3rd Semester B.Ed. Notes

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B.Ed. Notes: 3rd


Semester (2019-2021)

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PAPER – (1)
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

ASSESSMENT

Assessment is defined as a systematic way of acquiring, reviewing and using


information about someone or something, so as to make improvement where necessary.
The term is interpreted in a variety of ways, i.e. educational, psychological, financial,
taxation, human resource and so on.

OR

Assessment is typically used to describe processes to examine or measure students’


learning that results from academic programs. It determines whether or not the course's
learning objectives have been met. A learning objective is what students should know
or be able to do by the time a lesson is completed. It provides feedback to students,
educators, parents, policy makers, and the public about the effectiveness of educational
services.

OR
Assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use to evaluate,
measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or
educational needs of students. It is an ongoing process aimed at improving student
learning. Improving learning from assessment sometimes occurs immediately in
classrooms or later because of changes for future students. It is not based on one test or
one task, nor is it expressed by mark or grade, but rather in a report form with scales or
levels as well as description and comment from the teacher. The report is written based on
samples of the student’s work, the student’s self-assessment sheets, teacher’s observation
notes on the achievement of the student’s linguistic ability, attitude, participation,
cooperation and general cognitive development. The student’s achievement is often
measured against his/her own starting point rather than compared against the skills or
abilities of other students.

Definitions:

 The process of collection information or evidence of a learner’s learning progress


and achievement over a period of time in order to improve teaching and learning.
– Bob Adamson
 Assessment refers to the full range of information gathered and synthesized by
teachers about their students and their classrooms. -- Arends

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 Assessment as any of a variety of procedures used to obtain information about


student performance. – Linn
and Miller

Why Assessment is important?


Assessment is a key element of learning effectively by students. It helps students to see
their performance in a class whether they are able to understand the course material or
not. Just as assessment helps students, assessment helps teachers.

EVALUATION

Evaluation is the process of gathering and interpreting evidence regarding the problems
and progress of individuals in achieving desirable educational goals. Evaluation uses
methods and measures to judge student learning and understanding of the material for
purposes of grading and reporting. Evaluation is feedback from the instructor to the
student about the student’s learning.
OR

Evaluation is concerned with a whole range of issues in and beyond language education
i.e. lessons, courses, programs and skills can be evaluated. It produces a global view of
achievement usually based on many different types of information such as observation of
lessons, student’s test scores, teacher’s assessment reports, course documents or
interviews with students and teachers etc.

Definitions: (Evaluation)
 The process of making overall judgement about one’s work or a whole school’s
work.
-- Camerson
 Evaluation is typically a broader concept than assessment as it focuses on the
overall or summative experience. –
Ewell (2003)

Chief Purpose of Evaluation:


 The improvement of individual Learner

Other Purposes of Evaluation:


 To maintain Standard
 To select Students
 To motivate learning

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 To guide learning
 To furnish instruction
 To appraise educational instrumentalities

Functions of Evaluation:
 Prediction
 Diagnose
 Research

Areas of Educational Evaluation:


 Achievement
 Aptitude
 Interest
 Personality

Types of Evaluation:

1. Placement Evaluation
(To determine student performance at the beginning of instruction)
2. Formative Evaluation
(To monitor learning progress through instruction)
3. Diagnostic Evaluation
(To diagnose learning difficulties during instruction)
4. Summative Evaluation
(To assess achievement at the end of instruction)

Difference between Formative v/s Summative Evaluation:

Sr/No. Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation


1. Purpose is to detect strength and Overall achievements
weakness
2. One unit or no. of units are covered Course content is covered
3. Evaluative during or end of unit In end-point of certification ,
promotion
4. More frequent Less frequent
5. Forces and Reinforces learning Final test of learner’s achievement
6. Dialogue between teacher and learner Tests learning outcomes against a set
objective criteria
7. Done immediately Inform regarding pass or fail
8. It is advisory, not always for permanent Decisive and for permanent record
record

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Difference between Formative and Summative Evaluation:


Formative Evaluation:
1. Formative evaluation is used during the teaching learning process to monitor the
learning process.

2. Formative evaluation is developmental in nature. The aim of this evaluation is to


improve student’s learning and teacher’s teaching.

3. Generally teacher made tests are used for this purpose.

4. The test items are prepared for limited content area.

5. It helps to know to what extent the instructional objectives have been achieved.

6. It provides feed-back to the teacher to modify the methods and to prescribe remedial
works.

7. Only few skills can be tested in this evaluation.

8. It is a continuous and regular process.

9. It considers evaluation as a process.

10. It answers to the question, whether the progress of the pupils in a unit is successful?

Summative Evaluation:
1. Summative evaluation is used after the course completion to assign the grades.

2. Summative evaluation is terminal in nature. Its purpose is to evaluate student’s


achievement.

3. Generally standardized tests are used for the purpose.

4. The tests items are prepared from the whole content area.

5. It helps to judge the appropriateness of the instructional objectives.

6. It helps the teacher to know the effectiveness of the instructional procedure.

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7. Large number of skills can be tested in this evaluation.

8. It is not regular and continuous process.

9. It considers evaluation as a product.

10. Answers to the question, the degree to which the students have mastered the course
content.

Evaluation Tools:
 Daily Assignments
 Quizzes
 Objective Tests
 Essay Tests
 Individual Projects
 Group/Collaborative Projects
 Teacher observation
 Self-Assessment
 Journal
 Writing (Stories, Reports etc.)
 Games
 Discussion
 Simulation
 Problem-solving
 Dramatic Activities

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DIFFERENCE/ COMPARISON BETWEEN ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION:

ASSESSMENT EVALUATION

Assessment is a process of collecting, Evaluation is described as an act of passing


reviewing and using data, for the purpose of judgement on the basis of set of standards.
improvement in the current performance.

Diagnostic Judgemental

Provides feedback on performance and Determines the extent to which objectives are
areas of improvement. achieved.

Formative Summative

Process Oriented Product Oriented

Based on observation and positive & Based on the level of quality as per set standard.
negative points.

Reflective Prescriptive

Set by both the parties jointly. Set by the evaluator.

Absolute Comparative

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CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION


(Concept, Significance, Merits and Limitations)

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)


CCE refers Continuous & Comprehensive Evaluation, a system of school based
assessment that covers all the aspects of a student’s development. It was designed to
reduce the student stress related to board exams, and to introduce a uniform and
comprehensive pattern for student evaluation across the country. It emphasizes on two
broad objectives:
(a) Continuity in Evaluation and
(b) Assessment of broad based learning.
Clearly, it attempts to shift emphasis from ‘testing’ to ‘holistic learning’ with an aim of
creating young adults, possessing appropriate skills and desirable qualities in addition to
academic excellence.
OR
CCE (Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation) is a step taken by CBSE (Central
Board of Secondary Education) in order to improve the student's performance by
identifying his/her learning difficulties at regular intervals, right from the beginning of
the academic session and employing suitable remedial measures for enhancing their
learning performance.

Objectives of CCE:
 To help develop cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills.
 To lay emphasis on thought process and de-emphasize rote learning.
 Make the entire education process a student-centric activity.
 Help develop cognitive, psychomotor and interpersonal skills.
 Make holistic evaluation an integral part of entire education process.
 Improve student's accomplishments through regular diagnostics and remedial
instructions.
 Use evaluation to control quality and maintain desired performance.

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 Take decisions about the learner, learning process and learning environment by
determining social utility, desirability & effectiveness of the programme

Need and Importance/Significance of CCE:


 Overall Personality Development
 Generating Interest
 Reduce Stress
 Learner Centred activity
 Flexibility
 Stress
COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION:
The ‘comprehensive’ component of CCE takes care of assessment of all round
development of the child’s personality. It includes assessment in Scholastic as well as Co-
Scholastic aspects of the pupil’s growth.
1. Scholastic Evlaution (Subject Specific Areas)
2. Co – Scholastic Evaluation
(Life Skills, Co – Curricular activities, Attitudes and Values

1. Scholastic Evaluation: (Subject Specific Areas)


Assessment in Scholastic areas is done informally and formally using multiple techniques
of evaluation continually and periodically. There are 2 types of Assessments, in an
academic year, to test the Scholastic areas:
 Formative Assessment (FA) and
 Summative Assessment (SA)
Formative Assessment
Formative Assessment (FA) is carried out as a part of the instruction methodology and
provides continuous feedback to both the teachers and the learners. It comprises of Class
work, Homework, Oral questions, Quizzes, Projects, and Assignments/Tests etc.
Main features of Formative Assessment:
 It is diagnostic and remedial.
 Makes the provision for effective feedback.

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 Provides a platform for the active involvement of students in their own learning
process.
 Enables teachers to adjust teaching to take account of the results of the assessment
and to incorporate varied learning styles in deciding what and how to teach.
 Recognizes the influence of the assessment on the motivation and self-esteem of
students.
 Offers an opportunity to the students to improve their performance post the
feedback is given
Summative Assessment
Summative assessment is carried out at the end of a term. It measures how much a
student has learnt from the course and is usually a graded test i.e. Examination.
SA might not be able to yield a valid measure of the growth and development of the child.
It might only certify the level of achievement only at a given point of time. Therefore,
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation is designed to measure continuous
assessment in the form of Formative Assessment, along with the Summative Assessment.

2. Co – Scholastic Evaluation
(Life Skills, Co – Curricular activities, Attitudes and Values
Assessment in Co-Scholastic areas is done using multiple techniques on the basis of
identified criteria. Assessment of Co-scholastic areas is done at the end of the year on a 5
point grading scale.
Co-Scholastic areas of evaluation include:
 Life Skills i.e. Thinking, Social & Emotional Skills
 Attitude & Values i.e. towards Teachers, School-mates, School Programmes ,
Environment and the Value System
 Co-curricular Activities which are further divided into:
(i) Activities - Literary & Creative Skills, Scientific Skills, Visual &
Performing Arts, Leadership & Organization Skills and other Co-
curricular activities,
(ii) Health and Physical Education, that includes areas like Sports, NCC,
Gardening etc.

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STATISTICAL TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

STATISTICS
Statistics is derived from the Latin word ‘Status’ that means a group of numbers of
figures represents some information of human interest. We find statistics in everyday life,
such as in books or other information papers or TV or newspapers.
It is a branch of mathematics concerned with collection, classification, analysis, and
interpretation of numerical facts, for drawing inferences on the basis of their quantifiable
likelihood (probability).
Definitions:
 Statistics is the science of estimates and probabilities. -- Boddington
 Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
numerical data. --
Croxton and Cowden
Importance and Scope of Statistics:
 Statistics in Economics
 Statistics in Business and Management
 Statistics in Accountancy and Auditing
 Statistics in Industry
 Statistics in Insurance
 Statistics in Astronomy
 Statistics in Physical science
 Statistics in Social Science
 Statistics in Biology and Medical Sciences
 Statistics in Psychology and Education

Stages of Investigations:

1. Collection of Data:
It is the first stage of investigation and is regarding collection of data. It is determined that
which method of collection is needed in this problem and then data are collected.

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2. Organisation of Data:
It is second stage. The data are simplified and made comparative and are classified
according to time and place.

3. Presentation of Data:
In this third stage, organised data are made simple and attractive. These are presented in
the form of tables diagrams and graphs.

4. Analysis of Data:
Forth stage of investigation is analysis. To get correct results, analysis is necessary. It is
often undertaken using Measures of central tendencies, Measures of dispersion,
correlation, regression and interpolation etc.

5. Interpretation of Data:
In this last stage, conclusions are enacted. Use of comparisons is made. On this basis,
forecasting is made.

Graphical Presentation of Data:


 Histogram
 Frequency Polygon
 Cumulative Frequency Curve
 Cumulative Percentage Curve or Ogive
 Pie Diagram

Measure of Central Tendency


In statistics, a central tendency (or measure of central tendency) is a central or typical
value for a probability distribution. It may also be called a center or location of the
distribution.
The most common measures of central tendency are the arithmetic mean, the median
and the mode.

The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under different conditions,
some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use than others.

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PAPER – (2)
GENDER, SCHOOL AND SOCIETY

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PAPER – (2)
GENDER, SCHOOL AND SOCIETY

UNIT- I

WHAT IS GENDER EQUALITY?

Gender equality is achieved when women and men enjoy the same rights and
opportunities across all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-
making, and when the different behaviours, aspirations and needs of women and men are
equally valued and favoured.

OR
Gender equality refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men
and girls and boys. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both,
women and men are taken into consideration, recognizing the diversity of different groups
women and men(for example: women belonging to ethnic minorities, lesbian women or
women with disabilities). Gender equality is both, a human rights principle and a
precondition for sustainable, people-centered development (adapted from UN Women).

GENDER IS NOT A SYNONYM FOR SEX

The words gender and sex are often used interchangeably, but there are important
distinctions between the two concepts. Sex is based on anatomical, physiological
characteristics of males and females, while gender is a social construct—that is, a society's
assumptions about the way a man or woman should look and behave. Traditional gender
roles encompass the activities, responsibilities, and decision making power that a society
has historically assigned to men and women within public and private spaces. The
specifics may differ across societies, but no society assigns equal power or status to men
and women.

WHAT IS GENDER?
Sex and gender are not the same thing. Sex is a biological fact. Almost all human beings
are born in one of two biologically differentiated types: a girl or a boy. Gender, on the
other hand, is a social condition. As the World Health Organization (WHO) explains:

‘Sex’ refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.
‘Gender’ refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a
given society considers appropriate for men and women.

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To put it another way:

‘Male’ and ‘female’ are sex categories, while ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ are gender
categories.

Some examples of sex characteristics:


• Girls will begin to menstruate while boys do not;
• Boys have testicles while girls do not;
• Women will be able to breastfeed a baby but men cannot;
• After puberty most boys develop greater muscle capacity than girls.

Some examples of gender characteristics:


• In Europe, women earn significantly less money than men for similar work;
• In many countries, girls dance more while boys play more football;
• In the whole world, women and girls do more housework than men and boys;
• Boys more often suffer from corporal punishment than girls.

An important part of one’s identity and individuality, gender roles are formed through
socialization. Today, not only the family, school and workplace influence such
socialization, but also the media, including new information technologies, music and
films. Both traditional and such new socializing forces serve to preserve and transmit
gender stereotypes

WHAT IS THE MEANING OF MASCULINITY AND FEMININITY?

Masculinity and femininity are the terms that are often used to identify a set of
characteristics, values, and meanings related to gender. In our society, the values tied
to masculinity have been generally seen as superior to those associated with femininity.

OR

“Femininities" and "Masculinities" describe gender identities. They describe socio-


cultural categories in everyday language; these terms are used differently in biology
(see below). Because femininities and masculinities are gender identities, they are
shaped by socio-cultural processes, not biology (and should not be essentialized).
Femininities and masculinities are plural and dynamic; they change with culture and
with individuals.

POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND:

 In everyday language, femininities and masculinities do not map onto biological


sex. In any one culture, certain behaviors or practices may be widely recognized as
“feminine” or “masculine,” irrespective of whether they are adopted by women or
by men. Femininities and masculinities are not descriptors of sexual orientation.

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 Femininities and masculinities are plural—there are many forms of femininity


and many forms of masculinity. What gets defined as feminine or masculine differs
by region, religion, class, national culture, and other social factors. How
femininities and masculinities are valued differs culturally.

 Any one person—woman or man—engages in many forms of femininity and


masculinity, which she or he adopts (consciously or unconsciously) depending on
context, the expectations of others, the life stage, and so forth. A man can engage in
what are often stereotyped as “feminine” activities, such as caring for a sick parent.

 Cultural notions of “feminine” and “masculine” behavior are shaped in part by


observations about what women and men do. This kind of “gender marking” tends
to discourage women or men from entering “gender-inauthentic” occupations
(Faulkner, 2009).

 Femininities and masculinities are learned. Messages about “feminine” and


“masculine” behaviors are embedded in advertising, media, news, educational
materials, and so forth. These messages are present in a range of environments,
from the home to the workplace to public spaces.

Note on biology: Although the terms “feminine” and “masculine” are gender terms
(socio-cultural categories) in everyday usage, they carry different meanings in
biology. Masculinization refers to the development of male-specific morphology, such
as the male reproductive structures. Feminization refers to the development of
female-specific morphology, such as the female reproductive structures.

Q:- WHAT IS FEMININE? WHAT IS MASCULINE?


Feminine traits are ways of behaving that our culture usually associates with being a girl
or woman. Masculine traits are ways of behaving that our culture usually associates with
being a boy or man.

WORDS COMMONLY USED TO DESCRIBE FEMININITY :

 dependent
 emotional
 passive
 sensitive
 quiet
 graceful
 innocent
 weak
 flirtatious

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 nurturing
 self-critical
 soft
 sexually submissive
 accepting

WORDS COMMONLY USED TO DESCRIBE MASCULINITY:

 independent
 non-emotional
 aggressive
 tough-skinned
 competitive
 clumsy
 experienced
 strong
 active
 self-confident
 hard
 sexually aggressive
 rebellious

Clearly, society’s categories for what is masculine and feminine are unrealistic. They may
not capture how we truly feel, how we behave, or how we define ourselves. All men have
some so-called feminine traits, and all women have some so-called masculine traits. And
we may show different traits at different times. Our cultures teach women and men to be
the opposite of each other in many ways. The truth is that we are more alike than
different.

Androgyny: People who express masculine and feminine traits equally are sometimes
called androgynous. Among androgynous people, neither masculine nor feminine traits
dominate.

WHAT IS GENDER EQUITY


Gender equity is the process of being fair to women and men. To ensure fairness,
strategies and measures must often be available to compensate for women's historical and
social disadvantages that prevent women and men from otherwise operating on a level
playing field. Equity leads to equality.

OR

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Gender Equity is the process of allocating resources, programs, and decision making fairly
to both males and females without any discrimination on the basis of sex…and addressing
any imbalances in the benefits available to males and females

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENDER EQUALITY AND GENDER EQUITY

Gender equality refers to ensuring everyone gets the same resources regardless of
gender, whereas gender equity aims to understand the needs of each gender and provide
them with what they need to succeed in a given activity or sector. The terms are
sometimes used interchangeably, but there are significant distinctions between them.

OR

In contrast to gender equality, gender equity refers to the process of allocating resources
based on the particular requirements of a gender. For example, instead of making sure
males and females each receives 50 percent of the facilities of a sports center, gender
equity means that each gender receives the right proportion and types of facilities
according to their interests, capacities and experiences. While gender equality focuses on
providing the same starting circumstances for everyone, the goal of gender equity is to
provide both genders with the same end results. The term gender equity is often used as a
juxtaposition for social justice. In most cases, the concept of gender equality is used in
correlation with the empowerment of women, whereas gender equity refers to the process
of treating both men and women with the same amount of fairness when it comes to the
equality of chances based on individual needs.

EQUALITY VS. EQUITY

There is sometimes confusion about the difference between the concepts


of equality and equity. Usage often depends on the sector and country in question. In
Canada, in the sport and physical activity system, the use of gender equity is most
common.

In contrast to equity, gender equality is the process of allocating resources, programs and
decision making so that males and females have the same (therefore females and males
would each receive 50% of the resources, facilities, and each have access to the same
programs, e.g. if there was a male program, there would also be a female program). While

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the goal of treating everyone the same may seem noble, the principle of equal treatment
tends to ignore the fact that people differ in their capacities, interests, resources and
experiences.

Equality focuses on creating the same starting line for everyone. Equity has the goal of providing
everyone with the full range of opportunities and benefits – the same finish line.

THE BENEFITS OF GENDER EQUITY


Organizations have much to gain by committing themselves to achieving gender equity:

 Attracting more girls and women to sport and physical activity enhances the
revenue base and increases the market segment to which the sport appeals.
 Fully representing the population base and tapping the resources of every member
results in a larger, stronger and more effective organization.
 Skilled women provide the organization with an important talent pool of
administrators, coaches and officials.
 Changing the image of women in sport attracts public interest and private
investment. In turn, more members are attracted to the organization.
 Taking the lead in promoting girls and women brings prestige and support to the
organization.
 Working together, women and men can learn to build equal partnerships.
 Providing opportunities for mothers and daughters to get involved can enhance
both the chosen sport or activity, and family relationships.
 Sport and physical activity can provide opportunities for girls to understand and
respect their bodies which in turn helps them to deal with health issues such as
eating disorders and smoking.
 By fulfilling their legal responsibility to treat fairly everyone involved in the
organization and making a commitment to gender equity, organizations avoid a
negative public image as well as the time and expense of dealing with unnecessary
lawsuits.

WHAT IS GENDER EQUITY? (Psychology and Sociological perspective)

Gender Equity is the process of allocating resources, programs, and decision making fairly to both
males and females without any discrimination on the basis of sex…and addressing any imbalances
in the benefits available to males and females.

Gender Equity is the process of allocating resources, programs and decision-making


fairly to both males and females. This requires ensuring that everyone has access to a full
range of opportunities to achieve the social, psychological and physical benefits that come
from participating and leading in sport and physical activity. It does not necessarily mean
making the same programs and facilities available to both males and females. Gender
equity requires that girls and women be provided with a full range of activity and
program choices that meet their needs, interests and experiences. Therefore, some
activities may be the same as those offered to boys and men, some may be altered, and

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some may be altogether different. Human rights legislation, including the 1982 Canadian
Charter of Rights and Freedoms, has affirmed the principles of equity while making
provisions for affirmative action programs to eliminate disadvantages.

Gender Equity also requires an examination of organizational practices and policies that
may hinder the participation of girls and women. For example, this requires service
providers to assess:

 Hiring and recruitment practices – to ensure women have leadership roles, and
involved in decision-making, and are available as role models for other girls and
women;
 Resource allocation – to determine how budgets are allocated across programs;
 Facility bookings – to ensure that both females and males have access to prime
time slots and prime facilities;
 Participation rates – to evaluate current programs and services to identify potential
barriers, and to determine whether co-ed programs are truly co-ed;
 Activity programming – to assess the types of activities offered for males and
females;
 Promotional materials – to ensure girls and women are not being excluded or
stereotyped in pictures or language.

Positive initiatives that target specific groups are important because they take into account
years of socialization and historical traditions that have created imbalances, subsequently
marginalizing sectors of the population because these conditions are accepted as the
norm.

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PAPER – (3)
INCLUSIVE SCHOOL

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION:

Inclusive education is latest and modern system in education which provides new
manners, methods and parameters to education for all. It is the process of bringing
exceptional children of whatever condition into the general classroom for their
education.
OR
Inclusive education refers when children with and without disabilities participate and
learn together in the same classes. Research shows that when a child with disabilities
attends classes alongside peers who do not have disabilities, good things happen. It is a
new approach towards educating the children with disability and learning difficulties
with that of normal ones within the same roof. It brings all students together in one
classroom and community, regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area, and
seeks to maximize the potential of all students. It is one of the most effective ways in
which to promote an inclusive and tolerant society.

Inclusive School:
In an inclusive school, children with disabilities do not study in separate classes; instead
teaching methods, textbooks, materials, and the school environment are designed so that
girls and boys with a range of abilities and disabilities — including physical, sensory,
intellectual and mobility impairments — can be included in the same class.
Definitions:
 Inclusive education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education
system to reach out to all learners. – Dr. J.D.Singh (2016)
Features/Characteristics of Inclusive Education:
 Education for all
 Children develop a positive understanding of themselves and others
 Fundamental Right of all individuals
 Friendships develop.

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 Children learn important academic skills


 Flexible Curriculum
 All children learn by being together.
 Involvement of parents and community
 Need based instructional starategies
 Child-centred Approach

Need /Importance of Inclusive Education:

 It is an education setting in which disabled children receive education along with


non-disabled children in the regular classroom.
 It provides equal education opportunity to the disabled and to prepare them for
independent living like other members of the society.
 It provides the least restrictive and the most effective environment to disabled
children so that they may grow and develop like other children.
 It promotes a healthy social relationship between the disabled and non-disabled
children and reduces the physical distance between them through equal
participation in social activities.
 It is based on cooperative efforts of regular classroom teachers , the specialist
teacher, parents to attain the goal.

 Promoting Social Justice & teaching All Students

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PAPER – (4)
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

SOCIALIZATION

Socialization is the process of learning how to become part of a culture. Through


socialization one learns the culture's language, their role in life, and what is expected
from them. Socialization is a very important process in the forming of
personality. Socialization occurs when one interacts with other people. Socialization is a
lifelong process.

OR

Socialisation stands for the development of the human brain, body, attitude, behaviour
and so forth. Socialisation is known as the process of inducting the individual into the
social world. The term socialisation refers to the process of interaction through which
the growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values and beliefs of the social group
into which he has been born.

Need/ Importance of Socialization in Our Life:


1. Socialization converts man, the biological being into man, the social being.
2. Socialization contributes to the development of personality.
3. Helps to became disciplined.
4. Helps to enact different roles.
5. Provides the knowledge of skills.
6. Helps to develop right aspiration in life.
7. Contributes to the stability of the social order.
8. Helps to reduce social distance.
9. Provides scope for building the bright future
Hence process of socialisation is important from the point of view of society as well as
from the point of view of individual. Every society is faced with the necessity of making a
responsible member out of each child born into it. The child must learn the expectations of
the society so that his behaviour can be relied upon. He must acquire the group norms in

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order to take the behaviour of others into account. Socialisation means transmission of
culture, the process by which men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which
belongs. It is through it that a society maintain its social system, transmits its culture from
generation to generation.

Agencies of Socialization:

To facilitate socialisation different agencies play important roles. These agencies are
however interrelated.

1. Family:
2. Peer Group:
3. Religion:
4. Educational Institutions:
5. Occupation:
6. Political Parities:
7. Mass Media:

SELF: (Meaning, Components and How “Self” develops)

 Self is a reference by an individual to the same individual person.


Components of Self:
Three components make up the self, conveniently all begin with “self”:
 Self-awareness,
 Self-concept, and
 Self-esteem.

Self-awareness can be defined as “the ability to step outside yourself; to view yourself as
a unique person distinct from your surrounding environment, and reflect upon your
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors” (Self-awareness allows you to judge your actions and
interpret them into a personality trait). An important exercise in enhancing interpersonal
communication is a sort-of elevated form of self-awareness called “critical self-reflection”
when you ask yourself certain questions so you may judge how you can improve.

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Self-concept is the “overall perception of who you are”. Self-concept revolves largely
around your beliefs about yourself which can be impacted by many factors; some factors
being family, culture, and gender. Often, self-concept can shaped by the labels others put
on us and how we emotionally respond to these labels. Self-concept is difficult to change
because it revolves around the deep-set beliefs, attitudes, and values you hold.

Self-esteem is “the overall value that we assign ourselves” . Self-esteem is the


evaluation of self concept because it forces you to ponder how much you are worth.
Self-esteem affects relationships, interpersonal skills, and our outlooks on life.

THREE PART OF SELF (ID, EGO AND SUPER EGO)

The id, ego, and superego are names for the three parts of the human personality
which are part of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic personality theory.

Acc. to Freud, these three parts combine to create the complex behavior of human
beings.

Id: Meeting Basic Needs

The id is the most basic part of the personality, and wants instant gratification for our
wants and needs. If these needs or wants are not met, a person becomes tense or anxious.

 A hungry baby cried until he was fed.

Ego: Dealing with Reality

The ego deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the id in a way that is socially

acceptable in the world. This may mean delaying gratification, and helping to get rid of

the tension the id feels if a desire is not met right away. The ego recognizes that other

people have needs and wants too, and that being selfish is not always good for us in the

long run.

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 Even though Michael needed money, he decided not to steal the money from the cash
register because he didn’t want to get in trouble.

Superego: Adding Morals

The superego develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and
wrong. Even though the superego and the ego may reach the same decision about
something, the superego’s reason for that decision is more based on moral values, while
the ego’s decision is based more on what others will think or what the consequences of an
action could be.

 Sarah knew that she could steal the supplies from work and no one would know about
it. However, she knew that stealing was wrong, so she decided not to take anything
even though she would probably never get caught.

SOCIAL SELF THEORY. (By Mead)


George Herbert Mead, a sociologist from the late 1800s, is well known for his theory of
the social self, which includes the concepts of 'Self,' 'me,' and 'I.' ... According to Mead,
the self is not there from birth, but it is developed over time from social experiences and
activities.

George Herbert Mead's Theory of the Self:


According to Mead, the self, the part of one's personality composed of self-awareness and
self- image, emerges through social interaction. Mead made several assumptions in
proposing this idea:
1) that the self develops only through social interaction;
2) that social interaction involves the exchange of symbols;
3) that understanding symbols involves being able to take the role role of another.

Three stages of Development of Self:


According to Mead, there are three activities through which the self is developed:
The process of forming the self, according to mead occurs in three distinct stages:

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1. Imitation: In this stage, children copy behaviour of adults without understanding it. A
little boy might ‘help’ his parents vacuum clean the floor by pushing a toy vacuum
cleaner or even a stick around the room.

2. Play stage: A child plays, sometimes at being a mother or a teacher, at times a Post
man, a police man etc. In this stage, responses are not organised. A child thus
internalizes the attitudes of others who are significant to him through encating the roles
of others.
3. Game Stage: As a child matures, he also learns to respond to ‘Generalised Others’.
The individual just does not identifies the roles of his significant others(family) but also
determines other. He gains a Social Identity.

Self (‘Me’ and ‘I’ )


According to Mead the "self" has two sides the "Me" represents the expectations &
attitudes of others and is often known as the organized set of attitudes of others assumed
by the individual. The "I" is the response to the "Me" or the person's individuality a major
instrument of social control or the way the community exercises control over the conduct
of its individual members.

KEY POINTS

 One of the most important sociological approaches to the self was developed by
American sociologist George Herbert Mead. Mead conceptualizes the mind as the
individual importation of the social process.
 This process is characterized by Mead as the "I" and the "me. " The "me" is the social
self and the "I" is the response to the "me. " The "I" is the individual's impulses. The
"I" is self as subject; the "me" is self as object.
 For Mead, existence in a community comes before individual consciousness. First
one must participate in the different social positions within society and only
subsequently can one use that experience to take the perspective of others and thus
become self-conscious.

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Agencies of Socialization and Development of Self:


(Home, Community, School inter-linkages within wider social-cultural contexts)
1. Role of Home :
 Knowledge of social Norms/Rules
 Motivation and weak orientation
 Significance of social relations
 Social Interactions
 Acquisition of Moral Values
 Gender Role
 Language, Learning and Development
 Cognitive Competencies
 Social Characteristics and Sociability
 Physical and Mental Health

2. Role of School:
 Transmission of Knowledge
 Moral Development
 Maintenance of Social Heritage
 Preservation of Traditions and Culture
 Teach Social Control
 Inculcate Democratic Norms
 Ensure All round Development of Personality
 Leadership Quality
 Development of Social Values
 Academic Potential
 Character building and Self concept

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Emergence of ‘Person’ and ‘Identity’


(Concept, Need and Determinants in the formation of person)

Concept of Person:

A Person is a being. A human being that has certain capacities or attributes constituting a
person, which in turn is defined differently by different authors in different disciplines
and by different cultures in different time and place.
OR
Persons are those ‘beings’ who among other things are conscious have a concept and
awareness of themselves, are capable of experiencing emotions, can reason and acquire
understanding, can plan ahead, can act on their plan and can feel pleasure and pain.
Definitions
 In Psychology, a person is something with both mental and physical
characteristics.
 In Philosophy, a person is one who is capable of framing representations about the
world, formulating plans and acting on them.
 Acc. To Thomas I. White, “Person is one who is alive, aware, feels positive and
negative, has emotions, has sense of self, controls its own behaviour, recognizes
other persons and treats them appropriately and has variety of cognitive abilities.

Concept of Identity

The word ‘Identity’ is derived from the French word ‘identite’ which means ‘the same'. It
refer to either (a) a social category, defined by membership rules and (alleged)
characteristic attributes or expected behaviors, or
(b) socially distinguishing features that a person takes a special pride in or views as
unchangeable but socially consequential. Hence “identity” as a substitute for “dignity,”
“pride,” “status,” “honor,” “self-respect,” and so on.

Note: Acc. to Erikson, the most important process of identity development takes place
during adolescence.
Definitions:

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 In Psychology, identity is the qualities, beliefs, personality, looks and/or


expressions that make a person (self-identity) or group (particular social category
or social group).

In James Marcia's theory, the operational definition of identity is whether an individual


has explored various alternatives and made firm commitments to: an occupation, religion,
sexual orientation and a set of political values.

Characteristics of Identity:
 Social-psychological construct * Self-constructive
 On-going process * Can be assigned or selected
 Self-regulatory system * Regarded as persistent entity

Identity Formation:

Identity formation is the development of an individual's distinct personality, which is


regarded as a persisting (continuing) entity in a particular stage of life by which a person
is recognized or known. This process defines individuals to others and themselves.
Identity formation continues throughout the life course.

Determinants of Identity Formation:


 Traditional Values
 Parenting styles
 Society
 Family
 Peer Relations
 Cognitive influences
 Scholastic influences
 Role models
 Socio-cultural influences
 Culture
 Language
 Gender
 Family
 Friends
 Media
 Interests and hobbies
 Your city, town, or community
 Your country

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Determinants in the Formation of a Person:


 The Psychological Determinants
 The Sociological Determinants
(Culture, Language, Religion, Society, Parents, Social Rituals, Group Influences)
 The Biological Determinants
(Good physical structure, Nervous system and Glands, Genes,
 The Environment
 The Experiential Determinants
(General Experiences, Particular Experiences)

Influence of Peer Group on Identity Formation


(A) Positive Influence
 Fairness and Justice
 Avoid psycho disorders
 Good mental health
 Adaptation
 Adjustment
 Serves as source of information
 Self-reliance
 Development of moral values
 Problem Solving Skill
 Cognitive Influences
(B) Negative Influences
 Risky behaviour
 Emotional Instability
 Social Instability
 Aggression
 Problems in future

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Constructive Role of Education and ‘Critical Pedagogy’


in moving towards peaceful living

Education
Education is as old as the human race. It is a never ending process of inner growth and
development and its period stretches from birth to death. It is an essential human virtue.
Man has become ‘man’ through education. Education is a very important for the
progress of individual and society. It is through education, man develops his thinking,
reasoning, creativity, skills, values, attitudes and intelligence etc. In fact man’s entire life is
an education.

Peace

 There is no route to peace, peace is the route -- Mahatma Gandhi


 Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of
peace must be constructed. -- UNESCO

Peace Education
Peace education is the process of acquiring the values, the knowledge and developing the
attitudes, skills, and behaviors to live in harmony with oneself, with others, and with the
natural environment.
Or
Peace education means to create in the human consciousness a commitment to the ways
of peace. Students in peace education classes learn how to solve problems caused by
violence. Social violence and warfare can be described as a form of pathology, a disease.
Peace education tries to inoculate (immunize, vaccinate) students against the evil effects
of violence by teaching skills to manage conflicts nonviolently and by creating a desire to
seek peaceful resolutions of conflicts.
Peace educators use teaching skills to stop violence by developing a peace consciousness
that can provide the basis for a just and sustainable future.

The word ‘education’ comes from the Latin word ‘educare,’ to draw or lead out. Peace
education draws out from people their instincts to live peacefully with others and
emphasizes peaceful values upon which society should be based. . Educators, from early
childhood to adult, can use their professional skills to tell their students about peace.

In addition to providing knowledge about how to achieve peace, peace educators


promote a pedagogy, based upon modeling peaceful democratic classroom practices.
They share a hope that through education people can develop certain thoughts and
dispositions that will lead to peaceful behavior. Key aspects of this disposition include
kindness, critical thinking, and cooperation. Developing such virtues is an important part
of peace education.

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Constructive Role of Education towards Peaceful living:

 Progressive Development of Innate Powers


 All Round Development of Personality
 Character Formation * Moral Development
 Adaptation to Environment * Preservation of Culture and Civilization
 Making the Man Civilized * Satisfaction of Needs
 Vocational Efficiency * Preparation for life

Pedagogy

 Pedagogy is the science and art of education, specifically instructional theory?

Critical Pedagogy

Critical pedagogy emphasizes the role of educators to teach students to think about social
injustices, so they can improve their world. Or
Critical pedagogy is based on the work by Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator, who was
once imprisoned and then exiled as a traitor for his teaching methods which were used to
teach illiterate adults. Critical pedagogy recognizes the influence that the lack of
education has on the oppression of impoverished people. One of the primary goals of
education is to help people develop critical consciousness. Critical consciousness is the
ability to assess the political and social structures that exist and to empower people to
question authority and speak out against injustices.

For Example:
In the traditional view of education, teachers are pillars of knowledge; they know
everything and students know nothing. Teachers deposit knowledge in students and
never ask them to question that knowledge. The teacher thinks, the students don’t. The
teacher chooses the content, students comply with it. Teacher is authority and students are
obedient to authority. Students in this model are receivers of knowledge. They receive,
memorize and repeat. They are not asked to relate this knowledge to the current
problems and injustices in society with the aim of improving the society.
Hence, critical pedagogy emphasizes the role of educators to teach students to think
about social injustices, so they can improve their world.

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(OPTIONAL PAPER)
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
GUIDANCE
Guidance means ‘to direct’, ‘to point out’, ‘to show the path’. Guidance is a concept as
well as a process. As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal development of
the individual. As a process guidance helps the individual in self understanding
(understanding one‘s strengths, limitations, and other resources) and in self-direction
(ability to solve problems, make choices and decision on one‘s own).
Definitions:

 Guidance is a process of helping every individual, through his own efforts, to


discover and develop his potentialities for his personal happiness and social
usefulness. – Ruth Strang

 Guidance helps an individual to develop his personality fully and enables him to
serve the society to the best of his capabilities and talents. –
Woodworth

 Guidance involves personal help given by someone; it is designed to assist the


individual to decide where he wants to go, what he wants to do and how best he
can accomplish his purpose.
—Jones

Nature/Characteristics of Guidance:

 Continuous Process
 Assistance
 Promotes Personal Growth
 Expert Service
 Self Direction
 Process of Adjustment
 Personal happiness and Social Usefulness
 Preparation for Future Life

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 Organized Guidance

Need and Importance of Guidance:

 Optimum development of individual


 Self understanding and self direction
 To help an individual to solve any complex situation.
 It is mainly created around educational needs, vocational needs & personal needs.
 Social personal adjustment , Better family life
 It helps the child to adjust with situations and develop the ability to face problems
and resolve them.
 To develop the personality of the child according to his inborn tendencies, traits
and capacities.
 To provide all necessary information to the people to choose a better career and to
get success in life
 Academic growth and development
 Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational adjustments
 Good citizenship
 For conservation and proper utilization of human resources
 For national development

AREAS OF GUIDANCE:

(Educational, Vocational and Personal): Meaning and Objectives

1. Educational Guidance:

Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school / colleges, the


curriculum, the methods of instruction, other curricular activities, disciplines etc.

Educational guidance is the assistance given to the individual:

(i) to understand his/her potentialities (ii) have a clear cut idea of the different
educational opportunities and their requirements (iii) to make wise choices as regards to
school, colleges, the course : curricular and extra curricular.

Some of the aims and objectives of Educational Guidance are:

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 To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand his/her


potentialities, strength and limitations.
 To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities, interests
and goals.
 To enable the student to know detail about the subject and courses offered.
 To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/ college
subjects.
 To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations, social life
connected with it.
 To help the child in developing good study habits.
 To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in which he
can develop leadership and other social qualities.
2. Vocational Guidance:

Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual to choose an occupation,


prepare for it, enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned primarily with helping
individuals make decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a
career. The purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress
in a vocation is the optimum growth of the individual.

Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:

 Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to feet them into
general requirements of the occupation under consideration.
 Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will dignify
whatever type of occupation s/he may wish to enter.
 Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of occupations
and to learn a technique for analyzing information about vocations.
 Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities offered by
various educational institutions engaging in vocational training.
 At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance programmes are needed,
the orientation to vocation can be initiated at this stage. At this stage some
qualities and skills which have grater vocational significance viz. love and
respect for manual work (ii) training in use of hands (iii) spirit of cooperative

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work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciation for all works (vii) good interpersonal
relationship are to be developed.
 At the secondary stage vocational guidance should help the students to know
themselves, to know the world of work, to develop employment readiness to
develop decision making rules.
 At the higher education stages it should be more formal one. The objectives of
guidance at this stage are to help the students to get information about different
career, training facilities, apprenticeship etc.
2. Personal Guidance:
Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents and family,
friends and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to home or family which
creates feeling of disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too much of
them it leaves them with a feeling of incompetence and insecurity leading poor self-
concept and self esteem. The objectives of personal guidance are to help the individual
in his/her physical, emotional, social, rural and spiritual development.

The aims and objectives of personal guidance are :

 To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself.

 To assist the individual involving the personal problems.

 To assist the individual in taking independent decisions and judgement.

 To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment in right
perspective.

 To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different problems


confronted in life.

Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life.

 At the elementary school stage opportunities should be given to students 6 for


their self expression. Personal guidance at this stage deals with the problems
related to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance, discipline etc.

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 At the secondary stage, the students have more intricate personal problems.
During the secondary stage adolescent students due to peculiar physical,
emotional and social developments undergo noticeable changes in their
attitude and behaviour. Personal guidance at this stage should therefore focus
on personal and social adjustment.

 Personal guidance at the tertiary stage aims at helping them view life in
relation to reality. The scope of personal guidance at this stage is very wider.

COUNSELLING
Counselling is the service offered to the individual who is undergoing a problem and
needs professional help to overcome it. It is a series of direct contacts with the individual
which aims to offer him assistance in changing his attitudes and behaviour.
OR
It is a process in which a counselor holds face to face talks with another person to help
him or her solve a personal problem, or help improve that person's attitude, behavior, or
character.

Definitions
 Counselling implies a relationship between two individuals, in which one gives a
certain kind of assistance to the other. --
Myer

Nature/ Characteristics of Counseling:


1. Relationship:- Counselling is a person to person relationship.

2. Two individuals: - It involves two individuals on seeking help and the other, a
professionally trained person who can help the first.

3. Solution of problem: - The main objective of the counselor is to discover and solve
the problem independently.

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4. Democratic: - Counselling is democratic. It sets up a democratic pattern and allow


the counselor to do freely whatever he likes while with the consultant and not
under the consultant.

5. Providing self direction and self acceptance: - The main emphasis in the whole of
counseling process is on the counsellor’s self direction and self acceptance.

Three forms of counseling:


(a) Educational counseling: It is a process of assisting an individual in relation to
educational problem.
(b) Vocational Counselling: It is a process of helping an individual in choosing a
proper vocation and preparing him for vocation.
(c) Psychological counseling: It is the counseling of an individual and student in
relation to his personal and emotional problem.

Need and Importance of Counselling:


1. To help in the total development of the student.
2. To help in the proper choices of courses.
3. To help in the students in vocational development.
4. To develop readiness for choices and changes to face new challenges.
5. To minimize the mismatching between education and employment and help in the
efficient use of manpower.
6. To motivate the youth for self employment.
7. To help freshers establish proper identity.
8. Guidance and counseling service is needed to help students deal effectively with
the normal developmental tasks of adolescence and face life situations boldly.
9. To identify and motivate the students form weaker sections of society.
10. To help the students in their period of chaos and confusion.
11. To help in checking wastage and stagnation.
12. To identity and help students in need of special help.

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13. There are such students as the gifted, the backward the handicapped who need
special opportunities. They need special attention and opportunities.
14. To ensure the proper utilization of time spent outside the classrooms also.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING:

1. Difference in scope:- Guidance has a wider scope than counsellling. Counseling is


a part of guidance. All counseling is guidance but all guidance is not counseling.

2. Need:- Guidance is universal in nature in the sense that all persons need guidance.
Counseling is needed by those who face serious educational, vocational or
psychological problems.

3. Individual and group guidance:- Guidance may be given individually as well as


collectively. Counseling is primarily individually in nature.

4. Continuity:- Guidance is a continuous and life ling process. We also need


guidance. Counseling is needed only when a person faces some crucial problem i.e.
problem of serious nature.

5. Economical:- Guidance is economical in term of time, energy and money.


Counseling is time consuming and expensive process.

6. Type of problems:- Guidance worker is primarily concerned with educational and


vocational problems. Counselor is primary concerned with emotional and
adjustmental problems.

7. Subject matter:- Guidance worker generally knows the subject matter of guidance.
In counseling the counselor may not know the subject matter of counseling in
advance.

8. Interview:- Interview is very essential in counseling. It has been regarded as the


heart of counseling. No counseling is possible without interview. Use of interview
technique is not essential in guidance.

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9. Rapport:- Rapport between the counselor and the client is very essential for
providing effective counseling. In providing effective guidance, it is not essential to
establish rapport.

Purpose of Counselling:
1. To give information to the student on matters important to his success.
2. To get information about the student which will be of help in solving problems.
3. To establish mutual understanding between students and teachers.
4. To help the student work out a plan for solving difficulties.
5. To help the student to know his interests, abilities, aptitudes etc.
6. To encourage and develop special abilities and right attitudes.
7. To assist the student in planning educational and vocational choices.

Steps in counselling:-
1. Calm and attractive place:- There should be calm and an attractive place for
providing counselling to the student. There should be no noise or distraction.
2. Rapport:- Rapport should be established between the counsellor and the counselee.
Rapport is characterised by mutual respect, co-operation, closeness, friendship,
sincerity, freedom conqenial environment. Rapport helps in making the counselee
free to express his viewpoint without any reservations.
3. Relevant questions:- The questions to be asked to client should be brief and to the
point. All embrassing questions should be avoided as far as possible.
4. Co-operative attitude:- There should be co-operative attitude of the counsellor.
5. Respecting the counselee:- Due respect should be shoun towards the individuals
feeling, sentiments etc and he should not feel embarrassed.
6. Locating causes and finding solutions:- Causes of problems should be found and
subsequently solution should be offered the causes of the problems may be deep
rooted and it is the task of the counsellor to reach the roots of the suitable solution.
7. Many meeting:- Because of complexity of human problems and behaviour, many
sitting may be needed with the counselee to solve the problems.

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8. Self understanding:- After collecting and analysing the data the counselee is
assisted in understanding the problem in right perspective and relationship.
9. Self development:- The counselee should be helped in taking right decision to
develop insight for self analysis, self direction, self management and self
counselling.

Role of Counsellor in Counselling:


A function is a special activity or purpose of a person. The main aim or function of
counsellor is counselling. The activities to be performed:-
1. Psychological testing:- The counsellor selects appropriate psychological test and
administers them to students, score them and interprets findings.

2. Organising dissemination of information:- He collects educational and vocational


information about various sources and disseminates it.

3. Conducting intervies:- The purpose of counselling interview are:-

i. To collect information from the counselee.

ii. To impart information to the counselee.

iii. To motivate the counselee and enable him to take interest in himself.

iv. To help the counselee in solving educational, vocational and psychological


problems.

4. Providing educational and vocational guidance:- The counsellor provides


educational and vocational guidance to students and refers cases to appropriate
community agencies, plans future programmes.

5. Contacting outside agencies:- He contact outside agencies like parents, guidance


bureaus and employment exchanges.

6. Conducting placement services:- He helps student and other applicants desiring


jobs and assist them in placement.

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7. Conducting research:- The counsellor in conjuction with fellow workers organises


programmes, improvemen of guidance services.

8. Conducting group guidance:- The counsellor conducts group guidance for people
regarding problems of educational and vocational adjustment.

Approaches/Theories of counselling:
1. Directive counselling:- It is also known as prescriptive or Counsellor centered
counselling. It is counsellor who prepares entire plans and sees through the
process.

Assumptions:-
i. All of our efforts should be focussed on the problem of counselee.

ii. Counsellor is more competent than counselee and hence plays a more active
role than the client.

iii. Counselling is primarily and intellectual rather than emotional process.

iv. Goal is to help individual grow in the direction of optimum development.

Steps in Directive Counselling:-


i. Analysis:- Collection of data from a variety of sources by using a variety of tools
and techniques. The data is needed for an adequate understanding of the client.

ii. Synthesis:- Summarising and organising the data so as to reveal the clients assests,
liabilities, adjustments and maladjustments.

iii. Diagnosis:- At this stage we are to find out the root causes of the problems
exhibited by the client.

iv. Prognosis:- At this stage we predict the future development of the clients
problems.

v. Treatment or counselling:- It may include:-

a. Establishing rapport with the student.

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b. Interpreting the collected data to the student.

c. Advising or planning a programme of action with the student.

d. Assisting the student in carrying out the plan of action.

vi. Follow up:- Here the counsellor helps the client with new problems or with
recurrences of the original problem and determines the effectiveness of counselling
provided to him.

Advantages:-
a) It is economical in time.

b) Emphasis on problem and not on the individual.

c) Directive counselling puts mor emphasis on the intellectual rather than emotional
aspects of the personality of the individual.

d) In directive counselling methods used are direct, persuasive and explanation.

Disadvantages:-
a) The client or counselee does not gain any ability of self analysis or solving new
problems.

b) It serves to make the counselee never dependent on the counsellor. It bills the
intitative of the client.

c) Problems regarding emotional maladjustment can better be solved by non-directive


counselling and not by directive counselling.

d) It lacks information regarding the pupil and lack of information will cause wrong
counselling.

e) Directive counselling does not keep the counselee away from making mistakes in
future.

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2. Non- Directive counselling:- It is also called permissive counselling or client


centered counselling. In this type of counselling it is the client- the –counselee-
who is the pivot or the centre. It is the counselee who plays a primary role.

Assumptions:-
a) Independence and integration of client is more important.

b) Emotional aspects are more significant than the intellectual aspects.

c) Creating an atmosphere in which the client can work out of his understanding
is more important than cultivating self understanding in the client.

d) Counselling leads to a voluntary choice of goals and conscious selection of


course of action.

Steps in Non- Directive Counselling:-


a) Seeking help:- The client recognises the needs of counselling and comes for help.
Help is sought and not given.

b) Defining the situation:- The counsellor defines the situation and creates coneenial
atmosphere.

c) Friendly attitude:- Attitude of counsellor is of friendship, symphathy and affection.

d) Understanding:- The counsellor tries to understand the feelings of individual.

e) Acceptance:- The counsellor accepts and recognise the positive as well as negative
feelings.

f) Negative self feeling to positive self feeling:- The counsellor pays attention to
negative self feeling of the client or child and leads him from negative self feelings
to positive self feelings.

g) Insight in to action:- The counsellor helps the client to translate his insight into
action.

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h) Positive steps:- Positive steps towards the solution of problem situation begin to
occur.

i) Decreased need for help:- A decreased need for help is felt and the client is the one
who decides to end the contact.

Advantages:-
a) It is a slow but sure process to make the individual capable of making adjustment.

b) No tests are used in it and thus we avoid all that is laborious and difficult.

c) It remove the emotional block and helps the individual to bring the repressed
thoughts in conscious level and there by reduces the tension.

d) It develops potentialities and capabilities of the client.

Limitations:-
a) It is a slow and time consuming process.

b) The child, the client, the student or the counsellor is immature to make the
decisions himself. Hence we can rely upon his resources judgement and wisdom.

c) There are individuals who will like to lead from stage to stage. The counsellors
passive attitude might irritate the counselee so mush that he might hesitate to
express his feelings.

3. Eclective Counselling:- Eclectic counselling is the synthesis and combination of


directive and non directive counselling. It represent a middle position between two
extremes as represented by the non directive technique on the one hand and the
directive technique on the other.

In eclectic counselling the counsellor first takes in to consideration the personality


and needs of the counselee and then selects the directive and non directive
technique that seems to serve the purpose the best.

Steps in eclectic counselling:- Thorne suggested some steps which can be summarised as
follows:-

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a) Diagnosis of the cause.

b) Analysis of the problem.

c) Preparation of a tentative plan for modifying factors.

d) Securing effective conditions for counselling.

e) Interviewing and stimulating the client to develop his own resources and to
assume his responsibility for trying new modes of adjustment.

f) Proper handling of any related problems which may contributed to adjustment.

Limitations:-
a) It is said that eclecticism is not possible because directive and non directive concept
cannot be merged together.

b) Some writers believe the eclecticism is vague, superficial and opportunistic.

To conclude we can say that inspite of above mentioned limitations eclectic


counselling can prove to be of much practice value in the methodology of counselling.
Q:- Define the meaning of Cumulative Record Card CRC , its Types or design,
Contents, features Advantages.
Meaning of Cumulative Record card:
The other name of Cumulative Record Card is the Cumulative Record form. It contains
the history of the child from the day he enters the primary class till he leaves the school. It
is an account of child’s history in the school. Giving the Indian touch, the cumulative
Record card can be easily compared to the ‘Janam Patri’ of the child. From this we know
about the past & from his dependence predictions can be made about the future also.
There will be only one Cumulative Record from one child though many other types of
records and progress reports can be maintained about him.
Definition of Cumulative Card:-
 The Cumulative Record is a record of information concerned with appraisal of the
individual pupil, kept on a card and in one place. -- Allen

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 A cumulative record is a permanent record of a student which is kept up to date by the


school. It is his educational history with information about his school achievements,
attendance, health tests scores and similar pertinent data. -- Jones

To conclude , we can say :

1. Cumulative record includes all types of information related to the pupil.

2. Definate information related to the pupul is included in the cumulative record.

3. Cumulative record provides objectives information about the pupils

4. Cumulative record is the complete picture of the child his abilities, drawback and
achievements etc.

Types or Forms of Cumulative Records Cards:-


The cumulative record can be maintained in the following form.
1. Single card.

2. Folder type card

3. Cumulative folder type.

1. Single Card:- It has one card only. It’s both sides can be used for writing the
information. Such cards can accommodate much information. Its size is 9’’ x 11’’.

2. Folder Type Card:- These are of various types. Their size ranges 4’x6’ to the full
form. Colored forms make the sorting of the form convenient.

3. Cumulative folder type: It is a folder facts are written in the boxes on the both sides
of the folder. There is also a provision for written additional information. There are
many pages in it.

Contents of a Cumulative Record:-


1. Public Introduction or Identifying data:- Identifying data like name, age, sex, birth
date of the child.

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2. Social Economic Background of Pupil: The total information of social Economic


background of the child. All information about the parents of the child, their
education, profession, siblings, annual income etc.

3. Health Data: The data relating to the physical & mental position of the pupil are
collected

4. Presence: How many a days a pupil attend the school in a year. Courses of being
absent.

5. Psychological data: Psychological Data like intelligence, interest aptitudes, emotional


& social adjustments and other personality traits.

6. Educational Data: School maks, school attendance, participation & achievements in


various co-curricular activities like games & sports etc.

7. Vocational Data: Vocational ambitions of the students.

8. Personality Traits: i.e- Data regarding honesty, punctuality, obedience, corporation,


intellectual abilities etc.

9. The personnel opinion of the councilor, teacher or head of the institutes.

Features of cumulative Record card:

1. Objectivity & Validity:- It should be free from bias, prejudice, misunderstanding or


subjectivity.

2. Accuracy & Validity:- The information entered in the record card should be as
accurate as possible. It should be authentic and valid. It is better to write any
information then give wrong information.

3. Continuity:- It should have continues and cumulative record of the pupil’s gaps in
information within the limited space available. Unnecessary details should be
avoided.

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4. Economy:- It should carry maximum possible, information within the limited space
available. Unnecessary details should be avoided.

5. Usability:- The information should be so recorded that it may easily be used &
interpreted whenever required.

6. Recency: Any piece of information should be recorded as soon as it is obtained, to


minimize loss due to forgetfulness.

7. Comprehensiveness: It must have a clear picture both horizontally the information


recorded must be complete & Clear.

8. Accessibility: The record should be accessible to the teachers as well as to the


headmasters & counselor.

9. Co-operated Venture: All the teacher should have co-operated in the preparation of
the of a pupil, otherwise the record will remain incomplete or narrow.

10. Evaluation:- It should be re-evaluated periodically or annually so as to know how far


does it serve the purpose.

11. Uniformity:- There should be uniformity in basic patterns of record forms


throughout the state. But in order to accommodate the local conditions, minor
variations & modifications should be allowed.

Advantages of cumulative Record cards:-


1. Knowledge of Pupil:- It helps the teacher to know the pupil i.e his abilities,
interests, aptitudes, achievements in academic & Non-academic field, emotional &
social qualities. It makes head master familiar with students progress his abilities
weakness & problems.

2. Migration Cases:- At the time of migration of the students cumulative record card
helps that school authorities to know about the pupil and to facilitate his
adjustment to the new environment.

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3. Selection & Promotion:- It is helpful in the selection, classification & promotion of


pupils for various Jobs in school & later life.

4. Location & diagnosis:- It helps in locating and educating the gifted & the
backward students. They also help in diagnosing and treated the mala adjusted
pupils.

5. Link between teachers & Parents:- The teachers find it convenient to write letters
or detailed reports to the parents on the basis of these records.

6. Preparing Certificates:- Cumulative record card progressful for writing character


or games certificate.

7. Improving methods of teaching: It is helpful in improving the methods of teaching


according to the needs of the pupils.

8. Providing educational & vocational Guidance:- It provides educational vocational


& Psychological data about the pupuils. All such types of data provide base for
educational & vocational guidance.

9. Useful for new teacher:- Cumulative record card helps the teacher in knowing
about the development level, needs, problems, potentialities and achievements of
the pupils.

10. Useful for Evaluation: It provides data for objective evaluation & thus the evils of.

11. Useful for the employer:- It is also useful for the employer seeking to know the
interests, aptitudes 7 other capabilities of the employer.

12. Helpful in Self-Understanding:- It is also essential for the students because it


ensures that the school is interested in him as an individual. This can also serve as a
tool from & through which he can understood himself better & this is in a portion
to take decisions for himself.

Problems in the maintenance & Use of Cumulative Cards:

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1. Who should maintain the records:- It should be kept either by the activity teacher
or by the class teacher.

(a) Firstly the teachers incharges of various subjects should evaluate the pupils
achievements from time to time, to record the same & to pass it to the class-
teacher.

(b) Class-teacher:- It is the duty of the class teacher to maintain cumulative record
of all the students in the class. He should be responsible for getting the
necessary entries made by the subject teacher or class teacher. The responsibility
of class teacher is greater as he will not ensure correct & up to date entries but
also out as liasian between the pupil & parent & between the pupil & the parent
between the pupil & subject matter.

2. Where to keep cumulative record Cards:- It should be kept by the class teacher in
his safe custody . But these should be easily accessible to other teachers for making
entries But these records should be kept confidential. Hence It is better to keep
records in the staff room & in the headmaster room.

3. When to fill up cumulative record Cards:- Record of written work may be kept by
the teacher & entries made fortnightly and monthly other entries may be made at
the time of particular event or test. It is desired that each teacher should have a
small note-book to record his observations at the time of incidence about the
particular pupil. As a rule other teachers should not record the entries on the card
itself. They should pass on the entries to the class teacher, too many hands may
spoil the neatness and the beauty of the card.

4. How to check maintain of the Cumulative record:- It is another problem. It is a


function of head of the institution to check whether the entries are being made
regularly or not. He may check the entries after four months & ensure that the
records are kept accurate & upto date. He may assign this work to his colleges but
must sign the records himself. The checkers should see that no false entries are

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made of there is no tempering with the entries. The head of the institutions should
arrange to sent progress reports to parents.

5. What should be the design of records: There are 3 types of designs of cumulative
record cards are available? 1. Folder type 2. File Type 3. Envelope type the
authorities should make their own selection of the design.

6. Problem of new admissions & migrations:- The cumulative record card should
move with the student in case of his transfer from one school to another. It has to
form part of transfer certificate. When the pupil migrates to another school. It
should go with the pupil from class to class & school & school.

7. Problem of teacher in discharging the function:- Teacher should be helped in


discharging the functions by the followers.

(i) Training: Teacher should be trained in the maintenance of cumulative


record cards the secondary Education Commission suggest that state
Departments of Education should provide such training in the training
colleges for teachers.

(ii) Model forms: The state authorities should get prepared model form of
records for the school.

(iii) Adequate Time:- Adequate Time should be given to the teachers to fill up
the cumulative record cards, otherwise they will nil up these cards
mechanically the work of the filling up the cards may be done by the
teachers on the last working day of the months there may not be any
teaching work on that day.

(iv) Provision for Safe Custody:- Adequate provision should be made the safe
custody of the cumulative record card.

(v) Adequate inspection:- The supervisor should input the maintanence of the
cumulative record cards at the time of the annual inspection of the school.

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Conclusion:- The secondary Education Commission feels that with training and certain
amount of practice & with an occasional check-up by the need of the
institute & by the inspectors, the teachers will be able to discharge their
duties to the satisfaction of all. It should be noted that in his responsibility,
the average Indian teacher does not yield to any teacher does to any
teacher in any other country. What he needs is clear direction,
encouragement & sympathy.

Q:- Write a note on organization of guidance services in school and explain the role of
teacher in guidance programme.
Ans:- Guidance services and their organization in schools:-
Guidance is a part of every school activity. It cannot be separated from the general life of
the school. Guidance services which would assist the students in the choice of courses,
indicate the line of remedial action and help in dealing with various educational,
vocational and psychological problems should be an integral part of educational facilities
provided in all schools, colleges and universities.
Principles of guidance services in school:
Organisation of guidance services in school requires planning, supervision and co-
ordination on the part of the head of institution. It requires active co-operation of the
parents, the staff, the guidance experts, the pupils and the management of the school.
1. Laying down objectives in clear terms:- The objective of entire guidance
programme should be clearly defined at the time of organizing school guidance
service. The school idea and needs of the pupils must be kept in mind while
defining these objectives.

2. Defining tasks:- All the activities are to be performed through the guidance
programme must be enlisted before hand.

3. Allocation of duties:- The success of guidance programme depends upon the


allocation of duties to the persons involved in this job in advance so that every
person should have a clear idea what he is to perform. It should be according to the
abilities of the persons of workers.

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4. Defining powers:- The worker should be made aware of their powers just like their
duties.

5. Defining relations:- The relation of employees, whether full time or part time,
must be defined clearly. It should be defined accordance with their guidance
responsibilities with other employees.

6. Nature of guidance organization:- It is proper to decide the structure of school


guidance services prior to its beginning such as number of its employees, finance,
size etc. This basis of its composition should be the objectives of the institute,
financial resources and the no. of school in the school etc.

7. Simplicity:- The organization of school guidance services should not be


complicated nature. It should be simple so that every person will start taking
interest in such a simple framework of the organization.

Persons working in school guidance services:-


Guidance is a specialized job and hence in schools it requires specialized personnel which
may include the head, school counselor, interested teachers, school medical officer,
physical education teacher, art teacher, and co-ordination of school activities.
The following points should be specially considered:-
1. It would be necessary to have atleast one counselor or career master for every one
thousand students. If the school has no counselor then guidance services may be
organized. Under the leadership of the school staff who has adequate guidance
training.
2. Interested teachers:- Services of interested teachers can be effectively utilized and
co-operation of all the teachers should be sought for the organization of guidance
services. Every teacher can help in detecting gifted, and problem children. Suitable
guidance can be provided to them. Every well trained teacher can guide the
students in using effective methods of learning and memorization.
3. Health specialist:- Doctor can make arrangement for medical examination of each
student after a suitable interval and help in curing physical ailments. He can
develop a programme of improving physical health of the students. If the school

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can’t engage of full time doctor; it must make provision for the occasional visits of
the physician.
4. Librarian:- Librarian can display material properly concerning student guidance
services in the library. He can circulate the latest information material among the
students and the teachers. He can provide right type of books to students of
different classes and tastes.
5. Art teacher:- Art teacher can prepare suitable charts and posters with the help of
students. He can help in the arrangement of career exhibitions and career
conferences.
6. Physical education teacher:- Physical education teacher can conduct physical
efficiency tests, games, sports and recreational activities for students.
7. Guidance bureau:- It can be set up in the school. Counseller or a teacher having
sound knowledge of guidance techniques should be the incharge of guidance
bureau. He should take the responsibility of providing guidance to the students
with the help of other school staff.
8. Facilities to teachers:- Facilities to teachers should be provided to become
increasingly efficient in guidance work.
9. Extension lectures:- Various lectures can be arranged lectures on balanced diet,
personal hygienc, prevention and treatment of infectious diseases, effective
methods of memory, selection of subjects, information about various occupations
and educational facilities can be arranged.
Role of Guidance Personnel:-

1. Head
2. Teacher
3. Counselor
Role of head of the institution:
Head is the leader, director and co-ordination of guidance programme in the school.
The success of guidance programme of an institution depends upon the initiative,
understanding, hardwork and for sightedness.
The role of the head can be divided into three parts:-

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i. Ethical role:- In ethical role the head of and institute of a school keeps in mind the
ethical aspects and provides positiveness to the guidance programme. It is
possible only if he keeps in mind the achieved goals while prospering the
infrastruction of the plan.
ii. Administration role:-
a) For the attainment of efficient counselors, he should send a list of officials with
his recommendations.
b) For the attainment of efficient counselor, he should prepare a suitable time table.
c) The responsibility regarding the development of guidance programme should be
handed over to teachers according to their ability.
d) Parents/ guides should be intimated about the guidance programme from time
to time.
e) The experts should be equipped with required facilities and resources for
making the programme successfully, effective and positive.
iii. Committee role:- It means that the development work of the programme should be
done jointly. In this committee importance is given to the joint efforts of teachers,
counselors, experts of the subjects and career masters. The main function of this
committee is to prepare a plan of programme to implement it and to evaluate it.

Role of teacher in organizing Guidance Programe:


The teacher can play a pivotal role in school guidance programme by virtue of his being in
close touch with his students. It is he who has the closest, the most frequent, and the most
extended contacts with the pupils in a natural situation.
The teacher can play an important and effective role in guidance programme as under:-
1. Effective teaching:- The teacher can make his greatest contribution to the guidance
service through superior teaching. As each child finds his class room experiences to
be interesting challenging and enjoyable serious problems are less likely to occur.

2. Nothing vocational possibilities of various subject areas:- Each teacher should


know and be concerned about vocational possibilities of each subject and relate
class room activities to the world of work.

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3. Demonstrating a genuine interest in students:- The teacher should show his


interest in the welfare of each student. The teacher is aware of needs and is
sincerely willing to assist students he can do much to help them by demonstrating
his concern.

4. Encouraging high academic achievement:- The teacher can encourage each


student to give each task his but efforts. Opportunities for the but possible
achievement should be provided, and each person can be directed in efficient time
and energy utilization.

5. Servicing on planning committees:- Many of the teacher’s activities put him in


close contact with the student, making personal supervision possible. The teacher
can also give support to the guidance service by performing functions such as (1)
serving on planning committees (2) leading group discussions and (3) giving
lectures on pertinent topics to parent teacher and student groups.

6. Holding individual conferences with students:- The teacher may meet each
student periodically for purposes of resolving any existing programmes.

7. Providing anecdotal data:- The close personal relationship between teacher and
student provides the opportunity for the teacher to gain information and arrive at
understanding about a student which can be used for guidance purposes.

8. Assisting with the pupil inventory:- The teacher helps in providing an adequate
system for the accumulation and reporting of important information. The teacher
also assist in usual activities of the testing programme.

9. Making student referrals:- The success of the counseling service depends upon
the alertness of the teacher in identifying students who can be benefitted from the
counseling experience. The teacher is also able to provide the consellor with
information about a student which may strengthen the counsellling relationship
and facilitate the student’s growth and adjustment.

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Dr. Lalit Sharma c/o WECS Pvt. Ltd., Chandigarh. 98158-89707

Role of the teacher in the organization of guidance programme can be summed up as


under:-
1. To help the students in understanding abilities, interests, achievements, strong and
weak points.
2. To help the students in developing their potentialities.
3. To help the students in the selection of subjects and books.
4. To help the students in making effective use of library and taking notes.
5. To help the students in taking active part in co-curricular activities in accordance
with their abilities, interests and other potentialities.
6. To help the students in maintaining discipline.
7. To help the students in concentrating on students and using effective methods of
learning and memorization.
8. To help the students in building healthy relationship.
9. To acquaint the students in fields in which their subjects are related to.
10. To assume responsibilities for the organization of co-curricular activities which are
closely related to their subjects.
11. To report students who are facing special difficulties or problems the counselor.
12. Providing special programmes for gifted and backward students.
13. To inform the students of educational and occupational opportunities available in
helping the child to plan his future career.
Role of the Counselor:
(a) Organise the school guidance committee.
(b) Setup an educational and occupational information corner in the school.
(c) Give orientation talks to students regarding guidance services in the school.
(d) Orientate students regarding the curricular offerings, SUPW programme and co-
curricular activities programme available in the school.
(e) Orientate pupils regarding grants, stipends, scholarship loans and concession
available.
(f) Collect, classify and display educational and occupational information
(g) Administer psychological tests.

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(h) Provide counseling service to students.


(i) Arrange visits to places of work like offices, business establishments, industries,
higher educational institutions
(j) Assistance in the educational and vocational placement of students.

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