in-
terview by the author”), the medium (e.g. book, television show) where the
interview appeared, and the date of the interview.

N Margaret Thatcher, “Britain's Iron Lady,” interview by Barbara Frum, The Journal, Ca-
nadian Broadcasting Corporation, 27 September 1983.

N Isaac Bashevis Singer, interview by Harold Flender, in Writers at Work: The “Review”
Interviews, ed. George Plimpton, 5th ser. (New York: Viking Press, 1981), 85.

References to interviews that you have conducted or that have not been
published or broadcast are referenced as follows:

N Horace Hunt [pseud.], interview by Ronald Schatz, tape recording, 16 May 1976, Penn-
sylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg. [Note: in this example, the in-
terview has been deposited in an archive. The use of “pseud.” after the name indicates
this is a pseudonym.]

32
N Karl-Heinz Mehlan, interview by Annette F. Timm, Anna-Sabine Ernst and Donna
Harsh, tape recording, Rostock, Germany, 1 June 1996.

15. Citations from Secondary Sources

Although authors are generally expected to examine the works they cite, it
is sometimes necessary to cite a quotation from a secondary source if the
original is not available, using “quoted in”:

N William Camden, The History of … Princess Elizabeth (London, 1675), 309, quoted in E.
P. Cheyney, “International Law under Queen Elizabeth,” English Historical Review 20
(1905), 660.

S Camden, History of … Elizabeth, quoted in Cheyney, “International Law,” 662.

16. Explanatory Notes and Multiple References

Occasionally, it is desirable to place narrative in notes in order to contex-

tualize a discussion without delaying the development of your argument.

N Clinton L. Evans, The War on Weeds in the Prairie West: An Environmental History (Calgary:
University of Calgary Press, 2002). Evans argues that there is a fundamental economic
relationship between people and weeds in subsistence or non-capitalist societies. This
relationship determined both how agricultural societies developed and how weed control
would be conducted.

It is sometimes necessary to put several sources into one footnote, if all

the sources refer to the material that is being referenced. In such cases,
works should be separated by semi-colons and listed in the order the ma-
terial appears in the text.

N Glenn Burgess, The Politics of the Ancient Constitution: An Introduction to English Political
Thought, 1603-42 (University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 34–56;
Brian Levack, The Civil Lawyers in England, 1603-1641: A Political Study (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1973), 43-67; Johann Sommerville, “English and European Political
Ideas in the Early Seventeenth Century: Revisionism and the Case of Absolutism,” Journal
of British Studies 35 (1996): 168–94.

17. Additional Material

There are many other types of material that can be referenced, such as
music scores, videos, documentaries, statutes, legal cases, social media
pages, and physical artifacts. For detailed explanation on how to reference
this material, consult the latest edition Chicago Manual of Style or one of the
sources listed in the Further Resources section below.

33
Bibliographical Format

A bibliography is a list of all the sources that were consulted in the course
of researching and writing the essay. As a result, some works might be
listed in the bibliography that are not otherwise referenced in the essay.
The main difference between notes and bibliographical entries is how the
information is presented, rather than what information is presented. En-
tries are alphabetized by the author’s last name or institution and the vari-
ous elements of the reference are separated by periods instead of commas,
a demonstrated above. Short titles are not used in bibliographies and page
ranges are only used for journal articles. Primary and secondary sources are
usually separated, although it is not always necessary to separate them fur-
ther unless an extensive list of sources has been used. If this is the case,
primary sources can be divided into sub-categories such as “Manuscripts”,
“Electronic”, and “Printed”, and secondary sources can be divided into,
for example, “Books”, “Articles and Chapters”, and “Dissertations”. Al-
ways think of the audience’s needs when creating and using these catego-
ries. See Appendix III for an example.

Annotated Bibliographies

Instructors will sometimes request that an annotated bibliography be sub-

mitted, either with the essay or with a research proposal that precedes the
essay. This uses the same format as a normal bibliography, except that a
brief statement summarizing the source and showing why it is being used
in the paper accompanies each entry. Annotations should be approxi-
mately 25 words in length. For example:

Sharpe, James. The Bewitching of Anne Gunter: A Horrible and True Story of Deception, Witchcraft,
Murder, and the King of England. New York: Routledge, 2001. Using the evidence of a case
that came before the Court of Star Chamber in 1611, Sharpe shows the importance of
contemporary belief systems and the workings of the law in early modern England.

34
Appendices
Appendix I: Sample Title Page

The Rights of Men and Women in Early-Revolutionary France and England

by

Jane Smith (12345678)

HTST 201

Dr. Stephen Jones

October 15, 2018

35
Appendix II: Sample Essay Page

36
Appendix III: Sample Bibliography

37
Further Resources
The most recent edition of the following resources should be consulted
for additional guidelines on researching, writing, and referencing history
essays.

Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers.

Richard Marius and Melvin E. Page, A Short Guide to Writing About History.

Mary Lynn Rampolla, A Pocket Guide to Writing in History.

William Kelleher Storey and Towser Jones. Writing History: A Guide for Students.

38