Module 6

SELF PACED LEARNING MODULE

IN

GE 4 (Mathematics in the Modern World)

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Module 6 Logic
a. Logic Statements and Quantifiers
b. Truth Tables and Tautologies
c. Conditional, Biconditional and related statements
d. Symbolic Arguments
e. Arguments and Euler diagrams
Competencies1. 1. Use mathematical concepts and tools in other areas such as in finance,
voting, logic, business, networks and systems.
2. 2. Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavors in
life.
3. 3. Construct truth tables.
4. 4. Define and identify statements.
5.
Discussion Logic Statements and Quantifiers
Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid
inference and correct reasoning. It is used in most intellectual activities,
but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics,
semantics, and computer science.
Logic examines:
(a) general forms which arguments may take,
(b) which forms are valid, and
(c) which forms are fallacies.
The initial motivation for the study of logic was to learn to distinguish good
arguments from bad arguments.
Statements
A statement is a declarative sentence that can be objectively determined to
be true or false, but not both.
Example1. Recognizing Statements

Decide which of the following are statements and which are not.
(a) Most scientists agree that global warming is a threat to the
environment.
(b) Is that your laptop?
(c) Man, that hurts!
(d) 8 -2 = 6
(e) This book is about database management.
(f) Everybody should watch reality shows.
Solution
Parts (a), (d), and (e) are statements because they can be judged as true or
false in a nonsubjective manner.
Part (b) is not a statement because it is a question.
Part (c) is not a statement because it is an exclamation.
Part (f) is not a statement because it requires an opinion.
Simple Statements and Compound Statements

Simple statements contain only one idea.
Example. These cargo pants are khaki.
My dorm room has three beds in it.
Compound statements consist of two simple statements.

Example. I will take chemistry this semester, and I will get an A”
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Compound statements are formed by joining two simple statements with
which what is called a connective.
The basic connectives are and, or, if … then, and if and only if.
Each of the connectives has a formal name: and is called a conjunction, or
is called a disjunction, if…then is called conditional, and if and only if is
called biconditional.
Example:
John studied for 5 hours, and he got an A. (conjunction)
Luisa will run in a mini triathlon or she will play in the campus tennis
tournament. (disjunction)
If I get 80% of the questions on the LSAT right, then I will get into law
school. (conditional)
We will win the game if and only if we score more points than the other
team. (biconditional)
Connectives and Symbols
Truth Value and Truth Tables

The truth value of a simple statement is either (T) or false (F).
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of
its simple statements and its connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of compound statement
for all possible truth values of its simple statements.
Example 2. Write the Negation of a Statement.

Write the negation of each statement.
a. Bill Gates has a yacht.
b. Avatar was not selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards
ceremony.
Solution.
a. Bill Gates does not have a yacht.
b. Avatar was selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards
ceremony.
Example 3. Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form

Consider the following statements
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
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Solution
a. p ∧ q b. ~q ∧ r c. ~s ∨ r d. 𝑞 → 𝑠
Example 4. Translate Symbolic Statements

Consider the following statements.
p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown in CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Dodgers are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

a. 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 b. ∼ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑠 c. 𝑠 ↔ ∼ 𝑝
Solution
a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.
c. The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played
in Atlanta.
Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are
used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together.
If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma

is used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together.
Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped together.
Example 5. Translate Compound Statements

Let p, q, and r represents the following.
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 as an English sentence.

b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a
VISION MISSION

promotion and you will not receive a bonus.”
Solution
a. Because the p and the q statements both appear in the parentheses in
the symbolic form, they are placed to the left of the comma in the English
sentence.
Thus, the translation is: If you get a promotion and complete the training,
then you will receive a bonus.
b. Because the not p and the not r statements are both to the right of the
comma in the English sentence, they are grouped together in parentheses
in the symbolic form.
Thus, the translation is: ∼ 𝑞 → (∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑟).
Quantifiers and Negation

Quantified Statements
Quantified statements involve terms such as all, each, every, no, none,
some, there exists, and at least one. The first five (all, each, every, no, none)
are called universal quantifiers because they either include or exclude
every element of the universal set. The latter three (some, there exists, and
at least one) are called existential quantifiers because they show the
existence of something, but do not include the entire universal set. Here
are some examples of quantified statements:
Every student taking Math for Liberal Arts this semester will pass.
Some people who are Miami Hurricane fans are also Miami Dolphin fans.
There is at least one professor in this school who does not have brown
eyes.
No Marlin fan is also a Yankee fan.
Negation
Recall that negation of a false statement is a true statement and the
negation of a true statement is a false statement. It is important to
remember this fact when forming the negation of a quantified statement.
For instance, what is the negation of the false statement, “All dogs are
mean”? You may think that the negation is “No dogs are mean,” but this is
also false statement. Thus, the statement “No dogs are mean” is not the
negation of “All dogs are mean.” The negation of “All dogs are mean,” which
is a false statement, is in fact “Some dogs are not mean,” which is a true
statement. The statement “Some dogs are not mean” can also be stated as
“At least one dog is not mean” or “There exists a dog that is not mean.”
Example 6. Write the Negation of a Quantified Statement

Write the negation of each of the following statements.
a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
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c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Solution
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are worth the price of admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Truth Tables and Tautologies

Truth tables
A truth table is a diagram in table form that is used to show when a
compound statements is true or false based on the truth values of the
simple statements that make up the compound statement.
If the given statement involves only two simple statements, then start with a
table with four rows called the standard truth table form.
Truth Value of a Conjunction

The conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true if and only if both p and q are true.
Truth Value of a Disjunction

The disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true if and only if p is true, q is true, or both p and
q are true.
Example 1.
a. Construct a table for ∼ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ∼ (∼ 𝑝 ∨
𝑞) ∨ 𝑞, given that p is true and q is false.
Solution
a. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a ∼ 𝑝 column.
Now use the truth values from the ∼ 𝑝 and q columns to produce the truth
values for ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, as shown in the rightmost column of the following table.
Negate the truth values in the ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 column to produce the following.
VISION MISSION

As our last step, we form the disjunction of ∼ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞 with q and place
the results in the rightmost column of the table. See the following table.
The shaded column is the truth table for ∼ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.
b. In row 2 of the above table, we see that when p is true, and q is false,
the statement ∼ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞 in the rightmost column is true.
Alternative Method for the Construction of a Truth Table

1. If the given statement has n simple statements, then start with a
standard form that has 2n rows. Enter the truth values for each simple
statement and their negations.
2. Use the truth values for each simple statement and their negations to
enter the truth values under each connective within a pair of grouping
symbols, including parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], and braces { }. If some
grouping symbols are nested inside other grouping symbols, then work
from the inside out. In any situation in which grouping symbols have not
been used, then we use the following order of precedence agreement. First
assign truth values to negations from left to right, followed by conjunctions
from left to right, followed by disjunctions from left to right, followed by
conditionals from left to right, and finally by biconditionals from left to
right.
3. The truth values that are entered into the column under the connective
for which truth values are assigned last, form the truth table for the given
statement.
Example.
Construct a truth table for 𝑝 ∨ [∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)].
Solution
Step 1. The given statement 𝑝 ∨ [∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)] has the two simple statements
p and q. Thus, we start with a standard form that has 22 = 4 rows. In each
column, enter the truth values for the statements p and ∼ 𝑞, as shown in
the columns numbered 1, 2, and 3 of the following table.
VISION MISSION

Step 2. Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth
values to enter under the “and” connective. See column 4 in the following
table. Now negate the truth values in the column numbered 4 to produce
the truth values in the column numbered 5.
Step 3. Use the truth values in the columns numbered 1 and 5 to

determine the truth values to enter under the “or” connective. See the
column numbered 6, which is the truth table for 𝑝 ∨ [∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)].
Equivalent Statements
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for
all possible truth values of their simple statements. Equivalent statements
have identical truth values in the final columns of their truth tables. The
notation 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞 is used to indicate that the statements p and q are
equivalent.
Example.
Show that ∼ (𝑝 ∨ ∼ 𝑞) and ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 are equivalent statements.
Solution
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. The truth tables
below show that ∼ (𝑝 ∨ ∼ 𝑞) and ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 have the same truth values for all
possible truth values of their simple statements. Thus, the statements are
equivalent.
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements

For any statements p and q,
∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞
∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ ∼ 𝑞
Example
Use one of De Morgan’s laws to restate the following sentence in an
equivalent form.
It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.
Solution
Let p represent the statement “I graduated.” Let q represent the statement
“I got a job.” In symbolic form, the original sentence is ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞). One of De
Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ∼ 𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞. Thus, a sentence
that is equivalent to the original sentence is “I did not graduate and I did
VISION MISSION

not get a job.”
Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

A tautology is a statement that is always true.
A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.
Example.
Show that 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology.
Solution
Construct a truth table as shown below.
The table shows that 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is always true. Thus, 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a

tautology.
Conditional, Biconditional and related statements

Conditional Statements
Conditional statements can be written in if p, then q form or in if p, q form.
For instance, all of the following are conditional statements.
If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.

If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us for dinner.
If n is a prime number greater than 2, then n is an odd number.
In any conditional statement represented by “If p, then q” or by “If p, q,” the

p statement is called the antecedent and the q statement is called the
consequent.
Example 1.
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a week.
b. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it.
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can
possibly imagine.
Solution
a. Antecedent: our school was this nice
Consequent: I would go there more than once a week
b. Antecedent: you don’t stop and look around once in a while
Consequent: you could miss it
c. Antecedent: you strike me down
Consequent: I shall be more powerful than you can possibly imagine
Arrow Notation
The conditional statement, “If p, then q,” can be written using the arrow
notation 𝒑 ⟶ 𝒒. The arrow notation 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is read as “if p, then q” or as “p
implies q.”
VISION MISSION

The Truth Table for the Conditional 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞
To determine the truth table for 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞, consider the advertising slogan for
a web authoring software product that states, “If you can use a word
processor, you can create a webpage.” This slogan is a conditional
statemen. The antecedent is p, “you can use a word processor,” and the
consequent is q, “you can create a webpage.” Now consider the truth value
of 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 for each of the following.
Row 1: Antecedent T, Consequent T. You can use a word processor, and

you can create a webpage. In this case the truth value of the advertisement
is true.
Row 2: Antecedent T, Consequent F. You can use a word processor, but
you cannot create a webpage. In this case the advertisement is false.
Row 3: Antecedent F, Consequent T. You cannot use a word processor,
but you can create a webpage. Because the advertisement does not make
any statement about what you might or might not be able to do if you
cannot use a word processor, we cannot state that the advertisement is
false, and we are compelled to place a T.
Row 4: Antecedent F, Consequent F. You cannot use a word processor,
and you cannot create a webpage. Once again, we must consider the
truth value in this case to be true because the advertisement does not
make any statement about what you might or might not be able to do if
you cannot use a word processor.
Truth Value of the Conditional 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞

The conditional 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is false if p is true and q is false. It is true in all
other cases.
Example 2.
Determine the truth value of each of the following.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 3, then 2 + 7 = 4.
Solution
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a
false statement.
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Example 3.
Construct a truth table for [𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝)] →∼ 𝑝.
Solution
Using the generalized procedure for truth table construction, we produce
the following table.
An Equivalent Form of the Conditional

The conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞 is equivalent to the disjunction ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.
𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
Example 4.
Write each of the following in its equivalent disjunctive form.
a. If I could play the guitar, I would join the band.
b. If David Beckham cannot play, them his team will lose.
Solution
In each case we write the disjunction of the negation of the antecedent and
the consequent.
a. I cannot play the guitar or I would join the band.
b. David Beckham can play or his team will lose.
The Negation of the Conditional

Because 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, an equivalent form of ∼ (𝑝 → 𝑞) is given by ∼ (∼ 𝑝 ∨
𝑞), which, by one of De Morgan’s laws, can be expressed as the
conjunction 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞.
The negation of 𝑝 → 𝑞
∼ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
Example
Write the negation of each conditional statement.
a. If they pay me money, I will sign the contract.
b. If the lines are parallel, then they do not intersect.
Solution
In each case, we write the conjunction of the antecedent and the negation
of the consequent.
a. They paid me the money and I did not sign the contract.
b. The lines are parallel and they intersect.
The Biconditional
The statement (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) is called a biconditional and is denoted by
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, which is read as “p if and only if q”.
VISION MISSION

Truth Values of a Biconditional Statement
The biconditional statement 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is true when p and q have the same
truth value and is false when they have opposite truth values.
An Equivalent Form of the Biconditional

The biconditional 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is equivalent to the.
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)]
Example
State whether each biconditional is true or false.
a. 𝑥 + 4 = 7 if and only if 𝑥 = 3.
b. 𝑥 2 = 36 if and only if 𝑥 = 6.
Solution
a. Both equations are true when x = 3, and both are false when 𝑥 ≠ 3. Both
equations have the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a true
statement.
b. If x = -6, the first equation is true and the second equation is false.
Thus, this is a false statement.
Equivalent forms of the conditional
Example
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
a. The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2.
b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Solution
a. The statement, “The number is an even number provided that it is
divisible by 2”, is in “q provided that p” form. The antecedent is “it is
divisible by 2,” and the consequent is “the number is an even number.”
Thus, its “If p, then q” form is
If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.
b. The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday as Thursday,” is in “p

only if q” form. The antecedent is “today is Friday.” The consequent is
“yesterday was Thursday.” Its “If p, then q” form is
If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.
VISION MISSION

The Converse, the Inverse and the Contrapositive
Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called
the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.
The converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝑞 → 𝑝.
The inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝑝 → ~𝑞.
The contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝑞 → ~𝑝.
The above definitions show the following:

1. The converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is formed by interchanging the antecedent p with
the consequent q.
2. The inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is formed by negating the antecedent p and
negating the consequent q.
3. The contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is formed by negating both the antecedent p
and the consequent q and interchanging these negated statements.
Example
Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of
If I get the job, I will rent the apartment.
Solution
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not get the job.
Truth Tables for Conditional and Related Statements
The table shows that any conditional statement is equivalent to its

contrapositive and that the converse of a conditional statement is
equivalent to the inverse of the conditional statement.
Example
Determine whether the given statements are equivalent.
a. If a number ends with a 5, then the number is divisible by 5.
If a number is divisible by 5, then the number ends with a 5.
b. If two lines in a plane do not intersect, then the lines are parallel.
If two lines in a plane are not parallel, then the lines intersect.
Solution
a. The second statement is the converse of the first. The statements are not
equivalent.
b. The second statement is the contrapositive of the first. The statements
are equivalent.
Example
Write the contrapositive of each statement and use the contraceptive to
determine whether the original statement is true or false.
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a. If 𝑎 + 𝑏 is not divisible by 5, then a and b are not both divisible by 5.
b. If 𝑥 3 is an odd integer, then x is an odd integer. (Assume x is an integer.)
c. If a geometric figure is not a rectangle, then it is not square.
Solution
a. If a and b are both divisible by 5, then 𝑎 + 𝑏 is divisible by 5. This is a
true statement, so the original statement is also true.
b. If x is an even integer, then 𝑥 3 is an even integer. This is a true
statement, so the original statement is also true.
c. If a geometric figure is a square, then it is a rectangle. This is a true
statement, so the original statement is also true.
Symbolic Arguments
Arguments
An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another
statement called the conclusion. An argument is valid if the conclusion is
true whenever all the premises are assumed to be true. An argument is
invalid if it I not a valid argument.
Consider the example below.
First Premise: If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.
Second Premise: Aristotle was human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.
It is customary to place a horizontal line between the premises and the

conclusion.
Arguments can be written in symbolic form. For instance, if we let h

represent the statement “Aristotle was human” and m represent the
statement “Aristotle was mortal,” then the argument can be expressed as
ℎ→𝑚
ℎ
∴m (the three dots ∴ are a symbol for “therefore”)
Example
Write the following argument in symbolic form.
The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh. Therefore, I will
order it.
Solution
Let f represent the statement “The fish is fresh.” Let o represent the
statement “I will order it.” The symbolic form of the argument is
𝑓 ∨∼ 𝑜
𝑓
∴𝑜
Arguments and Truth Tables

The following truth table procedure can be used to determine whether an
argument is valid or invalid.
1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth value of each premise and
the truth value of the conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the
simple statements.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the
premises are true, the argument is valid. If the conclusion is false in any
row in which all of the premises are true, the argument is invalid.
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Example
Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.
If it rains, then the game will not be played. It is not raining. Therefore, the
game will be played.
Solution
If we let r represent “it rains” and g represent “the game will be played,”
then the symbolic form is
𝑟 →∼ 𝑔
∼𝑟
∴𝑔
The truth table for this argument follows.
Question: Why do we need to examine only rows 3 and 4?

Answer: Rows 3 and 4 are the only rows in which all of the premises are
true.
Because the conclusion in row 4 is false and the premises are both true,
the argument is invalid.
Example
Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.
If I am going to run the marathon, then I will buy new shoes.
If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television.
∴ If I buy a television, I will not run the marathon.
Solution
Label the statements.
m: I am going to run the marathon
s: I will buy new shoes.
t: I will buy a television.
The symbolic form of the argument is
The truth table for this argument follows.
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The only rows in which both premises are true are rows 2, 6, 7 and 8.
Because the conclusion is true in each row, the argument is valid.
Standard Forms
Some arguments can be shown to be valid if they have the same symbolic
form as an argument that is known to be valid. For instance, we have
shown that the argument
ℎ→𝑚
ℎ
∴m
is valid. This symbolic form is known as modus ponens or the law of
detachment. All arguments that have this symbolic form are valid. The
table below shows four symbolic forms and the name used to identify each
form. Any argument that has a symbolic form identical to one of these
symbolic forms is a valid argument.
The law of syllogism can be extended to include more than two conditional
premises. For example, if the premises of an argument are 𝑎 → 𝑏, 𝑏 → 𝑐, 𝑐 →
𝑑, … , 𝑦 → 𝑧, then a valid conclusion for the argument is 𝑎 → 𝑧. We will refer
to any argument of this form with more than two conditional premises as
the extended law of syllogism.
Example
Use a standard form to determine whether the following argument is valid
or invalid.
The program is interesting or I will watch the basketball game.

The program is not interesting.
∴ I will watch the basketball game.
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Solution
Label the statements
i: The program is interesting.
w: I will watch the basketball game.
In symbolic form the argument is

𝑖∨𝑤
∼𝑖
∴𝑤
This symbolic form matches the standard form known as disjunctive
syllogism. Thus, the argument is valid.
Example
Determine whether the following argument is valid.
If the movie was directed by Steven Spielberg (s), then I want to see it (w).
The movie’s production costs must exceed $50 million (c) or I do not want
to see it. The movie’s production costs were less than $50 million.
Therefore, the movie was not directed by Steven Spielberg.
Solution
In symbolic form the argument is
Premise 2 can be written as ∼ 𝑤 ∨ 𝑐, which is equivalent to 𝑤 → 𝑐. Applying

the law of syllogism to Premise 1 and this equivalent form of Premise 2
produces
Combining the above conclusion 𝑠 → 𝑐 with Premise 3 gives us
This sequence of valid arguments has produced the desired conclusion,∼ 𝑠.

Thus, the original argument is valid.
Example
Use all of the premises to determine a valid conclusion for the following
argument.
We will not go to Japan (∼ 𝑗) or we will go to Hong Kong (h). If we visit my
uncle (u), then we will go to Singapore (s). If we go to Hong Kong, then we
will not go to Singapore.
Solution
In symbolic form
The first premise can be written as 𝑗 → ℎ. The second premise can be
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written as ∼ 𝑠 →∼ 𝑢. Therefore, the argument can be written as
Interchanging the second and third premise yields
An application of the extended law of syllogism produces
Thus, a valid conclusion for the original argument is “If we go to Japan (j),
then we will not visit my uncle (∼ 𝑢).
Arguments and Euler diagrams

Many arguments involve sets whose elements are described using
quantifiers all, some, and none. The mathematician Leonhard Euler used
diagrams to determine whether arguments that involved quantifiers were
valid or invalid. The following figures show Euler diagrams that illustrate
the four possible relationships that can exist between two sets.
Example 1.
Use Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
All college courses are fun.
This course is a college course.
∴ This course is fun.
Solution
The first premise indicates that the set of college courses is a subset of the
set of fun courses. We illustrate this subset relationship with Euler
diagram. The second premise tells us that “this course” is an element of
the set of college courses. If we use c to represent “this course,” then c
must be placed inside the set of college courses.
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The figure on the right illustrates that c must also be an element of the set
of fun courses. Thus, the argument is valid.
Example 2.
invalid.
Some Impressionist paintings are Renoirs.
Dance at Bougival is an Impressionist painting.
∴ Dance at Bougival is a Renoir
Solution
The Euler diagram in the figure below illustrates the premise that some
Impressionist paintings are Renoirs. Let d represent the painting Dance at
Bougival. The figure on the center and on the right show that d can be
placed in one of two regions.
Although the figure in the center supports the argument, the figure on the
right shows that the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the
premises, thus, the argument is invalid.
Example 3.
invalid.
No psychologist can juggle.
All clown can juggle.
∴ No psychologist is a clown.
Solution
The Euler diagram in the figure in the left below shows that the set of
psychologists and the set of jugglers are disjoint sets. The figure on the
right shows that because the set of clowns is a subset of the set of jugglers,
no psychologists p are elements of the set of clowns. Thus, the argument is
valid.
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Example 4.
invalid.
All fried foods are greasy.
All greasy foods are delicious.
All delicious foods are healthy.
∴ All fried foods are healthy.
Solution
The figure below illustrates that every fried food is an element of the set of
healthy foods, so the argument is valid.
Example 5.
Use Euler diagram and all of the premises in the following to determine a
valid conclusion.
All Ms are Ns.
No Ns are Ps.
∴?
Solution
The first premise indicates that the set of Ms is a subset of the set of Ns.
The second premise indicates that the set of Ns and the set of Ps are
disjoint sets. The Euler diagram below illustrates these set relationships.
An examination of the Euler diagram allows us to conclude that no Ms are
Ps.
Enrichment Logic Statements and Quantifiers

Activities 1. Write each symbolic statement in words. Use p, q, r, s, t and u as defined
below.
p: The tour goes to Italy.
q: The tour goes to Spain.
r: We go to Venice.
s: We go to Florence.
t: The hotel fees are included.
u: The meals are not included.
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a. 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 b. 𝑟 ∨ 𝑠
c. 𝑟 →∼ 𝑠 d. 𝑝 → 𝑟
e. 𝑠 ↔∼ 𝑟 f. ∼ 𝑡 ∧ 𝑢
Truth Tables and Tautologies

1. How many rows are needed to construct a truth table for the statement
[𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑟)] ∨ (𝑠 ∧∼ 𝑡)?
Conditional, Biconditional and related statements

1. Write the (a) converse, (b) inverse and (c) contrapositive of the statement
“If I were rich, I would quit this job.”
Symbolic Arguments
1. Use a truth table to determine whether the argument is valid or invalid
𝑝↔𝑞
𝑝→𝑟
∴∼ 𝑟 →∼ 𝑝
Arguments and Euler Diagrams

1. Use a Euler diagram to determine whether the argument is valid or
invalid
Some plants have flowers.

All things that have flowers are beautiful.
∴ Some plants are beautiful.
Comprehension 1. Construct a truth table for the given statement.

Check a. (𝑟 ↔∼ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 → 𝑞)
b. (∼ 𝑟 ∨∼ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
2. Use a truth table to show that the given pairs of statements are
equivalent.
a. ∼ 𝑝 →∼ 𝑞; 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
b. ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞; ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
3. Use truth table to determine whether the given statement is a tautology

or a self-contradiction.
a. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝)
b. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 →∼ 𝑞)
4. Use truth table to determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.

(𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑟) → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
𝑟∧𝑝
∴𝑝∨𝑞
5. Use Euler diagram to determine whether the argument is valid or

invalid.
Some dogs have tails.
Some dogs are big.
∴ Some big dogs have tails.
Reference Mathematical Excursions 3rd edition by Aufmann, et.al.
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SELF PACED LEARNING MODULE

GE 4 (Mathematics in the Modern World)

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Example1. Recognizing Statements

Simple Statements and Compound Statements

Compound statements consist of two simple statements.

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Connectives and Symbols

Truth Value and Truth Tables

Example 2. Write the Negation of a Statement.

Example 3. Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Example 4. Translate Symbolic Statements

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma

Example 5. Translate Compound Statements

a. Write (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 as an English sentence.

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Thus, the translation is: ∼ 𝑞 → (∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑟).

Quantifiers and Negation

Example 6. Write the Negation of a Quantified Statement

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Truth Tables and Tautologies

Truth Value of a Conjunction

Truth Value of a Disjunction

Negate the truth values in the ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 column to produce the following.

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Alternative Method for the Construction of a Truth Table

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Step 3. Use the truth values in the columns numbered 1 and 5 to

De Morgan’s Laws for Statements

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

The table shows that 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is always true. Thus, 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a

Conditional, Biconditional and related statements

If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.

In any conditional statement represented by “If p, then q” or by “If p, q,” the

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Row 1: Antecedent T, Consequent T. You can use a word processor, and

Truth Value of the Conditional 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

An Equivalent Form of the Conditional

The Negation of the Conditional

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

An Equivalent Form of the Biconditional

Equivalent forms of the conditional

b. The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday as Thursday,” is in “p

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

The above definitions show the following:

Truth Tables for Conditional and Related Statements

The table shows that any conditional statement is equivalent to its

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

It is customary to place a horizontal line between the premises and the

Arguments can be written in symbolic form. For instance, if we let h

Arguments and Truth Tables

“Molding Minds, SHAping Future”

Question: Why do we need to examine only rows 3 and 4?

The symbolic form of the argument is