DED2314 Project Planning Management

Project planning and management module DED2301 diploma in community development

DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND

ECONOMICS
UNIT CODE: DED2301

UNIT TITLE: PROJECT PLANNING MANAGEMENT
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DED2301: PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Purpose
To introduce planning and managing, knowledge and skills in development projects.
Expected Learning Outcomes
At the end of course unit, the student shall be able;-
 To understand the concept and principles underlying development projects.

 To equip basic tools required for planning and management of development
projects.
Content
TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION
- Definition of terms
 Project
 Project management – principles of project management
 Project brief
- Differences between general management and project management
- Differences between project planning and general planning
- Characteristics of project
TOPIC 2
PROJECT CYCLE MANAGEMENT – PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
- Core project management approach

- Project life cycle(phases: project initiation, project planning, project execution
and monitoring , project evaluation and project termination)
- Project models: cyclical, spiral phases
TOPIC 3
PROJECT STAKEHOLDERS
- Project manager, (roles/responsibility)

- Project team members (roles/responsibility)
- Implementing agency (roles/responsibility)
- Beneficiaries (roles/responsibility)
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- Project sponsor (roles/responsibility)

TOPIC 4
PROJECT PLANNING
- Definition
- Types of plans
- Steps in project planning
- Effective project planning
- Challenges in project planning
- Project planning techniques
- Use of log frame in project planning
TOPIC 5
PROJECT APPRAISAL AND SELECTION
- Methods of project appraisal – there are merits and demerits

 Discounted methods
 Non-discounted methods
TOPIC 6
PROJECT SUCCESS /FALUIRE
- Participation in project management

- Causes of project failure/ success
- Lessons learnt in previous project
TOPIC 7
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT
- Significance
- Rationale
- Benefits
- Challenges
TOPIC 8
EFFECTIVES PILLARS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT
- Effective communication
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- Effective resource mobilization

- Effective utilization of local leadership
- Effective community mobilization
TOPIC 9
PROJECT RISk MANAGEMENT
- Concepts of risk management

- Risk analysis
- Managing risks
- Performing risk management
TOPIC 10
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AND CONTROL
- Factors to consider in project implementation and control

- Challenges in project implementation and control
Teaching Methodologies
Lectures, Brainstorming, Group Discussions, Case studies, Assignment, Field work
Course Assessment
Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 20%; Assignments - 10%;

Total - 100%
Instructional Materials and Equipment.
 Chalkboards, Handouts, Overhead projectors, Internet information resources

Required Textbooks
 Westland J. (2007), The Project Management Life Cycle: A Complete Step-by Step
Methodology for Initiating, Planning, Executing and Closing the Project, Kogane page,
London.
 Kerzner, H. (2006), Project management: A systemic Approach to Planning,
Scheduling and Control, John Wiley, London.
 Chitere, P. Q. and Ireri, O. N. (2004), District Focus for Rural Development IPAR,
Nairobi.
Text books for Further Reading
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 Sanoff, N. (1999), Community Participation Methods in Design and Planning,

John Wiley and sons, New York.
 Chambers R. et al, (2000), Community Planning: An Introduction to the
Comprehensive Plan, Island press, London.
Other support materials
 Various appropriate applicable manuals and journey

Variety of Electronics information resources as prescribed by the lecture
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TOPIC ONE: THE CONCEPT OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Introduction
In the past many projects experienced schedule slippage and cost overruns due to variety
of reasons that included poor management, lack of skilled staff, and lack of support from
management amongst other. To remedy the situation a project has to be meticulously
planned, effectively implemented and professionally managed to achieve the objectives
of time, cost and performance. This need to scientifically manage project gave birth to
project management. Though a new discipline project management has developed
tremendously over the years incorporating new tools and techniques that have greatly
ensured completion of project that meet the critical parameters of cost, time and quality
Definitions
A project is a one off, time limited goal oriented, major undertaking, requiring
commitment of varied skills and resources.
A project is a collection of resources as pooled together in a temporary organization to
achieve a specific purpose.
A project is a temporary endeavor, having a defined beginning and end, undertaken to
meet particular goals and objectives
Project management is the process of planning, organizing, implementing and managing
resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and
objectives. The temporary nature of project management stands in contrast to functional
management which is repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional work to
produce products or services.
Characteristics of Project Management

A project is typified by its various characteristics with a project there is a concept of
wholeness despite diversities of work. The various works that constitute the whole are
interrelated and are performed to serve a common purpose of developing the project. The
main characteristics of a project therefore include:-
Objectives - It has a fixed set of objectives which cease to exist once the project is
complete
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Life span - A project cannot continue endlessly it has to come to a definite end as spelt
out in the objective
Single entity - It is one entity entrusted to one responsibility centre while the participants
in the project are many
Team work - It calls for team work constituted from different disciplines depending on
the nature of the project
Uniqueness - All projects are one off, the location, the infrastructure and people that
make each project are always unique
Change - A project sees changes throughout its life some have profound impact on the
course of the project
Success principle - Project details cannot wholly be predicted, they get finalized
successively with the passage of time.
Made to order - The customer stipulates various requirements and puts constraints
within the project which must be executed
Unity in diversity - All components of a project are inter related however different
High level of sub contracting - Some project tasks will inevitably be sub contracted
Project Management vs. Functional Management
All work has interdependence and inter Work may not be dependent or related to
relationship with others each other
The work and the inter relationship are The objectives and goals may change
liable to change with time but still the end from time to time
objectives does not change
The work gets done mostly through lateral
The work gets done mostly through
and diagonal contacts vertical contact
Communication is faster Communication is slow
Decision making can be done at lower level
Most decision are done by top
but the higher level are always informed or
management and implemented at the
involved depending on the situation lower level
Responsibility are not clearly structured
Responsibility are clearly structured
among the functional line
Sometimes project management decisions Organization work ethics and discipline
are bound to go beyond an organization must be strictly adhered to
work ethics and discipline
Project and programs

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Project Program
Activities Many short, performed once Variable, performed repetitively
Sequence Defined pathway Repetitive
Connectivity Dependencies among activities Independent or possible pass-offs
Purpose Single, well-defined goal General objectives
Time Defined start/end, intense pressure Ongoing, pressure ebbs and flows
Money Fixed costs, avoid overruns Budget, focus on profit and loss
Specification Vision Mission
Scope Limitations of
Boundaries of project
authority/responsibility
Quality Continual assurance tests Quality improvement projects
Resources Variable, multidisciplinary Dedicated
Organization Matrix Line and staff
Development of Project Management

Project Management has developed from several fields of application including
construction, engineering, and defense. The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern
Project Management era during this time Project management was formally recognized
as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline.
Prior to these most projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts,
and informal techniques and tools. Many years later project management has become a
vibrant discipline that is not only scientific, but also artistic and political. Moreover many
tools and techniques have been incorporated into project management that have greatly
increased efficiency and automated tasks which where hitherto to time consuming and
difficult. More is yet to come out of project management.
TOPIC TWO: Project life cycles stages

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Project life cycle may differ from each other but essentially they should define the
following major activities or stages.
 Conception
 Definition stage
 Planning and organizing
 Implementation phase
 Project closure stage
Conception stage
A project idea germinates mostly from trying to overcome certain problems for example
a plant capacity, availability of funds and so on. A cement factory may for example be
having low capacity utilization, high power consumption which consequently increase
production cost such a factory may decide to start a project that involve introduction of
new technology that is more efficient and cost saving. At the conception stage the project
idea is conceived. Projects ideas can come from formal policy plans by organizations and
businesses or from informal sources to address unforeseen circumstances such as
disasters or competitor actions. Projects can be demand based in which the needs of
customers and markets are to be met to make profit for example exporting products or
resource based in which the availability of resources such as oil trigger, drilling, or good
climate, cattle rearing and finally project can be need based that aim to address social
issues in society such as health, infrastructure. Need based project tend to be non-profit
making.
Definition stage
Also called the initiation stage it determines the nature and scope of the project
development. If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be
successful in meeting the business’s needs and objectives. The key project controls
needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all
necessary controls are incorporated into the project. The initiation stage should include a
plan that encompasses the following areas:
 Analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals
 Reviewing of the current operations
 Conceptual design of the operation of the final product
 Equipment and contracting requirements
 Financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget
 Stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project
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 Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule
Planning and Organizing

It involves preparation and organization for the project to take off smoothly. By and
large, organizations, during this phase deal with the following and in most cases take
necessary action for realization of the same.
1) Project infrastructure and enabling services
2) System design and basic engineering packages
3) Organization and manpower
4) Schedules and budgets
5) Licensing and governmental clearances
6) Finance
7) Systems and procedure
8) Identification of project manager
9) Design basics, general condition for purchase and contracts
10) Site preparation and investigations
11) Construction resource and materials
12) Work packaging
Implementation
Implementation consists of the processes used to complete the work defined in the project
management plan to accomplish the project's requirements. The process involves
coordinating people and resources, as well as integrating and performing the activities of
the project in accordance with the project management plan. The deliverables are
produced as outputs from the processes performed as defined in the project management
plan.
Monitoring and controlling are processes performed during implementation to observe
project execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and
corrective action can be taken. Corrective actions need to be evaluated before being
taken. The main activity in monitoring and control includes:
• Measuring the ongoing project activities (where we are);
• Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project
management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be);
• Identify corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How can we get on
track again);
• Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only
approved changes are implemented
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Closing the project

Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof.
Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lessons
learned. This phase consists of:
Project closure: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close
the project or a project phase. Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract and
close each contract applicable to the project or project phase. Project auditing: to check
the suitability of various management actions and their effects, to audit methodologies
used to develop the project, the budgets and costs. Finally all the project resources are
returned and redeployed to new or ongoing projects.
Why Project Management?

Excellent product quality – project management ensure that the final product delivered is
of high quality and meets customers needs and requirements. Reduced risks of project
failure – project management anticipates and manages project risks greatly enhancing
probability that the project will succeed. To achieve project objectives - Without a proper
project planning, projects are bound to fail.
A project plan ties a project to specific objectives, so everyone stays focused on those
goals. A documented objective also helps project managers know the scope of the
project.
Timely Completion of project- One of the most important factors in project management
is finishing a project on time and as stated in the project schedule. With project
management this is possible since the project manager is always time conscious.
Increase Productivity - Properly managed projects will assign tasks to every available
resource. Project managers will not just assign tasks, they will also assign deadlines.
Project management leads to more productivity since there is no ambiguity when it
comes to what a particular resource should be doing at any given time.
Keep Projects Within Their Budgets - Project Management, during the planning phase,
estimates the budget required to complete the project successfully and on time. By
carefully managing resources, the budget monster can be tamed.
Facilitate Communication - Good project plans will include a communication plan. This
plan will include in it when communication is to occur, who receives the communication,
and by what means the communication is conducted.
TOPIC FOUR Writing a PROJECT PROPOSAL
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A project proposal is a detailed description of a series of activities aimed at defining and

marketing a project. The proposal should contain a detailed explanation of the:
• Justification of the project;
• Activities and implementation timeline;
• Methodology; and
• Human, material and financial resources required.
It is a means of presenting the project to the outside world in a format that is immediately
recognized and accepted. It markets the project to the various stake holders and attracts
funding to the project. It communicates clearly the goals and objectives of the project,
give an initial framework to base future plans and management of the project activities.
Elements of the project proposal

■ Project title
■ Goals and objectives of the project
■ Description of project activities
■ Description of expected project results (goals and objectives)
■ Project implementation plan
■ Resource allocation
■ Project personnel
■ Detailed project budget (fixed costs, equipment needed)
■ Division of financial sources (own contribution and other resources)
Title page
The title page should indicate the project title, the name of the lead organisation (and
potential partners, if any), the place and date of project preparation and the name of the
donor agency to whom the proposal is addressed.
Project title
The project title should be short, concise, and preferably refer to a certain key project
result. Project titles that are too long or general fail to give the reader an effective
snapshot of what is inside. An example of good project title is Raising Environmental
Awareness in rural areas.
Contents page/table of content

If the total project proposal is longer than 10 pages it is helpful to include a table of
contents at the start of the document. The contents page enables readers to quickly find
relevant parts of the document. It should contain the title and beginning page number of
each section of the proposal.
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Abstract
Many readers lack the time needed to read the whole project proposal. It is therefore
useful to insert a short project summary an abstract. The abstract should include:
• The problem statement;
• The project’s objectives;
• Implementing organisations;
• Key project activities; and
• The total project budget.
Context
This part of the project describes the social, economic, political and cultural background
from which the project is initiated. It should contain relevant data from research carried
out in the project planning phase or collected from other sources.
Project justification
Rationale should be provided for the project. Due to its importance usually this section is
divided into four or more sub-sections.
Problem statement
The problem statement provides a description of the specific problem(s) the project is
trying to solve, in order to make a case for the project. Furthermore, the project proposal
should point out why a certain issue is a problem for the community or society as a
whole, i.e. what negative implications affect the target group. There should also be an
explanation of the needs of the target group that appear as a direct consequence of the
described problem.
Priority needs
The needs of the target group that have arisen as a direct negative impact of the problem
should be prioritised. An explanation as to how this decision was reached (i.e. what
criterion was used) must also be included. For example, if the problem is stated as “…
poor infrastructure in the community” the list of needs associated with this problem may
be:
• Improved water supply in quality and quantity;
• Better roads; and
• Improved solid waste collection.
These three needs would then be given higher or lower priority according to the level of
importance, and a description would be given of how that decision was reached (e.g. a
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poll taken from the local population, costs associated with project intervention, etc.). This
procedure provides credibility to the selected intervention.
The proposed approach

The project proposal should describe the strategy chosen for solving the problem and
precisely how it will lead to improvement. One way to describe the approach related to
the need previously stated as improved water supply could be: “intervention to provide
basic water supply facilities in the community,” with some description of the specific
features of the solution proposed.
The implementing organisation

This section should describe the capabilities of your organisation by referring to its
capacity and previous project record. Describe why exactly your organisation is the most
appropriate to run the project, what kind of expertise the organisation can provide.
Project aims
The first issue to deal with is naming the objectives or project goal/aim, or project
purpose etc. Often one major goal is declared and then broken down into various
objectives.
Project goal (or overall objective)
This is a general aim that should explain what the core problem is and why the project is
important, i.e. what the long-term benefits to the target group are.
Some examples of a project goal might be:
• raising environmental awareness;
• improving the quality of life in the community; and
Project results
Results describe the services or products to be delivered to the intended beneficiaries.
This is what the project management is promising to deliver. The results are more
detailed than the objectives and the goal, and should be possible to measure through the
use of objective indicators. The results should address the main causes of the problem
that the target group faces. To ensure relevant results, project management should have
correctly identified the group’s needs. For example:
• Increased number of households connected to the water supply system; and
• Increased number of water taps in the village.
Indicators provide the project team with a quantifiable basis on which to judge the
project’s success in reaching its objectives. The specification of indicators acts as a check
on the viability of the results and project objectives. It forms the basis for a project
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monitoring system. Once the indicators are defined they should be developed to provide
details of quantity, quality and time.
Target group
Define the target group and show how it will benefit from the project. The project should
provide a detailed description of the size and characteristics of the target groups, and
especially of direct project beneficiaries.
Project implementation
The implementation plan should describe activities and resource allocation in as much
detail as possible. It is exceptionally important to provide a good overview of who is
going to implement the project’s activities, as well as when and where. The
implementation plan may be divided into two key elements: the activity plan and the
resource plan.
Activity plan (schedule)

The activity plan should include specific information and explanations of each of the
planned project activities. The duration of the project should be clearly stated, with
considerable detail on the beginning and the end of the project. In general, two main
formats are used to express the activity plan: a simple table and the Gantt chart.
Resource plan
The resource plan should provide information on the means necessary to undertake the
project. Cost categories are established at this stage in order to aggregate and summarise
the cost information for budgeting.
Budget
In simple terms, a budget is an itemized summary of an organisation’s expected income
and expenses over a specified period of time. Budgeting forms and financial planning
procedures vary widely, especially in the non-profit sector. The two main elements of any
budget are income and expenditures.
Monitoring and evaluation

The basis for monitoring is set when the indicators for results are set. The project
proposal should indicate:
• How and when the project management team will conduct activities to monitor the
project’s progress;
• Which methods will be used to monitor and evaluate; and who will do the evaluation.
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Reporting
The schedule of project progress and financial report could be set in the project proposal.
The project report may be compiled in different versions, with regard to the audience
they are targeting.
Management and personnel
A brief description should be given of the project personnel, the individual roles each one
has assumed, and the communication mechanisms that exist between them. All the
additional information (such as CVs) should be attached to the annexes.
Annexes
The annexes should include all the information that is important, but is too large to be
included in the text of the proposal. The usual documentation to be annexed to the project
proposal is:
• Policy documents and strategic papers (e.g. an environmental action plan);
• Information on the implementing organisations (e.g. annual reports, success stories,
brochures and other publications)
• Additional information on the project management structure and personnel (curriculum
vitae for the members of the project team);
• Maps of the location of the target area; and
• Project management procedures and forms (organisational charts, forms, etc).
TOPIC FIVE: PROJECT PLANNING

Planning involves thinking ahead on how to achieve project goals, creating a standard
against which performance and progress towards goals are measured. Planning is a
creative process and a demanding activity of working out what has to be done, how it is
to be done, who does it, when it is done, with what it is done.
Function/Importance of Project Plan

 It provides a basis for the organization to work on the project and allocate
responsibilities to individuals. (direct work)
 Provide a means of communication and coordination between all those involved
in the project.
 It establishes the basis for monitoring and control.
 It instils a sense of urgency and time consciousness.
 It eliminates uncertainty by providing direction.
Planning can be done at different levels
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 At operation level planning focuses on activities that must be done be performed to

produce product results
 Tactical or management level plans focus on the overall project development
emphasizing on achieving project objectives
 Strategic plans emphasize on the change and business benefit the project must bring
about.
Project plans are strategies and tactics for the execution of the project in terms of the
activities, time, quantities, resources cost and quality. A product plan is then expressed as
a chart and a report and forms basis for communication what has been planned.
Planning is an interactive process that becomes bore definite with each cycle. Any future
changes to the project plan will be in reference to the project plan baseline. A project plan
will usually integrate numerous mini plans together into an integrated project plan.
Components of a project plan

 Activity planning
It involves defining activities that will be needed to produce deliverables and meet
project milestones. Activity planning involves formulating the work breakdown structure
(WBS). A WBS defines project activities to a level which it is possible to estimate the
time, cost and resource required for such task.
 Time planning
A project plan must be viable in terms of time. To do this the task defined in WBS must
be scheduled by specifying when the task will take place and how long it will take. Time
planning also involves specifying interdependencies between the tasks.
 Resource planning
It involves determining the source requirement for each activity. Resources can be
people, materials, equipment, services and money. The resources have to be optimally
allocated and scheduled.
 Cost planning
Cost estimates for the project are developed using cost break-down structure, produced
from the detailed WBS by adding the cost elements that are not necessarily related to
work such as provision for risks, interest on loan, licence fees, royalties and
administrative costs.
 Quality planning
It is needed to ensure that the project products or outcomes meet specifications and
quality requirements. It also specifies how quality review and inspections will be carried
out.
 Communication planning
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Proper channels and methods of communication must be established between all those
involved in the project. These plans should identify the information and communication
needs of the stakeholders by defining who needs what information, why will they need it,
how will it be presented and in what form.
 Human Resource planning
It identifies the type of person required for the project and the type of the skill they
should have. it also identifies activities such as project team selection, job description,
training, remuneration and compensation.
 Procurement planning
It is not possible to meet all the project needs with the resources within the organization.
Some project product and service need to be procured from outside the organization,
therefore, procurement plan details what to procure, how to procure and when to procure.
 Cash flow planning
It is done for all the integrated project activities. It involves taking the money estimates
and phasing it over the duration of the project by separating expenditure (outflow) and
income (inflow).
 Risk planning
A project is not without risk and therefore risks need to be actively identified and planned
for. Clear mans of assessing the impact of the risk should be outlined as well as the
mitigation measures
The integrated project plan baseline

This is the final agreed upon project plan that is documented and which act as a standard
measurement against project progress. It will contain:
1. A fully developed project scopes and WBS
2. Time schedules
3. Cost budgets and cost breakdown structure
4. Project funding details
5. Human resource plans
6. Quality plans
7. Communication plans
8. Procurement plans
9. Risk planning
Planning tools
Project Planning Tools
Project managers can rely on the following two tools during project planning.
1) Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
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A project is broken down into component tasks and activities called small work units
WBS relies on gradual decomposition of the project into manageable work units that can
be effectively estimated and supervised.
Importance of WBS
 Help in assigning responsibilities
 Allow for more accurate estimation of cost and risk and other project
resources.
 Identifies the tasks and activities in a project
 It provides the project scope
 Assists with accurate project organization
A WBS will provide the following information
1) What task must be done?, Who will do the task?, How long will it take?, How
much will it cost?, What are the requirements for each of the task?
Steps in constructing a WBS

1) Identify all the major tasks and activities of the project.
2) Break down each of the task in to subtasks
3) Expand and refine each subtask to its lowest level a work package
The project WBS is represented in the hierarchical tree like structure as shown below
Project
Task 2
Task 1
Subtask 1 Subtask 2
Work Package Work Package Work Package

1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3
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2) Logical Framework
It is a management tool mainly used in the design, monitoring and evaluation of a project.
It’s a four by four matrix of a project table used for planning project activities.
The logical framework aims to present info about the key components of a project in a
clear concise logical and systematic matrix
Importance of logical framework

 It’s a useful tool in the planning, monitoring and evaluation of development of a
project.
 It encourages the discipline of clear and specific thinking about what the project aims
to do and highlighting those aspects upon which success depends.
 Provide summary information to project staff, donors, beneficiaries and other project
shareholders on important issues relating to the project.
Structure of logical framework
Narrative Verifiable Means of Assumptions
Summary Indicators Verification
Overall goal 1 5 xx
Specific objective 2 6 9
Outputs 3 7 10
Activity/Input 4 6 11
 Overall goal – describes the broader objectives which the project will achieve.
 Specific objective – identify specific objective for the project.
 Output – these are the envisaged results that the project will achieve.
 Input - identifies the key activities to be carried out and in what sequence.
 Verifiable indicators - Qualitative and quantitative indicators showing to what
extent specific objectives have been achieved.
 Means of verification - What are the sources of info for these indicators and
methods required to get the info.
 Assumptions - What external factors and conditions must be realised or exist to
obtain the expected output.
Example
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Construct a logical framework that aims at improving the development of young children
below the age of 5 in urban marginal areas.
Narrative summary Verifiable indicators Means of Assumptions
verification
Improve Raise development Child growth Xx
development of status of children reporting records
young children from 5-10%
below 5 years in
urban marginal
areas
Improve good Better equipped Health care records Normal weather
health care: health care Purchase inventory conditions exist
nutritious feeding Reduced cases of of health care i.e. no famine/
programme, child nutrition related equipment drought
care centres problems
Child care centres Better provision of Media records Ability to reach
proper child care Questionnaires target population
immunization information Physical
program in place Newly created child count/observation
effective care centres Health care records
administration including children
systems in place, immunized
healthy and well
developed children
Improve good Budget/finances Accounting records Funds will be
health care: Human resource Curriculum vitae for available
nutritious feeding technology trainers and other Reasonable
programme, child staff economic and
care centres political stability
Gantt charts
A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts
illustrate the start and finish dates of the activities of the project. Some Gantt charts also
show the dependency relationships between activities i.e. precedence between the
activities
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When to use Gantt charts

 When scheduling and monitoring tasks within a project.
 When communicating plans or status of a project.
 When the steps of the project or process, their sequence and their duration are
known.
 When it’s not necessary to show which tasks depend on completion of previous
tasks.
Example
Advantages
 Simple and easy to draw
 They are readily assimilated by users
 They can include project milestones and deliverables
 They can assist in monitoring project schedule and progress
 They can illustrate dependencies between project activities
Disadvantages
 They can be difficult to represent if the project is big and has a many activities
 They are difficult to change if drawn manually
 Resource assignments are not easy to illustrate
 It is difficult to show to sets of times/dates such as earliest and latest start times
 It can cannot depict critical and non critical activities in a project
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PERT/CPM for Project Scheduling & Management

Basically, CPM (Critical Path Method) and PERT (Programme Evaluation Review Technique)
are project management techniques, which have been created to plan, schedule and control
complex projects. CPM/PERT can answer the following important questions:
 How long will the entire project take to be completed?
 What are the risks involved?
 Which are the critical activities or tasks in the project which could delay the entire
project if they were not completed on time?
 Is the project on schedule, behind schedule or ahead of schedule?
 If the project has to be finished earlier than planned, what is the best way to do this at
the least cost?

The STEPS for PERT and CPM
Essentially, there are six steps which are common to both the techniques. The procedure is
listed below:
 Define the Project and all of its significant activities or tasks. The Project (made up of
several tasks) should have only a single start activity and a single finish activity.
 Develop the relationships among the activities. Decide which activities must precede and
which must follow others.
 Draw the Network diagram connecting all the activities. Each Activity should have unique
event numbers. Dummy arrows are used where required to avoid giving the same
numbering to two activities.
 Assign time and/or cost estimates to each activity
 Compute the longest time path through the network. This is called the critical path.
 Use the Network to help plan, schedule, and monitor and control the project.
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TOPIC SIX: PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION APPROACHES
Project implementation can be referred to as a process whereby “project inputs are

converted to project outputs as set out in the project framework”. The process involves a
series of activities, which need to be planned, operated and controlled, and which will
inevitably involve the utilization of resources. The management of these activities is
fundamental to a supervisor or monitor so that the project can be completed on time and
at cost consistent with the project plan.
Project implementation may be looked at as:
 Putting in action the activities of the project.

 Putting into practice what was proposed in the project document i.e. transforming the
project proposal into the actual project.
 Management of the project or executing the project intentions.
Project, implementation is carried out following the already laid down timetable or work
plan. It leads to the realization of project outputs and immediate objectives.
Project implementation is usually done by the organization that prepared the project and
received funding for it. This organization is referred to as the implementing agency. The
implementing agency sets up a project implementation unit, which carries out the
implementation on behalf of the implementing agency.
Other organizations that participate in the implementation of the project by way of

collaboration say by according good working relationship, extending some technical
advice or seconding their staff to the project, are referred to as Co-operating agencies.
Example: If a given sub-county is to implement a sanitation project, the departments of
water, community development and health will act as cooperating agencies.
The project implementation phase involves:
Project activation and Project operation
Project Activation
Project activation simply means making arrangements to have the project started. It is the
preliminary or foundation stage of project implementation and it involves the
coordination and allocation of resources (funds, labor and materials) to make the project
operational.
The following activities are undertaken during project activation
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 Establishment of Project Implementation Units (PIUs)

 Recruitment of project manager and other staff
 Tendering and procurement of machines, equipment and other suppliers
 Preparation of contingency plans
 Designation of the internal project authorities for decision making and establishment
of communication channels
 Putting in place staff training and development programmes and code of conduct
 Setting up linkages with the target group
 Location and negotiation of sites
Project Operation
Project operation is also referred to as the development and normal life period of the
project. It is the actual management of a project in practical terms. This is the level when
the project inputs are transformed into outputs via the project activities following the laid
down work plan. This leads to the attainment of immediate objectives.
It involves the coordinating, monitoring and control of the performance of the various
project groups and the use of project resources in such a way that the project activities are
completed in an orderly and optimal fashion within the constraint of time and resources
available.
Operation and maintenance

In order to attain value from the project and get maximum returns on the investment the
district/municipality or the beneficiaries organize for the facility to be used properly and
maintained regularly. An operation and maintenance manual will be prepared by the
contractor and handed to the district.
Approaches to Project Implementation
Top-Down Approach
In this approach, the implementation is mainly done by agencies from outside the
community with limited involvement by the beneficiaries. These agencies come with
their own staff and workers. They may include Government departments or ministries,
international development agencies.
This approach is good for projects that require quick results like relief projects, as there is
limited time to involve the target group.
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The disadvantage with this approach is that it may result into passivity, hostility and
resistance by the beneficiaries. When it succeeds, it makes the beneficiaries develop a
dependence syndrome and lack of capacity building of the human resources and
sustainability of the project.
Bottom-Up Approach
In this approach the beneficiaries implement the project. The outside agencies may
provide the financial resources and possibly technical assistance.
 The advantages with this approach are that:

 Capacity is built within the community
 The project is readily acceptable
 There is increased use of local resources including labor
 The beneficiaries learn to be self-reliant leading too project sustainability
Collaborative Participatory Approach

This is when the aspects of both top-down and bottom-up approaches to project
implementation are applied in the implementation process.
A case in point is when a CBO is implementing a dairy project and say the Government
seconds a veterinarian to offer technical assistance by way of offering the needed
veterinary services.
Project Implementation Plan
If not carried out during the project design process and embodied in the project
document, it is carried out at the project activation stage. It includes among others:
The Project Implementation Schedule

 What activities will be undertaken to produce the expected project outputs?
 What is the sequence of these activities?
 What is the time frame for these activities?
 Who will be responsible for carrying out each activity?
The following methods may be used to answer the above questions:
 The Gantt chart

 The Critical Path Method (CPM) or Net work analysis
 Project Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT)
 Simple formats
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TOPIC SEVEN: PROJECT ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

The project organization structure facilitates the coordination and implementation of
project activities. It creates and environment that fosters interactions among the team
members with a minimum of disruptions, overlaps and conflicts.
Each project is unique and therefore adopts a unique project structure. However, factors
such as the organizational environment, project characteristics and the level of authority
the project manager is given can affect a project organization structure.
The project organization structure is represented as pyramidal organization structure that
shows where each person is placed in the project structure. Individuals high in the
hierarchy have more authority; the lines connecting the boxes designate formal
supervision and channels of communication between the project team. The three common
organization structures include:
 Program based structure/functional
 Matrix based structure
 Project based structure
Program based structures

 It refers to a traditional project structure in which functional managers (human
resource, sales and marketing, finance, manager/directors) have formal authority over
most resources.
 Such a structure is suitable for projects within a functional are of the organization not
across functional area.
 The project team is staffed with people from the same area and all the resources
needed for the project come from the same area/unit.
Advantages
1. Clearly defined lines of authority
2. There is no need to negotiate with other program units for resources.
3. The project team members are usually familiar with each other
4. It encourages specialisation.
Disadvantages
1. A project area may not have all the specialists needed to work in the project.
2. Longer decision cycles
3. Project leaders have little powers
4. Project team members might be assigned to other projects affecting their availability
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Matrix Based Structure

 The matrix organization allows program units to focus on their specific technical
competencies and the projects to be staffed with specialists throughout the
organization.
 It is common for people to report to one person in the functional organization
while working for one or two project managers from other departments.
Advantages
1. Efficient allocation of resources
2. It’s a flexible structure when dealing with changing program needs and priorities.
3. If allows team members to share information more readily across the unit boundaries.
4. Allows professional project development and specialization
Disadvantages
 The reporting relationships are complex
 It requires communication and cooperation between multiple program unit
managers and project manager.
 Resources and priority conflict.
Project Based Structure

 In this type of organization, project managers have a high level of authority to
manage and control the project resources and constraints. The project manager has
total authority over the project and acquires resources for the project from within or
outside the parent organization (functional area). Personnel are specifically assigned
to the project and report directly to the project manager.
Advantages
1. The project manager has more control and greater authority
2. Project team members are generally dedicated to one project at a time resulting in
better focus.
3. The project manager controls the communication lines effectively ensuring that
project goals and objectives are clearly understood by everyone.
Disadvantages
 There is duplication of resources since scarce resources must be duplicated in
different projects.
 There are concerns about how to reallocate people and resources when projects
are completed.
 Some resources may not be needed on a fulltime basis increasing the need to
manage short term contracts.
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Program based structure
Director
Program Program
Program
Manager Manager
Manager
Project Project Project
Manager Manager Manager
Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff
Project based structure
Director
Project Manager Project Manager
Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff
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Matrix based structure

Director
Program Program
Manager Manager
Staff Staff
Project Manager
Staff Staff
Project Manager
Staff
Staff
TOPIC EIGHT: PROJECT TEAMS

A project team is a team used for grouping people working together to develop a project.
Members of the project team usually belong to different groups, but are assigned to
activities for the same project, thereby allowing them to be viewed as one team.
Therefore, the team feature facilitates the creation, tracking and assignment of a group of
people based on the project they have been assigned to. A team can be divided into sub-
teams according to need. When a team is only used for a defined period of time it is often
called a project team. The job description of the project team include;-
 To support the project manager in carrying out his/her responsibilities
 To assist in controlling and monitoring project activities.
 To test and review the work and progress of team members.
 To perform tasks and duties as may be directed by the project manager.
 To design, develop, test and implement projects.
 Report progress weekly to the remainder of the team and the Project Manager
 Monitor for and report potential risks to the project
 Enter data for measures associated with project issues
The recommended specification for the project team members include;-
 High level of Interpersonal awareness.
 Strong technical background.
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 Demonstrate ability to understand the nature of the project being developed.

 Good Communication skills.
 Works well in team environment
 Can work under pressure and with minimum supervision.
Stages of team development according to Bruce Tuckman

It is used to build and develop teams and to analyze team behaviors. It provides guidance
for team development.
Forming: Project team initiation phase

Project team – is initially concerned with orientation accomplished through testing. Such
testing serves to identify boundaries of both interpersonal and task behaviour
Team members – Behave quite independently. Some team members may display traits of
uncertainty and anxiety. The team may be motivated but are relatively uninformed of the
issues or objectives of the team
Project manager – must bring the team together ensuring they trust each other and have
ability to develop ma working relationship. Directing style or telling – inform team about
team dynamics
Storming: Various ideas compete often fiercely for consideration

Project team - Gain confidence but there is conflict and polarization around interpersonal
issues
Team members – Are showing their own personalities as they confront each other’s idea
and perspectives. Frustration and disagreements about goals, expectation, roles and
responsibilities is being expressed openly
Project manager – Guides the team through this turbulent transition phase. Coaching style
– emphasize on tolerance of different views.
Norming: Rules, values, behaviour, methods and tools are being established
Project team – Effectiveness increases and team starts to develop an identity
Team members – Adjust their behaviour to each other as they develop agreements to
make work more natural and fluid. Conscious effort to resolve problems and to achieve
group harmony. Motivation increases
Project manager – Allow the team to become much more autonomous. Participative style
Performing: The interpersonal structure become the tool of task activities. Roles
become flexible and functional and group energy is channeled in to the tasks.
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Project team – the team is now able to work as unit and get the job done with less conflict
and minimum external supervision
Team members – Members have a clear understanding of what is required of them at
tasks level. They are now competent, autonomous and able to handle decision making
without supervision. They assist each other
Project manager – lets the team make most of the necessary decision. Delegating style
Adjourning: the tasks are completed and the team is disassembled

Project team – recognizing the sense of loss felt by group members
Team members – Motivation levels can decline as uncertain about the future begin to set
in
Project manager – You can talk about upcoming projects. Detaching style
How to motivate project teams

 Communicate
Every person has ideas and opinions that they want to share. Set up sessions where
people can share their ideas and opinions. It helps people connect with each other and
accept others skills, opinions and capabilities.
 Involve team in decision making
By letting the team members take part in decision making makes them feel that their
knowledge and expertise is appreciated and they get encouraged
 Training and development
With the right skills and knowledge project team members will be more willing to take
up new and challenging project tasks and activities
 Create a good working environment
A good working environment motivates employees. Ensure the work environment is safe
and clean. It is ergonomically designed and conducive to work in.
 Recognize good performance and reward achievements
Just as you will be expected to reprimand those team members who don’t perform
according to expectation. The project manager should reward and recognize people who
contribute positively to project development.
 Give people more responsibility
Encourage development of new ideas; delegate some project duties to individuals within
the teams
 Timely feedback
Follow up with timely feedback and hold individuals accountable for the tasks
 Organize parties and get together
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Get together, luncheons outings are some group activities the boost a project team
motivation. Create conducive environment where members can share project ideas and
freely talk about project issues.
TOPIC NINE: PROJECT MANAGER

The project manager is responsible for the management of the project on a day to day
basis and for the achievements of the project deliverables. The project managers’ role
basic is to ensure successful delivery of project goals and objectives within the
constraints of time, cost and quality. Their job description is to:
 Achieve the project’s objectives within the time, cost and quality constraints.
 Make timely decisions to assure the project’s success.
 Plan, monitor and control the project through to completion.
 Select build and motivate the project team.
 Keep the sponsor and senior management informed of the progress and alert them to
problems.
 Recommend the termination of project if necessary.
 Select and manage subcontracts.
 Identify and manage project risks.
 Preserve integrity of project and client.
 Direct coordinate and control project activities
Some of the most popular attributes, skills, and qualities that have been sought in project
managers are:
 Business awareness and knowledge
 Analytical thinking and Problem Solving
 Good Communication and social skills
 Creative and innovative
 Time manager
 Ethical and professional.
 Leadership and Mentors
 Good Negotiating capability
 Influential
 Process and technical expertise
Project sponsor
Project Sponsor main job specification include;-
 Define investment aims and objectives of the project
 Define project success criteria
 Justify funding and use of project resources
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 Initiate the project

 Monitor the project business environment
 Terminate project if necessary
 Support project manager
Quality Assurance manager

 Review project work, products and activities, identifying any exceptions to the
project plan.
 Review measurement data and documents for accuracy and consistency
 Discuss deviations with project team and project manager
 Define project quality goals and objectives
 Perform quality inspections and reviews
Selection of the project team

1. The people, the project manager and the project teams are the key to successful
project development. Selecting the project team is the first step in building a
successful project team. Project team members should be chosen based on merit,
their abilities, their skill levels, their suitability for the tasks at hand and availability.
The personality of each of the individual team members is also a major
consideration when selecting project team members.
2. A good team is that which works effectively. Communication and collaboration
skills are two of the most critical personal skills demanded of all the team members.
The ability and willingness to recognize and value the different roles and
contributions of team members is essential.
3. An appropriate project team size of about five to seven key members should form a
project team. Coordination and communication becomes difficult as the team
grows. Supervising and monitoring such a team is also more demanding, moreover,
the number of conflict within the team increases as the team grows.
4. After setting up the team, different roles and leadership levels can be assigned to
the team members e.g. team leaders, facilitators, coordinators, communicators, a
technical expert and someone to ensure that the team is focused on its goals and
duties. One person may fulfil more than one role in the project and duties may be
shared or rotated.
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TOPIC 10: PROJECT NEGOTIATIONS

The act of discussing an issue between two or more parties with competing interests
with an aim of coming to an agreement. Conferring, discussing and bargaining to reach
an agreement.
Reasons of negotiation
 To reach an amicable solution
 To get a better deal such as price cuts and bargains
 To address and clarify issues
 To understand the expectations of both in a contact
Characteristics of a good negotiator
 Preparation and planning skills
 Knowledge of the subject matter being negotiated
 Ability to think clearly and rapidly under pressure and uncertainty
 Ability to express thoughts verbally
 Communication and Listening skill
 Judgment and general intelligence
 Integrity
 Ability to persuade others
 Patience and flexibility
 Decisiveness
 Considers lots of options
 Aware of the process and style of the other person
 Thinks and talks about possible areas of agreement
Stages of negotiation 1
Plan – Here you identify what you want and the set the priorities as high, medium, and
low.
Explore – This stage involves getting more information on the other party, getting their
side of the story.
Offer – This where the negotiation begins in earnest. Both parties will make their
starting positions clear.
Barter – This involves the witty gritty part of the negotiation. Conferring in earnest about
issues and making agreements
Close – This is the end of the negotiation process. You have agreed deal and defined
what the terms and conditions are going to be. It is also important that parties involved
have the same understanding of what has been agreed.
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The Negotiation process 2

This is a unique combination framework that puts together the best of many other
approaches to negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex, higher-value and
slower negotiations.
 Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them.
 Open: Put your case. Hear theirs.
 Argue: Support your case. Expose theirs.
 Explore: Seek understanding and possibility.
 Signal: Indicate your readiness to work together.
 Package: Assemble potential trades.
 Close: Reach final agreement.
 Sustain: Make sure what is agreed happens.
Strategies in negotiation
In general, recommended steps for successful negotiation are:
1. Separate the people from the problem.
2. Focus on interests, not positions.
3. Invent options for mutual gain i.e. work together to create options that will satisfy both
parties.
4. Insist on using objective criteria for judging a proposed solution.
What to negotiate in project and contract management

a) Prices changes
b) Changes in project specification and scope
c) Variation in quality of products and services
d) Changes in delivery times and dates
e) Disputes, conflicts, arbitrations e.t.c.
Negotiating skills
 Learn to flinch.
A flinch is a visible or audible reaction to an offer. The objective of this negotiation tactic
is to make the other people feel uncomfortable about the offer they presented and then
offer a compromise e.g. try to rationalize their prices or they will offer an immediate
concession.
 Recognize that people often ask for more than they expect to get.
This means you need to resist the temptation to automatically reduce your offer.
 The person with the most information usually does better.
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You need to learn as much about the other person's situation and their level of interest
and stake in the matter.
 Practice at every opportunity.
Most people hesitate to negotiate because they lack the confidence. Develop this
confidence by negotiating more frequently.
 Maintain your walk away power.

It is better to walk away from a bad deal or sloppy deal rather than make too large a
concession or comprise that might affect you in future.
Important consideration in negotiating

1. Don't be afraid to ask. Be explicit about what you do and don't want.
2. Never negotiate against yourself. Once you make an offer, wait for a response before
making another offer. By waiting, you avoid the possibility of rejecting your own offer
and making further concessions in a revised offer.
3. Get it in writing. When parties fail to live up to an agreement, written proof of the
negotiators' intent is critical. First, it eliminates blame games and helps those in charge of
resolving the dispute know what was intended. Written agreements also are helpful if the
original negotiators are not around or have been replaced.
4. Determine the extent of the other side's authority. Try to deal with deal-makers,
when possible.
5. Know your bottom line. It is critical to understand what you want beforehand. That
way, you'll know it's time to stop. Knowing your bottom line also prevents you from
agreeing to something that is unacceptable.
6. Establish a fall-back plan. Know your best alternative if you face an unsuccessful
negotiation. Without a fall-back position, you are left with no alternative but to negotiate
until a deal is reached, even if that agreement is unacceptable.
7. Listen to the other side. Good negotiators are good listeners and good
communicators, not just good talkers. By listening, observing behavior and body
language, and being attentive, you can learn things that will further your interests.
9. There is no substitute for discussion. Many people don't like to argue, and, therefore,
sometimes fail to discuss important issues. Avoiding tough issues is not productive.
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TOPIC ELEVEN: PROJECT RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Definition
A risk is something that may happen and if it does, will have a negative impact on the
project. It is something that will have an undesirable outcome on a project. It is
something that may happen imply a probability of less than 100% and more than 0%. If it
has a probability of 100% - in other words it will happen - it is an issue not a risk. Risk
can also be defined as the effect of uncertainty on objectives whether positive or
negative. Risk management can therefore be considered the identification, assessment,
and prioritization of risks followed by coordinated and economical application of
resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of risks.
Risk Management Plan

There are four stages to risk management planning. They are: ·
1. Risk Identification
2. Risks Quantification
3. Risk Response
4. Risk Monitoring and Control
Risk Identification
In this stage, we identify and name the risks. The best approach method of risk
identification is a workshop with project manager and other stakeholders to carry out the
identification. You can also use a combination of brainstorming and reviewing of
standard risk lists. There are different sorts of risks and we need to decide on a project by
project basis what to do about each type of risk. The project manager and/or risk manager
can also be tasked with identify risks in a project. Examples of risks in a project are: -
Vendors not meeting deadline, Milestones not achieved, withdrawal of funding, key
personnel quitting, adverse weather conditions, Escalation of prices etc.
Risk Quantification
Risk need to be quantified in two dimensions. The impact of the risk needs to be assessed
also the probability of the risk occurring needs to be identified and assessed. The diagram
below show a simple ways of risk quantification, rate each on a 1 to 4 scale. The larger
the number, the larger the impact or probability of the risk. By using a matrix, a priority
can be established.
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Note that if probability is high, and impact is low, it is a Medium risk. On the other hand
if impact is high, and probability low, it is High priority.
A remote chance of a catastrophe warrants more attention than a high chance of a hiccup.
Use the guidelines below to complete the risk assessment for each identified risk event.
Each risk event can have multiple Mitigation Strategies and Contingency Plans.
Probability of Occurrence and Estimated Project Impact can be used to “prioritize” risk
events for continuous monitoring throughout the project.
Risk Response
Once risks have been identified and assessed, all techniques to manage the risk fall into
one or more of these four major categories:
 Avoidance (eliminate)
 Reduction (mitigate)
 Transfer (outsource or insure)
 Retention (accept and budget)
Risk avoidance
It includes not performing an activity that could carry risk. An example would be not
investing in risky information systems projects. Another example might include not using
new project methods and techniques that have not been tried and tested.
Avoidance may seem the answer to all risks, but avoiding risks also means losing out on
the potential gain that accepting (retaining) the risk may have allowed.
Risk reduction
It involves methods that reduce the severity of the loss or the likelihood of the loss from
occurring. It tries to reduce the impact and frequency of the risk occurring. For example
better pay for project team can reduce the risk of them quitting the job. Having an
alternative source of funding can reduce the risk of lack of funding in a project. Most
modern software development methodologies reduce risk by developing and delivering
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software incrementally. Outsourcing could be an example of risk reduction if the

outsourcer can demonstrate higher capability at managing or reducing risks
Risk retention
IT involves accepting the loss when it occurs. Risk retention is a viable strategy for small
risks where the cost of insuring against the risk would be greater over time than the total
losses sustained. It also involves planning for ways of handling the risk now that it has
been accepted. For example we may add within the project budget an allowance for risk,
so that should it occur it may not adversely affect the project. All risks that are not
avoided or transferred are retained by default.
Risk transfer
It involves sharing the risk with a third party such as an insurance agency. For example
the risk of accidents and injuries in a project can be transferred to a medical insurance
company. Also some project activities which the organization does not have the required
level of expertise can be outsourced or contracted to increase the chances of being done
properly.
Risk management and Control

The final step is to continually monitor risks to identify any change in the status, or if
they turn into an issue. It is best to hold regular risk reviews to identify actions
outstanding, risk probability and impact, remove risks that have passed, and identify new
risks. Risk can also be assigned to risk owners who are persons that are give the authority
to monitor, control and mitigate a certain type of risk that is within the domain.
Principles of risk management

The International Organization for Standardization identifies the following principles of
risk management: Risk management should:
1. Create value.
2. Be an integral part of organizational processes.
3. Be part of decision making.
4. Explicitly address uncertainty.
5. Be systematic and structured.
6. Be based on the best available information.
7. Be tailored.
8. Take into account human factors.
9. Be transparent and inclusive.
10. Be dynamic, iterative and responsive to change.
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11. Be capable of continual improvement and enhancement.

Risk management activities as applied to project management
In project management, risk management includes the following activities:
1. Planning how risk will be managed in the particular project. Plan should include risk
management tasks, responsibilities, activities and budget.
2. Assigning a risk officer - a team member other than a project manager who is
responsible for foreseeing potential project problems. Typical characteristic of risk
officer is a healthy skepticism.
3. Maintaining live project risk database. Each risk should have the following attributes:
opening date, title, short description, probability and importance. Optionally a risk
may have an assigned person responsible for its resolution and a date by which the
risk must be resolved.
4. Creating anonymous risk reporting channel. Each team member should have
possibility to report risk that he/she foresees in the project.
5. Preparing mitigation plans for risks that are chosen to be mitigated. The purpose of
the mitigation plan is to describe how this particular risk will be handled – what,
when, by who and how will it be done to avoid it or minimize consequences if it
becomes a liability.
6. Summarizing planned and faced risks, effectiveness of mitigation activities, and effort
spent for the risk management.
TOPIC TWELVE: PROJECT APPRAISAL AND SELECTION

This is the process of evaluating individual projects or groups of projects and then
choosing to implement some of them so that the objectives of the organization will be
achieved.
 If projects are not properly selected they may fall outside the organization stated
mission.
 Projects should be selected properly to support the strategy and goal of the
organization.
 To ensure that the benefits of the projects are more than their costs.
Some organizations run multiple projects at the same time. If they do not select their
projects properly, the following problems may be encountered.
 Delays in one project will delay other projects because of common resource needs.
 The inefficient use of corporate resources.
 Bottlenecks in resource availability (lack of funding, staff availability etc)
To select projects, project managers use project selection models. The project selection
models major characteristics that should be considered are the following
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 Realism: the project model should reflect the reality of manager’s decision situation
e.g. project A may strengthen a firm’s market share by extending its facilities; project
B might improve its competitive position by strengthening its technical staff. The
model should also consider factors such as project risk, cost, time and even returns on
the project.
 Capability: the model should be sophisticated enough to deal with multiple time
periods, simulate various situations both internal and external to the project and
optimise the decision.
 Flexibility: It should be easily modified or self adjusting in response to changes in
the firm’s environment e.g. to new tax laws, to changes in technologies e.t.c
 Easy to use: It should not take a long time to execute and should be easy to use and
understand.
 Cost: Data gathering and modelling should be relatively lower than the cost of the
project and less than the expected benefits of the projects.
 Ease of computerization: it should be very easy and convenient to gather and store
the information in a computer database and to manipulate the data using a variety of
models.
 However, note that the project models do not make decisions; it is the managers who
use the models to make decisions.
The nature of the project selection methods;
There are two basic types of project selection models;
1. Numeric
2. Non-numeric
Non numeric models do not use numbers as inputs whereas numeric models use numbers
as inputs.
Non-numeric Models
They do not consider quantitative measures
 The sacred cow:- in this case, the project is suggested by a senior and powerful
official in the organization. The project is sacred in the sense that it will be
maintained until successfully concluded or until the boss recognises the idea as a
failure and terminates it.
 The operating necessity:-if the project is required in order to keep the system
operating, then it is an operating necessity e.g. if floods are threatening a plant, or
people, a project to build a protective dyke does not require much formal evaluation.
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 The competitive necessity: - The decision to undertake the project is based on a

decision to maintain the company’s competitive position in the market. Operating
necessity projects takes precedence over a competitive necessity project and both
projects may bypass more careful numeric analysis used for most projects.
 The product line extension:- in this case a project to develop and distribute new
products should be judged on the degree to which it fits the firms existing product
line, fills a gap or strengthens a weak link
 Competitive benefit model:- For this situation, assume that an organization has
many products to consider. Senior management would like a subset of the projects
that would be most beneficial to the firm, but the projects do not seem to be easily
comparable. The management may be forced to adopt non-formal methods of
choosing beneficial projects from non beneficial projects.
Numerical Models
They are also called profitability models. A large majority of all firms using project
evaluation and selection models use profitability as the sole measure of acceptability. A
number of these models exist that include:
 Payback period:- it measures the period in which the project will return the value of
initial investment. The faster the investment is recovered the higher the probability of
choosing the project since it will be less risky.
 Accounting rate of return (ARR):- it shows profitability allows comparison
between projects by comparing the profit generated with the cost of investments. The
project will be acceptable depending on the rate of return desired by the organization.
The above two methods are very simple to use. However, they do not take into
consideration the time value of the money.
 The Net Present Value (NPV):- it’s also called discounted cash flow since it takes
into consideration the time value of the money. A project with a positive NPV is
acceptable whereas a project with a negative NPV is rejected. The higher the positive
NPV the more acceptable the project.
 Internal Rate of Return (IRR):- is the rate of interest (discount rate) that gives and
NPV of zero. It allows the risks associated with an investment project to be assessed.
It allows comparison of the project with different initial output. The cash flow can be
set to different discount rates.
 Profitability index: - allows the comparison of costs and benefits of different projects to
be assessed and thus allows decision making be carried out. The PI requires that we
select a project whose PI is greater or equal to one. Therefore reject projects whose PI
is below one. Factors to consider when choosing financial/selection method
 Ease of use/degree of simplicity.
 Degree of accuracy required.
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 The extent to which future cash flows can be measured accurately.

 The extent to which future interest rates movements can be factored in and predicted.
 Necessity of factoring in effect of inflation
Numeric model: Scoring
In an attempt to overcome some of the disadvantages of profitability models, particularly
their focus on a single decision criteria a number of selection models that use multiple
criteria to evaluate a project have been developed. These include:-
Unweighted factor model
A set of relevant factors is selected by management and a team of ratters score the project
on each factor depending on whether or not it qualifies for an individual criterion e.g. in
choosing a car: Appearance, braking, comfort, cost/operating and ease of use
Weighted factor model

When numerical weights reflecting the relative importance of each individual factor are
added, we have a weighted factor scoring model.
Apart from the above selection factors that we’ve identified, other factors also need to be
considered when selection projects.
Product factors e.g. energy requirements, availability of raw materials, safety of
production process, effects on waste and rejects, length of disruption during installation,
changes in production cost e.t.c
Market factors e.g. size of potential market, time until market share is acquired, impact
on consumer safety, consumer acceptance, estimated life of output
Financial factors e.g. impact on cash flows, payout period, cash acquisition, time taken
to break even, size of investment required.
Personal factors e.g. training requirement, labour skill requirement, availability of
required labour skills, change in size of labour force, impact on working conditions.
Administrative factors e.g. does it meet government safety standards, does it meet
environmental standards, reaction of stakeholders, patent and trade score protection,
impact on organizational goodwill, managerial capacity to detect and control new
processes.
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TOPIC THIRTEEN: COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT

PROJECTS
Community participation: - the voluntary and democratic involvement of community

members in the decision directly affecting the lives and development. In community
development, the community members influence the direction and execution of
development projects with a view of enhancing their well-being. Participation: - and
active process which the participants take initiative and action that is stimulated by their
won thinking and deliberates over which they can exert effective control. This
participation allows community members to use their own views and convictions to
address specific conditions and problems prevailing in their communities.
Participation: - is a voluntary process that can make a definite contribution to converting

or developing the community. This process involved various actors who determine how
and what services are delivered. The effectiveness of participatory relationship depends
on stakeholders being convinced that the process serves their interest. The cardinal/most
important/consideration in all community participatory considerations is the advancement
of the least privileged persons in the society. One major goal of participatory
development aims is to decrease dependency, arid dismantling discriminatory, oppressive
and paternalistic structures and replacing them with development, democratic, liberating
systems. Participation by the people in the institutions and systems, which govern their
lives, is a basic human right and also essential for realignment of political power in
favour of disadvantages groups and a social and economic development.
DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT
The first dimension of participation looks at the question “what type of participation are
we referring to? Participation in the implantation stages of a project mainly involves the
beneficiaries contributing resources either in cash or in kind. Participation here is equated
with co-operation in incorporation into predetermined activities. Participation needs to
be considered in decision making, management as well as in evaluating successes or
failures of the projects. The second dimension of participation looks at the question “who
should participate”. It is expected that all those affected (stakeholders) play a role at all
stages of the development process. The assumption that everyone in a community is
participating and that development will serve the needs of everyone should be taken
cautiously.
Page 45
Benefits of community participation in development
It is a process of give and take where each side must surrender certain current positions
and assume additional costs. Community participation brings:-
1. A broad knowledge base and spread of opinion offering the best informed
judgment on issues, options and trade-offs.
2. Practical and realistic objectives, targets and study which are negotiable so that
they are locally acceptable, meaningful, practicable.
3. Ownership of and commitment to the project. The argument is that when people
build something themselves they value it more
4. Greater credibility of the strategy an projects than they were they just a product of
technicians and bureaucrats.
5. Accountability and transparency
6. Increased capacity(learning by exposure
7. Increased momentum due to efficient mobilization and management of resources
and skills.
8. Enhances self esteem for groups and individuals. This comes as a result of the
community recognizing that they have the creative capacity to identify and solve
their won problems.
9. Participation is an essential part of human growth which is the development of
self confidence, pride, initiative, creativity, responsibility and co-operation.
Constraints to community participation in development
12. Causes delays in project implementations. This happens when members lack the
time or skills to keep up with the dynamics of a project.
13. Participation threatens conventional careers as it involves management to
facilitation. Professionals fell alot of power dealing with local communities as
equals and including them in decision-making. Professionals don’t take risks.
14. Assuming that people will always participate is often unrealistic.
Community participation is a process involving cultural, psychological, social and

political factors and there are no uniform universal models or guideline to use as blue
print. There is need to create awareness among community members on issues pertaining
to participation and community development. Community based organizations,
community leaders must be empowered by developing leadership skills and instilling the
idea of self-sustainability into them. The recognition of strengths, gifts, talents and
Page 46
resources of individuals and community is more likely to inspire positive action for
change. These efforts should culminate to the building of community development
visions and action plans. The external environment of course will influence the capacity
of communities to realize their potential.
6. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION.
7. INCLUSION: - of all people, groups, rep, affected by a project.

8. EQUAL PARTNERSHIP: - everyone gives their ides and participates with their
different skills.
9. TRANSPARENCY: - open communication and building dialogue
10. SHARING RESPONSIBILITY: - all have equal responsibility for outcome and
decisions.
11. SHARING POWER: - there is need to avoid the participation of one group over
another, should be equal sharing.
12. EMPOWERNMENT: - encourage those with skills to employ them, mutual
reinforcement and promotion of what exists in people to be used in the projects.
13. CO-OPERATION: - we operate together recognizing that sharing comes strengths
reduces our weakness.
Other principles according to Nick Wates in what he calls A-Z
 Accept different agenda

 Accept limitations-no community planning activity can solve all problems in the
world
 Accept varied commitment – no equal commitment
 Agree on rules and boundaries –should be a common understanding and have an
agreement
 Avoid unnecessary jargon –not distract the meaning
 Be honest – straight forward and to the point, avoid hidden agendas
 Be transparent- objectives should be clear at events
 Be visionary and realistic – have raised expectations
 Build local capacity –develop the local skills and capacity
 Communicate –create awareness for people to know how to get involved
 Encourage collaboration/promote.
 Flexibility –avoid methods/strategies which are inflexible.
 Focus on attitudes and behaviors are just as or more important than methods
 Follow up-how it’s to be done, how much it will cost in is dependent on
accountability an interest.
Page 47
 Go at it –used by those who have experienced community planning take leap of

faith in the dark and have fun will doing it.
 Having fun while doing it –be passionate about it and don’t see it as a chore but as
an opportunity to meet, community planning requires humor.
 Human scale – break community into smaller areas involve all those affected
especially when all parties affected are involve all sections of the community.
7. TYPOLOGY OF PARTICIPATION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS.
1. Passive participation – people participate by being told what is going to happen or

has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an admin or project
management without listening to peoples responses. The information being
shared belongs only to external professionals.
2. Participation in information giving–people participate by answering questions
posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys or similar approaches.
People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings as the findings of the
research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.
3. Participation by consultation –people participate by being consulted and external
people listen to views. These external professionals define both problems and
solutions and may modify these in the light of people’s responses. Such a
consultative process foes not concede any share in decision making professionals
are under no obligation to take on board people views.
4. Participation for material incentives- people participate by providing resources
e.g. labour in return for good for food, cash or other material incentives. Farm
research falls under this category as farmers provide fields not involved in
experimentation or the process of learning.
5. Functional participation – people participate by forming groups to meet pre-
determined objectives related to the project which can involve the development or
promotion of externally initiated social organization. Such involvement does not
tend to be at early stages of project planning cycles but rather when major
decisions have been made. These institutions and to be dependent on external
initiators and facilitators but may become self-dependent.
6. Interactive participation – people participate in joint analysis which leads to
action plans in the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of
existing ones. It tends to involve inter disciplinary methodologies that seek
multiple perspectives and make use of systematic and structured learning
processes. These groups take control over local decisions and so people have a
stake in maintain structures or practices.
Page 48
7. Self-mobilization- People participate by taking initiatives independent of external

institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions
for resources and technical advice they need but retain control over how resources
are used. Such self initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not
challenge existing inequitable distribution of wealth and power.
Page 49

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Project planning and management module DED2301 diploma in community development

DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND

UNIT CODE: DED2301

DED2301: PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

To introduce planning and managing, knowledge and skills in development projects.

Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of course unit, the student shall be able;-

 To understand the concept and principles underlying development projects.

PROJECT CYCLE MANAGEMENT – PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

- Core project management approach

- Project manager, (roles/responsibility)

- Project sponsor (roles/responsibility)

PROJECT APPRAISAL AND SELECTION

- Methods of project appraisal – there are merits and demerits

PROJECT SUCCESS /FALUIRE

- Participation in project management

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

EFFECTIVES PILLARS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

- Effective resource mobilization

PROJECT RISk MANAGEMENT

- Concepts of risk management

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AND CONTROL

- Factors to consider in project implementation and control

Lectures, Brainstorming, Group Discussions, Case studies, Assignment, Field work

Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 20%; Assignments - 10%;

Instructional Materials and Equipment.

 Chalkboards, Handouts, Overhead projectors, Internet information resources

 Sanoff, N. (1999), Community Participation Methods in Design and Planning,

Other support materials

 Various appropriate applicable manuals and journey

TOPIC ONE: THE CONCEPT OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Characteristics of Project Management

Project Management vs. Functional Management

Project and programs

Activities Many short, performed once Variable, performed repetitively

Sequence Defined pathway Repetitive

Connectivity Dependencies among activities Independent or possible pass-offs

Purpose Single, well-defined goal General objectives

Specification Vision Mission

Quality Continual assurance tests Quality improvement projects

Resources Variable, multidisciplinary Dedicated

Organization Matrix Line and staff

Development of Project Management

TOPIC TWO: Project life cycles stages

 Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule

Planning and Organizing

Closing the project

Why Project Management?

TOPIC FOUR Writing a PROJECT PROPOSAL

A project proposal is a detailed description of a series of activities aimed at defining and

Elements of the project proposal

Contents page/table of content

The proposed approach

The implementing organisation

Activity plan (schedule)

Monitoring and evaluation

TOPIC FIVE: PROJECT PLANNING

Function/Importance of Project Plan

 At operation level planning focuses on activities that must be done be performed to

Components of a project plan