MODULE 3

module 3 LOGIC

in INTRODUCTION

ge 4 It is not easy to summarize in a few paragraphs the subject matter known as logic. For lawyers
and judges, logic is the science of correct reasoning. They often use logic to communicate
more effectively, construct valid arguments, analyze legal contracts, and make decisions.
(mathematics in the modern world) Law schools consider a knowledge of logic to be one of the most important predictors of
future success for their new students. Many other professions also make extensive use of
logic. For instance, programmers use logic to design computer software, electrical engineers
use logic to design circuits for smart phones, and mathematicians use logic to solve problems
and construct mathematical proofs. As your facilitator of learning. I will enrich our discussion
by presenting information with citations. If you have query please do not hesitate to call, text,
or chat with me.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Prepared by: at the end of this module, the students are expected to discuss extensively and articulate
Mr. joNathan m. jabel information in the core areas of science and mathematics (5.1.1). and perform appropriate
suitable mathematical and statistical computations in data analysis (5.4.1)

CONTAINS OF THE MODULE

This module contains the following lessons:

1.) Logic Statements and quantifiers & Truth Tables, Equivalent Statement, and
Tautologies;
2.) Data Description

DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO USE THE MODULE PROPERLY

In order to benefit profoundly from this module, please be guided by all the key presented below.
1.) This module contains (2) lessons. Each lesson is explaining authentically. Read and
understand carefully so that you would know the lesson entirely.
2.) On the first page of this lesson, you will notice the specific learning outcomes (SLO’s)
of each lesson. LSOs are knowledge and skills you are expected to obtain at the end Logic statements
of the lesson.
3.) You are obliged to answer the learning Activities/ Exercises (LAEs). The LAEs are Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and
outlined to help you in how to obtain the SLOs. commands. For instance,
4.) Feel free to chat, call, text or send me an email if you have questions, reactions, or
reflections about the module’s contents or activities. “Is the test today?” is a question.
5.) The Practice Task/ Assessment and the Assignment shall be checked by me. “Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“this is a nice car” is an opinion.
3.) LESSON 1 – Logic Statements and Quantifiers.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.

The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to sentences that are statements
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
as defined below.
These are the learning for the specific lesson:
1. Analyze information and the relationship between statements. A Statement
2. Determine the validity of arguments.
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true and false.
MOTIVATION
Example 1. Identify the statements
What is the one thing that all wise men, regardless of their religion or politics, agree is
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
between heaven and earth? What is it? What common English verb becomes its own past
tense by rearranging its letters? What letter comes next 0TTFFSSE?
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
It occurs once in minute, twice in a moment, but never an hour. Is it legal for a man to
b. How are you?
marry his widow’s sister? Why did the chicken cross the road? If a rooster lays an egg on
the exact peak of a barn, which side does it fall? These questions probably more on logic, it c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
can challenge our mind. Now, do you have any idea what logic is? Did you solve a logical d. 𝑥 + 1 = 5.
question from cited above?
Solution
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is true and it is a statement.
b. The sentence “how are you? Is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus it is not a
Discussion
statement.
c. You may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number; however, you do know that it is a whole
LOGIC STATEMENTS AND QUANTIFIERS number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime number. This sentence
is either true or false, and not both true and false, so it is a statements.
One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic was Gottfried Wilhelm d. 𝑥 + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 4, and it is false
Leibniz (1646-1716). Leibniz tried to advance the study of logic from a merely philosophical for any values of x. for the given value of x, it is true or false but not both.
subject to a formal mathematical subject. Leibniz never completely achieved this goals;
however, several mathematicians, such as Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George Boole
(1815-1864), contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical discipline. Simple Statements and Compound Statement
b. The dog does not need to be fed.
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a statement that Solution:
conveys two or more ideas.
a. Ellie Goulding is not an opera singer.
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if… then, and if and only if creates b. The dog needs to be fed.
a compound statement. For instance, ‘I will attend the meeting or I will go to school.’ Is a compound
statement. It is composed of the two simple statements, ‘I will attend the meeting.” And “ I will go to Example 3. Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form
school.” The word or is a connective for the two simple statements. Consider the following simple statements.
George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r and s to represent simple statements and the symbols Ʌ, V, 𝑝: Today is Friday
~, →, and ↔ to represent connectives. See Tables 5.1. 𝑞: it is raining.
𝑟: I am going to a movie.
TABLE 5.1 𝑠: I am not going to the basketball game.
Logic Connective and Symbols Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
Statement Connective Symbolic form Type of statement a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
not p Not ~𝑝 negation b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
p and q And 𝑝^𝑞 conjunction c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
p or q Or 𝑝˅𝑞 disjunction d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
If p, then q If… then 𝑝 → 𝑞 conditional e. If today is Friday, then it is raining or I am not going to a movie
p if and only if q If and only if 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 biconditional Solution:
a. 𝑝 ^ 𝑞
Truth Value and Truth Tables b. ~𝑞 ^ 𝑟
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). c. ~ 𝑠 ˅ 𝑟
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and d. 𝑞 → 𝑠
its connectives. e. 𝑝 → 𝑞 ˅ ~ 𝑟
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values Example 4. Translate Symbolic Statements
of its simple statements.
Consider the following statements.
𝑝 ∶ The game will be played in Tanjay.
The negation of the statement “ Today is Friday.” Is the statement “ Today is not Friday.” In symbolic logic, 𝑞 ∶ The game will be shown on CBS.
the tilde symbol ~ is used to denote the negation of a statement. If a statement 𝑝 is true, its negation ~ 𝑝 𝑟 ∶ The game will not be shown on ESPN.
is false, and if a statement 𝑝 is false, its negation ~ 𝑝 is true. See table below. 𝑠: The Lakers are favored to win.

Truth Tables for ~ 𝑝 Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
𝑝 ~𝑝 a. 𝑞 ^ 𝑝
b. ~𝑞 ˅ 𝑝
𝑇 𝐹 c. ~ 𝑟 ^ 𝑠
𝐹 𝑇 d. 𝑠 ↔ ~𝑝
e. 𝑝 → ~ 𝑟
Example 2. Write the negation of a statement. Solution
a. Ellie Goulding is an opera singer. a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Tanjay.
b. The game will not be shown on CBS or the game will be played in Tanjay. If a statement in symbolic form is written as an English sentence, then the simple statements that appear
c. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Lakers are favored to win. together in parentheses in the symbolic form will all be on the same side of the comma that appears in
d. The Lakers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in Tanjay. the English sentence.
e. If the game will be played in Tanjay, then the game will be shown on ESPN.

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

Example 5. Translate Compound Statements
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses is used to indicated which
simple statements are grouped together. Table 5.2 illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate Let 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 represent the following.
groupings for some statements in symbolic form. 𝑝: You get a promotion.
𝑞: You complete the training.
Table 5.2 𝑟: You will receive a bonus.
Symbolic form The parentheses indicate that: a. Write (𝑝 ^ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟 as an English Sentence.
b. Write “ if you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not
𝑝 ^ (𝑞 ˅ ~𝑟) 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~𝑟 are grouped together receive a bonus.” In symbolic form.
Solution:
a. Hence the 𝑝 and the 𝑞 both in parentheses in the symbolic form, they are placed to the left of
(𝑝 ^𝑞 ) ˅ 𝑟 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are grouped together the comma in the English sentence.

(𝑝 ^ ~𝑞) → (𝑟 ˅ 𝑠) 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~𝑞 are grouped together (𝑝 ^ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟

𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are grouped together.

If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma is used to indicate

which simple statements are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a comma are If and , ,then
You get a You You will
grouped together. See Table 5.3
promotion complete receive a
Table 5.3 the training bonus.
English sentence The comma indicates that: Thus the translation is: if you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will
𝑝, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟. 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~𝑟 are grouped together because they are both
receive a bonus.
on the same side of the comma.
𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞, 𝑜𝑟 𝑟. 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are grouped together because they are both on
the same side of the comma.
i𝑖𝑓 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑠. 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~𝑞 are grouped together because they are both
to the left of the comma.
𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are grouped together because they are both to
the right of the comma.
b. Because the not 𝑝 and the 𝑟 statements are both to the right of the comma in the English T F T
sentence, they are grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form. F T T
F F F
~𝑞 → (~𝑝 ^ ~𝑟)
Example 6. Determine the truth Value of Statement

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

If , then and
You do not You will not You will not a. 7 ≥ 5.
complete the get a receive a b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
training promotion bonus. c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.

Solution:
a. 7 ≥ 5 means 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Because 7 > 5 is true, the statement 7 ≥ 5 is a true statement.
Truth Value of a Conjunction b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
c. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.
The conjunction 𝑝 ^ 𝑞 is true if and only both 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are true.
QUANTIFIERS AND NEGATION

Truth Table for 𝑝 ^ 𝑞 In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called Existential
quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝^𝑞
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal quantifiers
T T T none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and every are used
T F F to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.
F T F
F F F Table 5.4A illustrates how to write the negation of some quantified statements.
Table 5.4A
T: True F: False Quantified Statements and Their Negations

Truth Value of a Conjunction Statement

Truth Value of a Disjunction Negation

The conjunction 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 is true if and only if 𝑝 is true, 𝑞 is true, or both 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are true. The disjunction 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 is true if and only both if
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.

Truth Table for 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 No X are Y. Some X are Y.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝˅𝑞 Some X are not Y. All X are Y.

T T T Some X are Y. No X are Y.

9. 𝑥 2 = 25.
10. 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
In Table 5.4A, the negations of the statements in the first column are how in the second column. Also, the
negation of the statements in the second column are the statements in the first column. Thus, the In exercises 11 to 15, write the negation of each statement.
information in Table 5.4A can be shown more company as in Table 5.4B. 11. 6 is an even number.
12. The Giants lost the game.
Table 5.4B. 13. The lunch was served at noon.
Quantified Statements and Their Negations 14. The game did not go into overtime.
15. The game was not shown on ABC.
negation
All X are Y Some X are not Y. In exercises 16 to 20, write each sentence in symbolic form. Represent each simple statement in the
negation sentence with the letter indicated in the parentheses. Also state whether the sentence is a conjunction, a
No X are Y Some X are Y. disjunction, a negation, a conditional or a biconditional.

Example 7. Write the Negation of Quantified statements. 16. If today is Wednesday (𝑤), then tomorrow is Thursday (𝑠).
17. I went to the post office (𝑞 ) and the bookstore (𝑙 ).
Write the negation of each of the following statements. 18. A triangle is an equilateral triangle (𝑚) if and only if it is an equiangular triangle (𝑎).
a. Some airports are open. 19. If it is a dog (𝑑), then it has fleas (𝑓).
b. All movies are worth the price of admission. 20. I will major in animal science (𝑚) or agronomy (𝑎).
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
In exercises 21 to 25, write each symbolic statement in words. Use
Solution:
𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 as defined below.
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission. 𝑝: The tour goes to Italy.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2. 𝑞: The tour goes to Spain.
𝑟: We go to Venice.
EXERCISES SET 𝑠: We go to Florence.
𝑡: The hotel fees are included.
In exercises 1 to 10, determine whether each sentence is a statement.
𝑢: The meals are not included.
21. 𝑝 ^~𝑞
1. Star Wars: The Force Awakens is the greatest movie of all time.
22. 𝑟 → ~𝑠
2. Harvey Mudd College is in Oregon.
23. 𝑠 ↔ ~𝑟
3. The area code for Storm Lake, Iowa, is 512.
24. 𝑟˅𝑠
4. January 1, 2024, will be a Sunday.
5. Have a fun trip. 25. ~ 𝑡 ^ ~𝑢
6. Do you like to read?
7. Mickey Mouse was the first animated character to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of In exercises 26 to 35, write each symbolic statement in words. Use
Fame.
8. Drew Brees is the starting quarterback of the Dallas Cowboys. 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 as defined below.
𝑝: Taylor Swift is a singer. Negation
𝑞: Taylor Swift is not a songwriter. 𝑝 ~𝑝
𝑟: Taylor Swift is an actress.
𝑇 𝐹
𝑠: Taylor Swift plays the piano.
𝐹 𝑇
𝑡: Taylor Swift does not play the guitar.
Conjunction
26. (𝑝 ^ 𝑟 ) ˅ 𝑟
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝^𝑞
27. 𝑝 → (𝑞 ^ ~𝑟 )
28. ~𝑠 → (𝑝 ^ ~𝑞) 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
29. (𝑠 ^ ~𝑞) → 𝑡 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
30. (𝑟 ^ 𝑝 ) ↔ 𝑞 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
31. 𝑡 ↔ ( ~ 𝑟 ^ ~𝑝) 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
32. (𝑝 ^ 𝑟) ˅ (~𝑡 ^ 𝑠)
33. (𝑟 ^ 𝑞 ) ˅ (~𝑝 ^ 𝑠)
Disjunction
34. (𝑠 ^ ~𝑞) → 𝑡
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝˅𝑞
35. (𝑡 ^ 𝑝) ↔ ~𝑞
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
In exercises 36 to 40, write each sentence in symbolic form. Use 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 as defined below. 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝑝: Stephen Curry is a football player.
𝑞: Stephen Curry is a basketball player. Example 1: Truth Tables
𝑟: Stephen Curry is a rock star.
𝑠: Stephen Curry plays for the Warriors. a. Construct a table for ~(~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) ˅ 𝑞.
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ~(~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ) ˅ 𝑞, given that
36. Stephen Curry is a football player or a basketball player, and he is not a rock star. 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.
37. Stephen Curry is a rock star, and he is not a basketball player or a football player. Solution
38. If Stephen Curry is a basketball player and a rock star, then he is not a football player.
39. Stephen Curry is a basketball player, if and only if he is not a football player and he is not a rock a. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a ~𝑝 column.
star.
40. If Stephen Curry plays for the Warriors, then he is a basketball player and he is not a football
𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝
player.
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Truth Tables 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
In Section 5.1, we defined truth tables for the negation of a statement, the conjunction of two
statements, and the disjunction of two statements. Each of these truth tables is shown below now use the truth values from the ~𝑝 and q columns to produce the truth values for ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞, as shown
for review purposes. in the rightmost column of the following table.
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹

Negate the truth values in the ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 Example 2. Truth Tables

a. Construct a truth for (𝑝 ^ ~𝑞 ) ˅ (~𝑟 ˅ 𝑞 ).
𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ~(~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ) b. Use the truth from part a to determine the truth value of (𝑝 ^ ~𝑞 ) ˅ (~𝑟 ˅ 𝑞 ), given that
𝑝 is true, 𝑞 is true, and 𝑟 is false.
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 Solution:
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 a. Using the procedures developed in Example 1, we can produce the following table.
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝^𝑞 ~𝑟 (~𝑟 ˅ 𝑞 ) (𝑝 ^ 𝑞 ) ^ (~𝑟 ˅ 𝑞 )
As our last step, we form the disjunction of ~(~𝑝 ^ 𝑞) with q and place the results in the rightmost
column of the table. See the following table. 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ~(~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ) ~(~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ) ˅ 𝑞 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when 𝑝 is true, and 𝑞 is false, the statement b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that (𝑝 ^ 𝑞 ) ^ (~𝑟 ˅ 𝑞 ) is true when 𝑝 is true, 𝑞 is
~(~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ) ˅ 𝑞 in the rightmost column is true. true, and 𝑟 is false.

Compound Statements that involve exactly three simple statements require a standard truth table form
with 23 = 8 rows, as shown below.

Equivalent Statements
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible truth values
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 of their simple statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth tables.
The notation 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞 is used to indicate that the statements 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are equivalent. Enter the truth values for each simple statement and its negation

Example 4: Verify That Two Statements Are Equivalent Column 1 column 2 column 3 column 4 column 5
𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) 𝑝 ˅ (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞)
Show that ~(𝑝 ˅ ~ 𝑞) and ~𝑝 ^ 𝑞 are equivalent statements.
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Solution: 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑞 (𝑝 ˅ ~ 𝑞 ) ~ (𝑝 ˅ ~ 𝑞 ) Column 5 of the table shows that 𝑝 ˅ (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) is always true. Thus, 𝑝 ˅ (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) is a tautology.

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 Example 6: show that 𝑝 ^ (~𝑝 ^ 𝑞) is a self-contradiction.

𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 Column 1 column 2 column 3 column 4 column 5
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 (~𝑝 ^ 𝑞) 𝑝 ^ (~𝑝 ^ 𝑞)
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 ~𝑝 ^ 𝑞 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
Exercises: Write your answer in a short bond paper
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 A. Determine the truth value of the compound statement given that 𝑝 is a false
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 statement, q is a true statement and r is true statement.
1. 𝑝 ˅ (~𝑞 ˅ 𝑟)
The truth tables above show that ~(𝑝 ˅ ~𝑞 ) and ~ 𝑝 ^ 𝑞 have the same truth for all possible truth 2. 𝑟 ^ ~ (𝑝 ˅ 𝑟)
values of their simple statements, thus the statements are equivalent. 3. {[(~ 𝑝 ^ 𝑞) ^ 𝑟] ˅ [(𝑝 ^ 𝑞)^~𝑟]} ˅[𝑝 ^ ( 𝑞 ^ 𝑟)]
4. [(𝑝 ^ 𝑞) ^ 𝑟] ˅ [𝑝 ˅ ( ~𝑞 ^ 𝑟) ]
Tautologies and Self- Contradictions 5. (~𝑝 ^ 𝑞) ^ [(𝑝 ^ ~𝑞) ˅ 𝑟]
A Tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false. B. Construct the truth table for each compound statement.
1. ~(𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) ^ (~𝑟 ˅ 𝑞)
Example 5: verify tautologies and self-contradictions 2. ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞
Show that 𝑝 ˅ (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) is a tautology. 3. [~(𝑟 ^ ~ 𝑞)] ˅ (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞)
4. [𝑟 ^ (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞)] ^ (𝑟 ˅ ~ 𝑞)
Solution: 5. (~𝑞 ^ 𝑟) ˅ [𝑝 ^ (𝑞 ^ ~ 𝑟)]
be several different types of averages or sometimes called measures of central tendency.
C. Use two truth tables to show that each of the statement are equivalent. They are the mean, median, and the mode.

1. 𝑝 ˅ (𝑝 ^ 𝑟), 𝑝
2. 𝑞 ^(𝑞 ˅ 𝑟), 𝑝 Mean
3. ~[𝑝 ˅ ( 𝑞 ^ 𝑟], ~ 𝑝 ^ (~𝑞 ˅ ~𝑟) The mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. When we
4. [(𝑝 ^𝑞) ^ 𝑟] ˅ [𝑝 ^ ( 𝑞 ^ ~𝑟], 𝑝 ^ 𝑞 speak of average, we always refer to the mean.
5. [(~𝑝 ^~𝑞) ^ 𝑟] ˅ [(𝑝 ^ 𝑞) ^ ~𝑟] ˅ [𝑝 ^ (𝑞 ^ 𝑟)], (𝑝 ^ 𝑞) ˅ [(~𝑝 ^~𝑞) ^ 𝑟]  It is found by adding the values of the data and dividing by the total number
of values.
D. Use a truth table to determine whether the given is a self-contradiction.
∑𝑋
Population Mean : 𝜇 =
1. ~ [𝑝 ˅ (~ 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞)] 𝑁
∑𝑥
2. [𝑝 ^ (~ 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞)] ˅ 𝑞 Sample Mean : 𝑥 =
𝑛
3. ~[(𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) ˅ (~ 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞)]
Where 𝑁 – Total number of observations in the population
4. 𝑝 ^(~ 𝑝 ^ 𝑞)
𝑛 – total number of observation in the sample
5. ~(𝑝 ˅ ~𝑝)
Example 1 a researcher collects data on the ages of recipients of doctoral degree in science
E. Explain the following: and engineering, and his study yields the following:
1. Why the statement 7≤ 8 is a disjunction?
2. Why is the statement 5 ≤ 7 is true? 37 37 24 28 43 44 36 41 33 27
3. Why is the statement 7 ≤ 7 is true?
Determine the average age of the recipients.
Lesson 2. Data Description
Specific Learning Outcomes Solution: The mean is determined by the sum of the ages and then dividing by the total

These are the learning objectives for the specific lesson: number of recipients.
1.) Determine the measures of central tendency; 37+37+24+28+43+44+36+41+33+27
2.) Locate the measures of central tendency in the cumulative frequency column; Mean =
10
3.) Make a table of cumulative frequency;
4.) Identify the class mark for each class interval. =
350
10
Discussion
= 35
Measures of Central Tendency or Average Therefore, the average age is 35 years old.
Average occurs regularly in our daily life and it is an a important tool in statistics. A well –
chosen average consists of a single number about which a given data are centered. There can
For grouped data, the midpoints of the classes are used for the values of the 𝑥. The following 𝑥𝑚 =
96.5 +107.5
=
204
= 102
2 2
are the steps in solving for the mean of grouped data.
107.5 +118.5 226
Grouped Mean 𝑥𝑚 = = = 113
2 2

1. Find the midpoint for each class. Place them in a column. Step 2 : next, multiply the midpoint by the frequency for each class, and place the results in
2. Multiply the frequency by the midpoint for each class. Place them in another column. the fourth column.
3. Find the sum of the resulting column in step 2.
(58)(6) = 348
4. Divide the sum obtained in step 3 by the total number frequencies. That is,
(69)(12) = 828
∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚
Mean =
𝑛 (80)(25) = 2000
Example 2. Eighty randomly selected lightbulbs were tested to determine their lifetime ( in (91)(18) = 1638
hours). The following frequency distribution was obtained.
(102)(14) = 1428
Class boundaries Frequency
52.5 – 63.5 6 (113)(5) = 565
63.5 – 74.5 12 Step 3 : find the sum of the fourth column.
74.5 – 85.5 25
85.5 – 96.5 18 ∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 = 6807
96.5 – 107.5 14
Step 4 : divide the sum by 𝑛.
107.5 – 118.5 5
Determine the mean lifetimes ( in hours) of these bulbs. 𝑥=
∑ 𝑓 .𝑥𝑚
=
6807
= 85 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠.
80 80
Solution:
Hence, the mean lifetime of the bulbs is 85 hours. These steps are summarized in the
Step 1 : Find the midpoints of each class, and place the values in the third column. following table.

𝑥𝑚 =
52.5+63.5
=
116
= 58 Class boundaries Frequency Midpoints 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚
2 2
52.5 – 63.5 6 58 348
63.5 + 74.5 138 63.5 – 74.5 12 69 828
𝑥𝑚 = = = 69
2 2 74.5 – 85.5 25 80 2000
74.5 +85.5 160 85.5 – 96.5 18 91 1638
𝑥𝑚 = = = 80 96.5 – 107.5 14 102 1428
2 2
85.5 +96.5 182 107.5 – 118.5 5 113 565
𝑥𝑚 = = = 91 ∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 = 6807
2 2 𝑛 = 80
MEDIAN Find the median.
The median is the midpoint of the data array. Before finding this value, the data must be Solution Arrange the data in order.
arranged in order, from least to greatest or vice versa. The median will either be a specific
value or will fall between two values. 116 119 121 121 130 131 135

Grouped Median
1. Make a table of cumulative frequency. median
2. Divide 𝑛, number of frequency by 2, to get the hallway point. Example 4. Eight novels were randomly selected and the numbers of pages were recorded
3. Locate the median class in the cumulative frequency column. follows:
4. Substitute in the formula,
415 398 402 400 420 415 407 425

𝑛
Find the median.
−𝑐𝑓
Median (Md) = ( 2
) (𝑤) + 𝐿𝑚𝑑 Solution. Arrange the data in order.
𝑓

Where 398 400 402 407 415 415 420 425

𝑛 – sum of frequencies Since the middle point falls halfway between 407 and 415, find the median by

𝑐𝑓 – cumulative frequency of the class preceding/ before the median class getting the mean of these two values.
407+415
𝑓 − frequency of the median class Median = = 411
2
𝑤 – class width Example 5. Find the median of the data in Example 2.
𝐿𝑚𝑑 – lower boundary of the median class Solution
Example 3. Seven mothers were selected and given a blood pressure check. Their systolic Step 1 : make a column for the cumulative frequency.
pressures were recorded below.
Class boundaries Frequency Midpoints 𝑓. 𝑥𝑚 Cumulative frequency
135 121 119 116 130 121 131 52.5 – 63.5 6 58 348 6
63.5 – 74.5 12 69 828 18  𝑐𝑓
𝐿𝑚𝑑  74.5 – 85.5 25 80 2000 43  median class
85.5 – 96.5 18 91 1638 61
96.5 – 107.5 14 102 1428 75
107.5 – 118.5 5 113 565 80
Step 2 : Divide 𝑛 = 80 by 2 to get the halfway point, which is 40. 𝐿𝑀𝑂 – lower boundary of the modal class
Step 3 : Find the class that contains the 40th value by using the cumulative frequency 𝑤 − class width
distribution. Since 40 is less than 43, then the median class is the third class.
𝑑1 − difference of the frequency of the modal class and the class preceding it
Step 4 : using the formula,
𝑑2 − difference of the frequency of the modal class and the class succeeding it
𝑛 80
−𝑐𝑓 −18
𝑥𝑚𝑑 = ( 2
) (𝑤) + 𝐿𝑚𝑑 = ( 2
) (11) + 74.5 = 84.18 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 Example 7. Find the mode of the data in Example 6.
𝑓 25

Solution:
The median is 84.18 hours.
Using the formula,
MODE
𝑑1 13
The third measure of average is the mode. It is the value that occurs most often in the data 𝑀𝑂 = 𝐿𝑀𝑂 + ( ) 𝑤 = 74.5 + ( ) (11) = 81.65
𝑑1 +𝑑2 13 +7
set. A data can have more than one 0r more than one 0r none at all. The mode for grouped
data is the modal class. The modal class is the class with the largest frequency. MIDRANGE

Example 6 : From the data in Example 2, the class with the largest frequency is the third class. This is a rough estimate of the middle. It is found by getting the average of the
Therefore, this is the modal class. lowest and the highest values of the data.
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 +ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Class boundaries Frequency Midrange (𝑀𝑅) =
2
52.5 – 63.5 6
63.5 – 74.5 12 𝑑1 = 25 − 12 = 13 Example 8. The calories per serving of 1 fruit juices are as follows:
Modal class  74.5 – 85.5 25 𝑑2 = 25 − 18 = 7 150 110 100 35 60 130 40 140 120 160 110
85.5 – 96.5 18
96.5 – 107.5 14 Determine the midrange
107.5 – 118.5 5 Solution
35 + 160 195
MR = = = 97.5
The mode is the only measure of central tendency that can be used in finding the most typical 2 2
case when the data are nominal or categorical.
Grouped Mode WEIGHTED MEAN
𝑑
Mode (𝑀𝑂 ) = 𝐿𝑀𝑂 + ( 1 ) 𝑤 This is used to find the mean of values of the data set that are not equally
𝑑1 +𝑑2
represented. The weighted average can be found by multiplying the value by its corresponding
Where weight and dividing the sum of the products by the sum of their weights.
Example 9. A recent survey of a new cola reported the following percentages of people who 18 18
liked the taste. Find the weighted mean of the percentages. 14 14
11 14
The averages of each group are as follows.
Area % favored Number surveyed Grouped 1 Group 2
1 40 1000 Mean 14 14
Median 14 14
2 30 3000
Mode 14 14
3 50 800 Midrange 14.5 12
These two sets of averages have no difference. But intuitively, both groups show an
Solution
obvious difference. Group 2 has a more widely scattered data than grouped 1. This
𝑥=
∑ 𝑤𝑥
=
(0.40)(1000)+(0.30) ( 3000)+(0.50)( 800) characteristics called variability is not reflected by averages. The three basic measures
∑𝑤 0.40+0.30+ 0.50
of variation are range, variance, and standard deviation.
400 + 900 + 400
= RANGE
1.2

=
1700 The range is the simplest measure of variation to calculate. It is just the difference
1.2 between the largest and the smallest value in a given data set. For group 1, the range
= 1416.67 ≈ 1417 is 18 -11 = 7. The range of group 2 is 19 – 5 = 14. A much larger range suggests
greater variation or dispersion.
Measures of Variation
STANDARD DEVIATION AND VARIANCE
The previous section focused on average or measures of central tendency. The
averages are supposed to be central scores of a given set of data. However, not all The standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of variation.
features of a given data set may be reflected by the averages. For example, two The standard deviation indicate how closely the values of a given data set are
different groups of 5 students are given identical quizzes in math. The following data clustered around the mean. A lower value of the standard deviation means that the
below were the results. values of that given data set are spread over a smaller range around the mean. On the
other hand, a large value of the standard deviation means that values of that data set
are spread over a larger range around the mean.
Group 1 Grouped 2 The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance. The variance
14 5 calculated from a population data is denoted by 𝜎 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 ) and the
13 19
standard deviation by 𝜎. The basic formulas are
∑(𝑥− 𝜇)2 ∑(𝑥− 𝜇)2 Score (𝑥 − 𝜇 ) (𝑥 − 𝜇 )2
2
𝜎 = and 𝜎 = √
𝑁 𝑁
88 1 1
Where
80 -7 49
𝑁 − number of population
92 5 25
𝜇 − population mean 90 3 9
Example 1. The final exam scores of 5 students were 80, 88, 92, 90, and 85. 85 -2 4
Determine the variance and standard deviation.
Solution Get the sum of (𝑥 − 𝜇)2
Find the mean (𝜇 ). 2
∑( 𝑥 − 𝜇) = 1 + 49 + 25 + 9 + 4 = 88
∑𝑥 80+88+92+90+85
𝜇= =
𝑁 5 Divide the sum by 𝑁 = 5
435
= ∑( 𝑥− 𝜇)2 88
5 𝜎2 = = = 17.6
𝑁 5
= 87
𝜎 = √17.6
Subtract the mean from each individual score (𝑥 − 𝜇 ).
= 4.2
Score (𝑥 − 𝜇 )
UNBIASED ESTIMATOR
88 1 When computing the variance for a sample, one might use the formula
80 -7 ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2
92 5 𝑛

90 3 Where 𝑥 is the sample mean and 𝑛 is the sample size. This formula produces what is called a
biased estimate of the population variance. This estimate is different from the expected value
85 -2 of a population parameter. When the population is very large and the sample is small, the
computed variance would underestimate the population variance. Instead, divide by 𝑛 − 1 to
Square each of the difference (𝑥 − 𝜇)2 .
yield a slightly larger value and an unbiased estimate of the population variance.
Step 2 : Square each value and find the sum
Unbiased Estimator ∑ 𝑥 2 = 2062 + 2152 + 3052 + 2972 + 2652 + 2822 + 3012 + 2552 + 2612
The unbiased estimator of the population variance is a statistic whose value approximates the = 643391
expected value of a population variance.
Step 3 : Substitute in the formula
∑(𝑥− 𝑥)2
𝑠2 = 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2 9(643391)−( 2387)2
𝑛 −1 𝑠2 = =
𝑛 (𝑛−1) 9 ( 9−1)
Where 𝑥 – sample mean ; 𝑛 − sample size
5 790 519 −5 697 769
=
72
92 750
The following formulas are shortcut formulas for computing the variance and =
72
standard deviation. These are mathematically equivalent to the preceding formulas. They save
time when repeated subtracting and squaring occur in the original formulas. These shortcut = 1288.19
formulas will be used mostly in this module.
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2
Shortcut formulas 𝑠= √
𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2
𝑠2 = 𝑠= √ = √1288.19
𝑛 (𝑛−1) 𝑛 (𝑛−1)
= 35.89
Example 2. The weighs of nine basketball players are recorded as follows ( in pounds).
Variance and standard deviation for grouped data
206 215 305 297 265 282 301 255 261
The procedure is similar to that of finding the mean for grouped data, and it uses the
Find the variance and standard deviation. midpoints of each class.
Solution 𝑛 ∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥)2
𝑠2 =
Step 1 : Find the sum of the values. 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

∑ 𝑥 = 206 + 215 + 305 + 297 + 265 + 282 + 301 + 255 + 261

Example 3. For 108 randomly selected high school students, the following IQ frequency
= 2387 distribution were obtained
Class Limits Frequency 108 – 116 43 112 4816 539392
90 – 98 6 117 – 125 28 121 3388 409948
99 – 107 22 126 – 134 9 130 1170 152100
108 – 116 43 STE 3 : Find the sum of columns 2,4 and 5. Substitute in the formula for 𝑠2 .
117 – 125 28 1 2 3 4 5
126 – 134 9
Class Limits Frequency 𝑥𝑚 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 2
Find the variance and standard deviation.
90 – 98 6 94 564 53016
Solution
99 – 107 22 103 2266 233398
Step 1 : Make a table. Find the midpoints of each class. Multiply the midpoints the
108 – 116 43 112 4816 539392
frequency for each class
117 – 125 28 121 3388 409948
Class Limits Frequency 𝑥𝑚 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚
126 – 134 9 130 1170 152100
90 – 98 6 94 564
Sum 𝑛 = 108 ∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 = 12204 ∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 2 = 1387854
99 – 107 22 103 2266
108 – 116 43 112 4816
117 – 125 28 121 3388
𝑛 ∑ 𝑓. 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑓 . 𝑥)2 (108)(1387853)− (12204)2
𝑠2 = =
126 – 134 9 130 1170 𝑛(𝑛−1) (108)(108 −1)

149888124 −148937616
Step 2 : Multiply the frequency by the square of the midpoint for each class. =
11556

1 2 3 4 5 950508
=
11556
Class Limits Frequency 𝑥𝑚 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 2
= 82.25
90 – 98 6 94 564 53016
𝑠 = 𝑠2 = √82.25
99 – 107 22 103 2266 233398
= 9.07
are more variable than the scores in the History class.
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION COEFFICIENT OF SKEWNESS
The standard deviation measures absolute variability and not relative variability. It
can only compare two samples that have the same units of measure. A statistic that allows us A measure to determine the skewness of a distribution is called person coefficient of
to compare two different data sets that have different units of measurement is called skewness. The formula is
coefficient of variation. This expresses the standard deviation as a percentage of the mean.
3 ( 𝑋−𝑀𝑑)
_________________________________________________________________________ 𝑆𝐾 =
𝑠
𝑠 𝜎
For samples : 𝐶𝑉 = . 100% for population : 𝐶𝑉 = . 100%
𝑥 𝜇 Where 𝑋 – mean, Md – median, s - standard deviation

The data with the larger 𝐶𝑉 is more variable.

When the distribution is symmetrical, the coefficient is zero; when the distribution is
positively skewed, the coefficient is positive; and when the distribution is negatively skewed,
Example 4 : The average score of the students in one English class is 110, with a
the coefficient is negative.
standard deviation of 5; the average score of students in a History class

106, with a standard deviation of 4. Which class is more variable in terms

Example 5. Find the coefficient of skewness of a distribution with mean 10, median 8 and
of score? standard deviation 3.
5
Solution English class : 𝐶𝑉 = . 100% Solution
110

= 4.55 % The distribution is positively skewed since,

4 3( 10 − 8)
History class : 𝐶𝑉 = . 100% 𝑆𝐾 = =2
106
3
= 3.77 %

Since the coefficient of variation for the English class is larger, the scores here
MEASURE OF KURTOSIS 𝑛 − number of data in the sample 𝑠 − sample standard deviation

Even if the curves of distributions have the same coefficient of skewness, these curves may
still differ in the sharpness of their peaks. This property of curves can be described using the
A distribution is said to be
measure of kurtosis. For instance, the symmetrical curves have three types; the normal or
mesokurtic curves, the leptokurtic curves which are more peaked; and the platykurtic curves  Mesokurtic if 𝐾 = 3
which are flat- topped curves.  Leptokurtic if 𝐾 > 3
 Platykurtic if 𝐾 < 3

Mesokurtic

Leptokurtic
Example 6. Calculate the measure of kurtosis for the data in Example 3.

Solution Recall that the mean 𝑥 = 113 and the standard deviation 𝑠 = 9.07.

Class Limits 𝑓 𝑥𝑚 𝑓 . 𝑥𝑚 𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥 (𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥)4 𝑓 . (𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥)4

Platykurtic
90 – 98 6 94 564 -19 130 321 781 926
___________________________________________________________________________
99 – 107 22 103 2266 -10 10 000 220 000
The formula to compute the measure of kurtosis are 108 – 116 43 112 4816 --1 1 43
117 – 125 28 121 3388 8 4 096 114 688
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥 )4
For ungrouped data set : 𝐾=
𝑛𝑠 4 126 – 134 9 130 1170 17 83 521 751 689

∑ 𝑓 . (𝑥 − 𝑥)4
For grouped data set : 𝐾=
𝑛𝑠 4 Sum 108 12204 1 868 346
Example 1. An IQ test has a mean of 105 and a standard deviation of 20. Find the

∑ 𝑓 . (𝑥 − 𝑥)4 1 868 346 corresponding z score for each IQ.

𝐾= 4
=
𝑛𝑠 (108)(9.07)4
a. 88
1 868 346
=
730 891.49
b. 122
c. 110
= 2.56
𝑥− 𝑥 88 −105
Solution a.) 𝑧 = = = −0.85
Therefore, the given distribution is platykurtic since K < 3. 𝑠 20

𝑥− 𝑥 122 −105
MEASURES OF POSITION b.) 𝑧 = = = 0.85
𝑠 20

There are times when we want to know the position of a value relative to the other 𝑥− 𝑥 110 −105
c.) 𝑧 = = = 0.25
𝑠 20
observations in a data set. For instance, you took a 100 – item test. You might want to know
how your score of 88 compares to the scores of the others.

STANDARD SCORES OR 𝐙 SCORES QUARTILES, PERCENTILES AND DECILES

A z score measure the distance between an observation and the mean, measured in units of A quartile is a measure of relative standing. Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … 𝑥𝑛 be a set of 𝑛 measurements
standard deviation. Suppose that a student got a grade of 78 in her Math test and 55 in her arranged in order of magnitude. The first quartile, 𝑄1 , is the value of 𝑥 that exceeds one –
Science test. The scores cannot be compared directly since the exams may not be equivalent fourth of the measurements and is less than remaining three- fourths. The second quartile, 𝑄2 ,
in terms of number of questions, value of each question and, so on. But the relative position of is the median. The third quartile, , 𝑄3, is the value of 𝑥 that exceeds three – fourths of the
the scores can be made using the z scores. measurements and is less than one – fourth.

The standard score is obtained by subtracting the mean from the value/observation and Rules :
dividing the result by the standard deviation. The formula is
When the measurements are arranged in order of magnitude, that is increasing or decreasing;
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑥− 𝑥
𝑧= = 𝑄1 = 0.25 (𝑛 + 1) 𝑄2 = 0.50 (𝑛 + 1) 𝑄3 = 0.75 (𝑛 + 1)
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠
When 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are not integers, the quartile are found by interpolation. Solution: Arrange the data in order from lowest to highest. Then substitute in the

Example 3. Find 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎. formula .

(𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑥) + 0.5

19, 12, 16, 0, 14, 9, 6, 1, 12, 13, 10, 19, 7, 5, 8 Percentile = 𝑥 100%
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Solution Arrange the data from lowest to highest. 5 + 0.5

= 𝑥 100%
7
0, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 12, 13 , 14, 16, 19, 19
= 78.57 %
Using the formula,
The next examples illustrates how to find a value corresponding to a given percentile.
𝑄1 = 0.25 (15 + 1) = 0.25 ( 16) = 4  4th data : 6
Example 5. The following are scores in a Statistics test:
𝑄2 = 0.50 (15 + 1) = 0.50 ( 16) = 8  8th data : 10
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18 , 20
𝑄3 = 0.75 (15 + 1) = 0.75 ( 16) = 12  12th data : 14
Find the value corresponding to the 25th percentile.
Percentiles are position measures used in educational and health – related fields to
𝑛𝑝
indicate the position of an individual in a group. It is symbolized by 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … , 𝑃99 and Solution Arrange the data set from lowest to highest. Compute 𝑐 = , where
100
divide the distribution into 100 groups. 𝑛 is the total number of values and 𝑝 is the percentile.

The percentile corresponding to a given value 𝑥 is computed by using the formula: 𝑐=

𝑛𝑝
=
(10)(25)
= 2.5
100 100
(𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑥) + 0.5
Percentile = 𝑥 100% Since 𝑐 is not a whole number, round it up to the next whole number; in this
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Example 4. Find the percentile rank of a test score of 49 in the data set. case, 𝑐 = 3. Therefore, the 25th percentile is the 3rd value which is 5.

12, 28, 35, 42, 47, 49, 50 Deciles divide the distribution into tenths or 10 equal parts. A data set has nine
deciles which is denoted by 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , … , 𝐷9 . Basically, the first decile, 𝐷1 , is the number that
divides the bottom 10% of the data from the top 90%. To obtain the deciles, divide the data GROUPED DATA
into tenths and then determine the number dividing the tenths.
For grouped data, the quartiles, deciles, or percentiles can be determined using the following
Note that the second quartile, fifth decile, and fiftieth percentile of a data set are all formula.
the same and all equal to the median.
𝑘𝑛 − 𝑐𝑓
𝐿+ ( ) (𝑤)
Median = 𝑄2 = 𝐷5 = 𝑃50 . 𝑓

Similarly, 𝑄1 = 𝑃25 , 𝐷1 = 𝑃10 , and 𝑄3 = 𝑃75 . Where 𝑘 is equal to

Example 6. Find the value corresponding to the 60th percentile for the given data set. 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
4 10 100
80 68 53 58 76 73 85 88 91 79
𝑖 – 𝑖th quartile, decile, or percentile
Solution: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.
𝐿– lower boundary of the quartile, decile or percentile class
53 58 68 73 76 79 80 85 88 91
𝑛 – total number of observations
Using the formula,
𝑤 – class width
𝑛𝑝 ( 10) ( 60)
𝑐= = =6
100 100 𝑐𝑓𝑝 - frequency of the preceding class

Since the value of 𝑐 is a whole number, use the value halfway between 6 and 6 + 1
𝑓 – frequency of the quartile, decile or percentile class
values when counting from the lowest value – the 6th and 7th values.
3
For instance, if we are looking for the 3rd quartile, 𝑄3 , then 𝑖 = 3. Thus, 𝑘 = . Or if we are
4
53 58 68 73 76 79 80 85 88 91 70
interested with the 70th percentile, 𝑃70 , then 𝑖 = 70. Thus, 𝑘 =
100
6th value 7th value

(79+80)
The value halfway between 79 and 80 is = 79.5 . hence, 79.5 corresponds
2

to the 60th percentile.

Example 7. Find the third quartile, 4th decile and 70th percentile for the given frequency 4
𝑘𝑛 = ( ) (90) = 36 or 36th observation is the class with interval
10
distribution below.
74.5 - 85.5.
__________________________________________________________________________
𝑘𝑛−𝑐𝑓 36 −18
𝐷4 = 𝐿 + ( ) (𝑤) = 74.5 + ( ) (11) = 82.4
Class boundaries Frequency 𝑐𝑓 𝑓 25

70
52.5 – 63.5 6 6 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃70 → 𝑖 = 70, 𝑘 = ∶ the class contains 𝑘𝑛 = (70/100)(90) = 63 or 63rd
100

63.5 – 74.5 12 18 observation is the class with interval 85.5 – 96.5

𝑘𝑛 − 𝑐𝑓 63 − 43
74.5 – 85.5 25 43 𝑃70 = 𝐿 + ( ) (𝑤) = 85.5 + ( ) (11) = 93.4
𝑓 28
85.5 – 96.5 28 71
Exercises:
96.5 – 107.5 14 85
Answer the following.
107.5 – 118.5 5 90
1. A company manufactures computer terminals. The following data give the number of
computer terminals produced at the company for a sample of 30 days.
24 32 27 23 33 33 29 25 23 28
3
Solution : 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄3  𝑖 = 3, 𝑘 = ∶ The class that contains
4 21 26 31 20 27 33 27 23 28 29
3 31 35 34 22 26 28 23 35 31 27
𝑘𝑛 = ( ) (90) = 67.5 or
4
a. Calculate the values of the three quartiles.
68th observation is the class with interval 85.5 – 96.5. b. Find the value of the 65th percentile.
2. Which of the following exam grades has a better relative position?
𝑘𝑛−𝑐𝑓 67.5 −43
𝑄3 = 𝐿 + ( ) (𝑤) = 85.5 + ( ) (11) = 95.1
𝑓 28 a. A grade of 56 on a test with 𝑋 = 50 and 𝑠 = 4.

𝐷𝑖 = 𝐷4 → 𝑖 = 4, 𝑘 =
4
∶ The class that contains b. A grade of 70 on attest with 𝑋 = 75 and 𝑠 = 3.
10
3. A final examination for a statistics course has a mean of 84 and a standard deviation _______________________________________________
of 4. Find the corresponding z score for each raw score. Find each of the following.
a. 100 a. Mean
b. 96 b. Median
c. 80 c. Mode
d. 78 d. Variance
e. 92 e. Standard deviation
4. Which score indicates the highest relative position? f. Coefficient of skewness
a. A score of 3.2 on attest with 𝑋 = 4.6 and 𝑠 = 1.5 g. Measure of kurtosis

b. A score of 630 on attest with 𝑋 = 800 and 𝑠 = 200

c. A score of 43 on attest with 𝑋 = 50 and 𝑠 = 5

5. The following data represent the score of 30 students in a diagnostic test.

6. The following scores of 7 Statistics students were recorded.
____________________________________________
87 85 80 78 83 86 90
Class Limits Frequency
Find each of the following.
____________________________________________
a. Mean
40 - 47 1
b. Median
48 - 55 1
c. Mode
56 - 63 1
d. Midrange
64 - 71 3
e. Variance
72 - 79 7
f. Standard deviation
80 - 87 12
g. 𝑄2
88 - 95 4
h. 𝑃75
96 – 103 1
Teacher Intervention
For any difficulties or clarifications regarding our lesson, you can reach me through the
following modes of communication:
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References:

Mathematics in the Modern World

Philippine edition

Cengage Learning Mathematical Excursions, 14th Edition, by

Richard N. Aufmann, Joanne S. Lockwood, Richard D. Nation, and Daniel K. Clegg
𝑀𝑆𝐴 𝑇𝑀
Statistics
Merle S. Alferez
Ma. Cecilia A. Duro
Authors
Gerard S. Alferez
Projects director
If you have questions, you may contact me through my cellular no.:
09531054411
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