CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is consists about the theory of writing, teaching writing, writing strategy,

RAFT strategy and hortatory exposition. The purpose of this chapter is to strength the

research.

A. Writing

1. The nature of writing

Writing include in language skills that should be mastered by language learners.

Writing can’t be ignored by language learners. Writing include in productive skill, whereas

the students product something from their practice. Writing itself means an activity to

transfer and gather ideas, opinion or feelings into whole unity in written form. There are

some definitions of writing. According to Hamp and Lyon (1990), writing is personal act in

which writers take ideas or prompts and transform them into “self-initiated topic”. This

theory explain that writing is begins from writer’s ideas then the idea change into written

form by a process. Brown (2001:331) stated that writing is a thinking process, writing can be

planned and given many revision before the work release. Writing can’t be produce once,

there are some steps beginning from prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and the last

release the work. Moreover, Gebhard (1996:221) state that writing more than making

appropriate word choice, or using appropriate grammar, syntax, mechanic and organization

of ideas into a coherent and cohesive form. However, writing also includes a focus on

audience and purpose. In addition, Harmer (2007) stated that writing encourages students to
focus on using accurate language. Based on the definitions above, we can conclude that

writing is done by the students is not only to fulfill school assignment or as part of studying

language activity.

In another hand, writing has some purpose and function to do. Some students do not

realize the important of writing and the motivation to practice writing activity. Some

students do not want to practice writing and do not know how to do. The purpose of writing

is to develop student creativity and intellectual. Lewin (2003:117) stated on his book that

writing is a way to communicate their ideas to the audience, the purpose is to share writer’s

feelings, thought, opinion, joy, anger, crictism or thanks with someone else. Especially in

writing teaching and learning process, there are two uses of writing in the service of

learning. First, writing enables students to think about, to process, to grow ideas about

certain topics and boost student understanding especially in writing course content. Second,

writing enables students to gain proficiency in a critical of important skills. In addition,

Raimes (1983:3) stated that writing is a part of communication and it also helps student to

learn. First, writing can foster students’ understanding about grammatical structures,

vocabulary and idiom that teacher have been taught. Second, students have a chance to

explore their language knowledge while they are writing, and they are brave enough

to make a mistake. Third, students will engage in a new language when they write, and they

use their eye, hand, and brain to express the idea in learning process. Based on the purpose

and the function above, it can be concluded that writing has important role and give many

benefit in linguistic competence for student who explore their writing through practice.
2. The writing process

Writing well comes from working through a process. In practice writing the students

should pay attention in the aspects included in writing. Those aspects construct the writing,

they are the organization of idea, word choice, appropriate grammar, and syntax, mechanics

such as punctuation, spelling. From the technically of writing, writing also has some aspect

to make the writing effective for the reader they are audience and purpose. Audience is

concern on who the reader will be intended and the purpose is concern on the goal of writing

itself. The last aspects make writing more understandable and meaningful.

Other than the aspects construct writing, writing has some stage that should be passed

by the language learners to get an effective writing. The stages are prewriting, drafting,

revising, and editing. Through those steps the writing will become well form. Some expert

has different opinion for the steps in writing process. In his book, Langan (2005:22) stated

that there three main stages to get effective writing. , Those are prewriting, drafting and

revising. Simplify Langan drawn the writing process as below:

a. Discovering thesis – often trough prewriting

b. Developing solid support for thesis- often trough more prewriting

c. Organizing the thesis and supporting material and writing it out in a first draft

d. Revising than editing carefully to ensure an effective, error free paper

According to Lewin (2003:121) the process of writing are prewriting, rough drafting,

rewriting and publishing, In addition, based on Brown and Hood (1993:06) to get effective

writing the writer should orient on these questions below;

a. Who you are writing for, it concern to the intended reader

b. Why you are writing, it focus on the purpose of writing

c. What you are writing about, it refers to the content of writing

d. Where you are, how much time you have, how you feel etc. this is concern about the

situation of writing.

The writing processes are explain as below;

a. Prewriting / planning

Prewriting is first stage of writing process whereas the writer requires to making

preparation and plan what will write. In this stage the writer also takes their idea and details.

There some techniques in prewriting stage. Technique is use to engaged writer idea as the

writing sources. There are five techniques can be use in Pre writing activity.

1) Freewriting

Freewriting means write everything in form of phrase or sentence about everything that

comes to writer’s mind to explore possible topic. In freewriting there is no need correct

syntax, grammar, adequate vocabulary etc. Freewrting process figure outs what writer

wants to write and getting material down on the page. The purpose of freewriting is to make

us familiar with the act of writing, it is a way to break mental blocks about writing.

2) Questioning

In questioning the writer explore the idea and details by asking questions about the

subject. The writer can formulate the question by using WH questions word such us what,

who, when, where, why and how.

3) Brainstorming /Making a list

In this technique the writer collect idea and details that related to the subject by making

sentence list. They can put all ideas then choose them. The idea that not use can be deleted.

4) Clustering/ Mapping/Diagraming

Clustering is another technique of prewriting that can be used to generate material for a

paper. This method is used to make the idea and details in form of visualization by using

lines, boxes, arrows, and circles to show the relationship among the idea and details. In

addition, clustering can help the writer in generating material by giving sense how the idea

and details related each others.

5) Preparing scratch outline.

The scratch outline is a plan to help the writer achieve a unified, supper, well organized

composition. This is very good to use in writing essay that have many parts paragraph start

from introduction, body or supporting point and conclusion. This technique is the one

complex prewriting technique because it often engaged freewriting, questioning,

brainstorming or list- making, and clustering. In scratch outline the writer thinks carefully

about the point will be used, the supporting details and the order in which the writer will

arrange the point and supporting details.

b. Drafting.

Drafting is a stage whereas the writer begins to write, put their idea and supporting detail

in form of draft. The most important thing here is to get words onto paper. No need to worry

about the correctness, grammar, convention, organization, spelling and others. Just write
what we have on prewriting stage. In drafting stage, Kristin (:14) explain there are some

strategies can be used by the writer at the first draft stage.

1) Using the writing space. It is important to see clearly what we have written and what

changes we have made.

2) Getting started. Getting started helps the writer begins write their work. This stage is also

guide us to make beginner sentence, sometime to get beginner sentence is difficult, so

a) Don’t worry too much about beginning because we can change it anyway. Try to get

pas it and keep going.

b) Write a few different beginning sentences. Choose one and then continue writing.

c) Don’t begin at the beginning at all. Start writes anywhere. Come back later and write

the beginning sentence

3) Keeping Going. It is good idea to push the writer stand their project to the end of a first

draft. The important thing at this stage is to get idea on paper. There are some suggestion

if writer found some problems in drafting ;

a) If unsure of the spelling of word, make an attempt and leave aa space then keep going.

b) If unsure of punctuation, make an attempt and put dash or mark in the trouble spot and

keep going

c) If unsure about the words to use, write two or three alternative words, leave a space

and write the alternative word in first language and keep going.

d) If run out from ideas, look back at prewriting note, begin to rewrite what we have

write. The last put the writing away for a time, return back when we have fresh and

clear mind.
c. Revising

Revising means rewriting the work or paper building on what has already been done, in

order to make it stronger. In this step the writer should strength up the writing, and improve

the work to be effective writing.

In revision, there are some stage that should be check by the writer

1) Revision of content. To revise the content there are some guidance sentence can be used

Is my paper unified?

a) Do I have a thesis that is early stated or implied in the introductory paragraph?

b) Does my entire supporting paragraph truly support and back up my thesis?

Is my paper supported?

a) Are there three separate supporting points for the thesis?

b) Do I have specific evidence for each of the three supporting points?

c) Are there plenty of specific evidences for each supporting point?

Is my paper organized?

a) Do I have an interesting introduction, a solid conclusion, and an accurate title

b) Do I have a clear method of organizing my paper?

c) Do I use transition and other connecting word?

2) Revising sentence. In revising sentence there some gidence can be use to check:

a) Do I use parallelism to balance my words and ideas?

b) Do I have consistent point of view?

c) Do I use specific words?

d) Do I use active verbs?

e) Do I use words effectively by avoiding slang, clichés, pretentious language, and

wordiness?

f) Do I vary my sentences?

d. Editing

Editing is the last step in writing process before the work release. Editing requires

recognizing problem in language grammar, syntax and mechanics. In editing there is usually

a rubric or manual guide to recognize errors. In editing it can be done by own self or by

peers. According to Riyanti (2015:10) in editing process, it makes students see the

connection between their own work and the exercise in order to create and unambiguous

communication. Than other stages, editing need much time, knowledge, experience and

commitment become a good editor.

B. Teaching Writing

Teaching is process to transform the information or knowledge for someone or group.

According to Brown (2000:8) Teaching is showing or helping someone to learn how to do

something, giving instruction guiding in the study of something, providing with knowledge.

Teaching writing here means transform many information concerns on writing skill and train

the student to know, to understand and to do writing.

1. The role of teacher

Teacher has some important role in teaching and learning process, there are teacher as

resources provider, learning facilitator, lecture, instructor, motivator, curriculum specialist,

classroom supporter, mentor, manager, consultant, advocator, psychiatrist etc. Specifically,

in writing teaching and learning process the teacher has three important roles as stated by

Harmer (2007:330) teacher as:

a. Motivator

Teacher should make writing task motivate the student, creating the right condition

for the generating idea and persuade the students that writingis useful activity. Teacher give

suggestion to the student who can’t think of anything or at least prompt with their idea and

giving solution to students’ problems.

b. Resources

During more extend writing task, teacher should be ready to supply necessary

information and language. Teacher should tell the student that they are available and be

prepared to look students’ work as it progresses. The teacher should offer advice and

suggestion in constructive and wise way.

c. Feedback provider.

Teacher should gives feedback on writing task demands special care. Teacher should

be respond positively and encouragingly to the content of what the students have written.

When offering correction, teacher should check the focus of students’ written task based on

students need at the particular stage study.

2. Teaching Writing Procedure

Writing can be mastered by the language learner trough teaching and learning process.

The process is not done at once but through some stage as explain before. Writing is

processed trough prewriting, drafting, revising and editing. The goal of those processes is to

make the student work become well and accepted to the audience. There are the roles of

teacher in writing process according to Gebhard (1996:226)

a. In pre writing, teacher provides chances for student to develop word. Then, provide

strategies for getting started such as find a topic, generating idea, focusing the idea,

planning content and organization.

b. In drafting, teacher provide multiple draft for the students

c. In revising, the teacher should give correction to students’ draft such as deleting

unimportant details, adding details needed, reorganizing the random idea and modifying

draft.

d. For editing, teacher should check the element that construct the writing such as word

choices, grammar, mechanics, and sentence structure.

Both of teacher and student should have effective strategy. By applying a strategy

writing process will be simpler to do. A strategy helps teacher to delivers the materials well

and in simple way. It is also for student, by a strategy they can understand the material well

and practice more activity. There are many strategy can be applied in teaching writing and

learning process.

Remember that writing is productive skills, so that writing has different way in teaching

writing rather than repetitive skills. Brown (2000:275) stated to be success in teaching

productive skills is based on how the teacher organizes them and how they respond to the

students’ work.
a. In the lead in stage, teacher engage student with the topic.

b. When set the task, teacher explain what students are going to do clearly, teacher need to

demonstrate the activity in some way.

c. Student start work, teacher monitors the task by going round the class, listening to the

students working and helps them where they are having difficulty.

d. When the task is finished teacher give feed back to help student know how well they have

one.

C. RAFT Strategy

1. The nature of RAFT strategy

RAFT strategy is acronym of Role Audience Format Topic. This is a strategy

introduce by Carol Santa in 1988. RAFT strategy integrates reading and writing in non-

traditional way. The purpose of RAFT strategy is to give students a fresh way to think about

approaching their writing it is caused RAFT strategy occupies standard essay and creative

writing. Fisher and Frey (2007:67) sated that RAFT strategy provides a scaffold for student.

It is used to explore their writing based on various roles, audience, format and topic.

According to Sons (2008:301) RAFT strategy is used to increase the quality of student’

writing by personalizing the task and transforming students’ idea of both the writing topic

and writing event. According to Buehl (2013: 173) by using RAFT strategy students are

given a clear structure for their writing; they know what point to assume, and they are

provided with an organizational scheme. Furthermore, the purpose of the writing is outlined

clearly. In addition, According Thomas (2013:3) RAFT strategy activates prior knowledge

and helps students to connect to new content that they can then be assessed on.
RAFT strategy consist of four focus, they are Role, Audience, Format and Topic. It has

explained by Steele (2011: 137).

a. Role

Role here indicate the roles of the writer about the text. Is the writer a journalist, a

teacher, a consultant and others. The students should understand the reflect perspective or

point of view. The idea affects students to be mature and realize the significance perspective

in writing. Students need to be familiar with the different roles they can act as writer.

b. Audience

Audience here contains who the reader will be intended. To make a text meaningful the

writing should be read by precise reader. Is the text for public, student, teacher etc. student

can learn some critical lesson about writing as medium for communication by writing on

similar topic but to various audience.

c. Format

A text has different format or genre, format help the writer to make the text

understandable and enjoyable to write. By using varying format of writing, it offers

opportunities for creative writing and avenues for expression that might not surface if

students are limited to basic essay writing.

d. Topic

Topic here is focus will be discussed by the writer. selection of writing topic often

present the greatest struggle in content area writing. When considering the topics, it is useful

to think in terms of what kind of questions students should address; the students have to

consider the conceptual ways in which that essential point can be approached. This can be

determined through different topic prompts. Moreover, giving the writers opportunity to
think through specific writing prompts, they might like to pursue in an effective way to

engage them in writing about central issues for class. Based on Saskaton Public School

article (2008), RAFT strategy helps student understanding the main ideas of text, how to

organize text, elaboration, and cohesive and coherence of the text. Then RAFT strategy help

students know their position in making text or passage to state something strongest and it

help student write text or passage effective for the reader.

Table 2.1 The example of RAFT format

Role Audience Format Topic

Scientist Student Booklet New innovation

on biochemistry

Jurnalist Public News The disaster

happen in

Indonesia

Doctor Public Article How to keep

body health

2. The advantages of RAFT strategy

By applying RAFT strategy the teacher and students can get some advantages. The

teacher lead student to explore their idea, the impact student is more creative. According to

Thomas (2013:2), RAFT strategy helps teacher to engaged student in writing by motivation
and differentiation trough choice or by adjusting the level of requirement depending on the

student. In addition, the advantages based on Buehl (2013: 176) are below:

a. Students give more thoughtful and often more extensive written responses as they

demonstrate their learning.

b. Students are more active in processing information rather than simply answer to

questions.

c. Students are given a clear structure for their writing; they know what point to assume,

and they are provided with an organizational scheme. Furthermore, the purpose of the

writing is outlined clearly.

d. Students are more motivated to do a writing assignment because the task

involves them personally and allows for more creative responses to learning the

material.

e. Students are encouraged to reread to examine a text from perspectives other than

their own and to gain insights on concepts and ideas that may not have occurred them

during the initial reading of an assignment.

f. RAFT is a strategy that can be used to teach all content areas, including science,

social studies, and math.

3. Procedure of RAFT strategy

To applied a strategy in teaching learning process need an effective procedures. There

are the procedures of applying RAFT strategy in teaching writing by NBSS School (2000:1):
a. Step 1

1) Explain to the student to consider four key components: the role of writer, the audience,

format and topic.

2) Explain to students that they are going to structure their writing around these elements

using the RAFT strategy. Display a completed RAFT on the paper or blackboard and

discuss the key elements with students.

3) Then Identify important ideas or information.

b. Step 2

1) Demonstrate, model and "think aloud" another sample RAFT exercise with the help of

the class. Allows students to see what the teacher think.

2) Give another example of RAFT strategy

3) Brainstorm RAFT ideas about a topic.

c. Step 3

1) Divide students into pairs or small groups.

2) Ask the students to write about a chosen topic from the brain stormed list.

3) Then have the groups share their completed RAFTs with the class.

d. Step 4

1) After students become more proficient with the strategy have them create their own

RAFTS based on topics studied in class start to write.

Table 2.2 The example of RAFT sheet

RAFT Sheet
Role Format
Audience Topic

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D. HORTATORY EXPOSITION TEXT

1. The definition of hortatory exposition

Hortatory exposition text is one kind of non-fiction text. It is include in persuasive text

in form of exposition. According to Butt (2000:241) Exposition is a factual text that is used

to persuade people to particular point of view. Exposition is divided into two types they are

hortatory exposition and analytical exposition. Both of them are similar, the differences are

in the last paragraph. In the analytical exposition the last paragraph contains of reiteration,

whereas in the hortatory exposition contain recommendation for the students.

Hortatory exposition text presents argument or reason to support the opinion. Hortatory

exposition text usually discuss the current issue surround us, it is represent the attempt of the

writer. The aim of hortatory exposition text is to persuade the reader that something should

or should not be the case. In hortatory exposition text the writer put some argumentation to

strength their opinion or idea. The argument based on the fact or theory.

2. The generic structure of hortatory exposition text

The generic structure of hortatory text exposition consist of three parts, they are

a. Thesis
Thesis is put on the beginner paragraph that consists of introduction of main idea that

will be discussed. In this part, the writer takes their position of the text.

b. Argument

Argument here is supporting details of text that consist of argumentations, opinion,

reasons to concern. Those are is used to strength the thesis

c. Recommendation

Recommendation is put on the last paragraph that contains a statement of what

something should or should not be the case.

3. Language feature of hortatory exposition text

a. Focusing on the writer.

In hortatory exposition text the focus is on writer. the text may came from the writer

opinion.

b. Using Abstract noun

One of character of hortatory exposition text is using abstract noun such as policy,

advantage, impact.

c. Using action verb

In hortatory exposition the writer also uses action word. It means there is verb show

something can do such us run, drink, talks, etc.

d. Using modal adverbs

To persuade the reader, in writing hortatory there is modal adverb is used such as

certainly, surely, etc.

e. Using temporal connective

In the hortatory exposition text there is use temporal connective to connect one argument

to another such as firstly, secondly, thirdly, next, the last etc.

f. Using Evaluative word

Hortatory exposition text also uses evaluative word. The purpose is to give a resume. The

evaluative words such as importantly, valuably etc.

g. Using passive voice

Passive voice sometime is used in hortatory exposition, the formula is (to be + V3)

h. Using simple present tense

The tense type is used is simple present tense, the formula are (S + V1 (s/es ) or (S + to be)

Table 2.3The example of hortatory exposition text

People should Consume Diet Pills Carefully

Thesis Diet pills have a great potential to help you lose
weight. It can be very appealing, especially if you are
someone who has struggled to lose weight in the past
and who is obese. But these advantages should be
weighed against the possible dangers of diet pills
including some dangerous effect.
Argument 1 Prescriptions diet pills are very strong drugs, and
each the potential for dangerous side effect. The side
effect can be seen on the label of the pills. Some diet
pills, especially the stimulant-base diet pill, are habit-
forming and as such can be abused. Abuse of the drugs
may lead to addiction
Argument 2 Most prescription diet pills suppress the appetite,
which causes you to consume fewer calories. On the
surface, thus seems like the ultimate solution for losing
weight. However, as you reduce your caloric intake,
your metabolism also slows down. As your metabolism
slows, the amount of weight you lose also slows down.
Recommendation The solution, of course, is to combine lifestyle
changes to your diet regimen. Lifestyle changes such as
regular exercise, dietary changes, and regular health
check up can greatly increase your weight loss success.
Furthermore, the dangers of diet pills should
always be considered before you decide to take them.
Check with your doctor before taking any prescription
diet pill to find out if they are habit-forming

E. Previous Study

RAFT strategy has been implemented before. In this part, the researcher uses the

previous study as the comparison. First, the RAFT strategy has been successfully

implemented by Fransisca, Rismaya and Luwandi in their project entitled “Improving

Students’ Ability in Writing Hortatory Exposition Text by Using RAFT Strategy”. The

research is concerned with finding how well RAFT strategy improved student’ hortatory text

exposition text writing skill in term of correctness of writing simple present tense and
writing complete text organization of hortatory exposition text. The subjects of this research

were 32 students at the second semester of the eleventh grade students of SMAN 7

Pontianak in academic year 2013/2014. Based on the data analysis, the result of the

research was progress. It is showed that the students’ mean score for writing

hortatory exposition improved from 69.63 (average) in the first cycle to 79.90 (good)

in the second cycle. It can conclude that RAFT strategy is work well in improving

students’ ability in writing hortatory exposition text.

Yana Riyanti also has been successfully implemented this strategy in her thesis project

entitled “Improving students’ descriptive writing trough role, audience, format, and topic

(RAFT) Strategy” by A Classroom Action Research in the Seventh Grade of SMP Paramarta

Jombang. The aim of the research is to investigate the improvement of students’ descriptive

through RAFT strategy and to investigate what level RAFT strategy improves students’

descriptive writing. The result is the RAFT strategy has successfully improved the students’

ability in writing descriptive paragraph. It can be seen from the increase of the writing

scores’ mean from 64.5 in the preliminary study, and 68.0 in the first cycle, to 73.5 in

the second cycle.

In addition, RAFT strategy also successfully has been implemented by Ni Made Elis P,

I Wayan Suarnajaya and Asril Marjohan in their project entitled “The Effect of R.A.F.T

Strategy and Anxiety upon Writing Competency of The Seventh Grade Students of SMP

Negeri 3 Mengwi in Academic Year 2013/2014”. The research had an aim to investigate

the effect of RAFT strategy and anxiety upon writing competency. The result showed that

there was significant difference in writing competency between students taught by

RAFT strategy and those taught by conventional strategy, there was an interactional
effect between the implementation of RAFT strategy and the students‟ anxiety, there

was significant different in the writing competency between the students‟ with high

anxiety, taught by RAFT strategy and those who are taught by conventional technique, and

there was significant difference in the writing competency between the students‟ low

anxiety, taught by implementing RAFT strategy and those who are taught by

conventional strategy.

The differences between those studies above with this research are in approach, design

and focus of the study. First, Fransisca, Rismaya et.al and Yana Riyanti use classroom action

research approach. In contrary, the researcher use quantitative approach. The focus of those

study are on student’ writing ability where the researcher here focus on students writing

achievement. Second, the difference between the last study that has been conducted by I Ni

Made Elis P, I Wayan Suarnajaya et.al is on the design. They use experimental with 2x2

factorial design. I contrast the researcher use pre-experimental design.