The History of Project Management

Lessons From

HISTORY

The History
of
Project Management
The History
of Project Management

By Mark Kozak-Holland
First Edition
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The History of Project Management
by Mark Kozak-Holland
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Table of Contents
Preface...............................................................19
Why this Book?................................................... 19
Why the history of Project Management
is Important?...................................................... 20
What Will This Book Help you Do?................ 20
What We Can Learn from the Past?.............. 21
In Summary......................................................... 21
Introduction.....................................................23
Project Management.......................................27
The Evolution of Project Management......... 28
The Term Project Management...................... 29
What is Project Management?........................ 29
What Makes up a Modern Project?................ 29
Different Types of Projects............................. 30
Examples of these Types of Projects............. 30
Projects driven by Institutions versus
Commerce............................................................ 31
Different Views of Projects............................. 32
Program vs. Project ......................................... 33
5
The Evolution of Project Management in
Civilizations........................................................ 33
The Role of Knowledge in the Evolution
of Projects............................................................ 34
The Uneven Adoption of Technology............ 34
Basic Essentials to Projects............................ 35
Ability to Measure a Catalyst for Projects.. 35
Modern Terms in a Historical Context......... 37
Engineers versus Builders versus Project
Managers............................................................. 37
Evolution of Materials...................................... 39
The Main Branches of Engineering ............. 40
Commonality across Projects......................... 41
Structure of the Book....................................... 41
Structure of Chapters....................................... 42
Trends and Changes......................................... 42
Impact of Changes............................................. 43
Major Events....................................................... 44
New Tools Techniques and
Breakthroughs .................................................. 44
Regions Significant to the Historical
Period................................................................... 45
Significant Projects........................................... 45
Determining Significant Projects.................. 45
Key players.......................................................... 46
Chapter Wrap-up............................................... 47
Other..................................................................... 47
6
Evolution of PMBoK® Guide Knowledge
Areas...................................................................51
What are the PMBoK® Guide Knowledge
Areas..................................................................... 51
Significance of PMBoK® Guide Areas .......... 52
Integration Management................................. 53
Scope Management........................................... 53
Time Management............................................. 54
Cost Management.............................................. 55
Quality Management........................................ 55
Human Resource Management...................... 56
Communications Management....................... 57
Risk Management.............................................. 57
Procurement Management.............................. 58
Conclusion to PMBoK® Guide Knowledge
Areas..................................................................... 58
From Village to City (2550 - 510 BCE).........61

In this Historical Period.................................. 61
Trends and Changes ........................................ 63
Major Events . .................................................... 64
Breakthroughs .................................................. 65
Regions................................................................. 67
Significant Projects........................................... 67
7
Other Notable Projects..................................... 79
Key Players ........................................................ 85
Chapter Wrap-up............................................... 85
Roman Republic (510 - 100 BCE) ................97

In this Historical Period.................................. 97
Trends and Changes ........................................ 99
Major Events . .................................................. 101
Breakthroughs ................................................ 101
Regions............................................................... 104
Significant Projects......................................... 104
Parthenon Project (447-438 BCE)................ 104
Other Notable Projects................................... 111
Key Players....................................................... 114
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 114
The Roman Empire (1st Century BCE

to 500 CE).........................................................123
In this Historical Period................................ 123
Trends and Changes ...................................... 125
Impact of Changes........................................... 125
Major Events . .................................................. 125
Breakthroughs ................................................ 126
8
Regions............................................................... 134
Key Players ...................................................... 158
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 158
The Early Middle Ages (350 - 1050) ..........171

Major Events . .................................................. 175
Breakthroughs................................................. 176
Regions............................................................... 177
Significant projects......................................... 177
Key Players ...................................................... 187
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 187
The Central Middle Ages (1050 - 1300)......193

Major Events..................................................... 197
Breakthroughs ................................................ 199
9
Regions............................................................... 204
Key Players ...................................................... 223
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 224
The Late Middle Ages (1300 - 1450)...........237

Major Events . .................................................. 241
Breakthroughs ................................................ 242
Regions............................................................... 243
Key Players....................................................... 258
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 259
The 15th Century and Renaissance

(1450 - 1500).....................................................269
Major Events..................................................... 271
10
Breakthroughs ................................................ 272
Regions............................................................... 276
Key Players ...................................................... 289
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 291
The 16th Century ...........................................299

Major Events . .................................................. 302
Breakthroughs ................................................ 302
Regions............................................................... 304
Key Players ...................................................... 317
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 318
The 17th Century and the Modern Age

of Engineering . .............................................327
Major Events . .................................................. 329
11
Breakthroughs ................................................ 330
Regions............................................................... 333
Key Players ...................................................... 350
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 350
The 18th Century ...........................................357

First Industrial Revolution 1700-1840
(Phase 1)............................................................. 357
Trends and Changes....................................... 359
Major Events . .................................................. 361
Breakthroughs................................................. 362
Regions . ............................................................ 365
Key Players ...................................................... 388
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 389
The 19th Century ...........................................397

First Industrial Revolution 1840-1890
(Phase 2)............................................................. 397
12
Major Events . .................................................. 401
Breakthroughs ................................................ 402
Regions............................................................... 406
Key Players....................................................... 431
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 432
The 20th Century ...........................................447

Second Industrial Revolution (1890-1940).447
Major Events . .................................................. 450
Breakthroughs ................................................ 451
Key Players....................................................... 481
Chapter Wrap-up............................................. 482
13
Brief Summary of Projects..........................491
Comparing Projects........................................ 491
The Influence and Evolution of
Selected Projects............................................. 497
Great Project Managers through History.. 498
Advent of Knowledge Areas.......................... 500
Conclusion to the Book................................523

Key Findings..................................................... 524
Learning’s for Today....................................... 525
Dispelling Myths.............................................. 525
What Made Yesterday’s Projects So
Successful? ....................................................... 526
Final statement................................................ 527
Going Forward and Future Research......... 527
Future Plans..................................................... 528
Appendix A: Sample Colosseum

Work Breakdown Structure........................529
Appendix B: Bibliography..........................531
Appendix C: Measurement
Conversions ...................................................533
14
Appendix D: Mapping the Projects to
PMBoK® Guide Knowledge Areas..............537
Appendix E: Relationship to Other

Project Management Methods....................539
Appendix F: Project Management

Organizations.................................................543
End Notes........................................................545
References.......................................................581
Index.................................................................615
About the Author...........................................639
15
The publisher makes no claims to any trademarks used in this

publication. Where known trademarks are used in the text,
they are capitalized and they are marked with the trademark
symbol (® or ™) at their first usage. If any trademarks have
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com so that they may be so marked in future printings of this
publication.
If you have any ideas for improving this book, please contact
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edition.
16
Acknowledgments
T
his book is part of a series that has taken many years to
complete. I would like to thank Kevin Aguanno for helping
pull this book together and for driving the initiative. I
would also like to thank Glenn Le Clair and John Byrne, from
the Lessons from History team, for their early reviews.
Overall, I am indebted to my wife and family who have been
so gracious in allowing me to continue with this writing project
at the expense of our valuable time together. I would like to
mention that the design and layout of front cover was completed
with the help of Jamie and Evie Kozak-Holland.
17
18
Preface
P
Why this Book?
roject management is one of the fastest growing profes-
sions worldwide in the 21st Century. The perception held
by many people is that project management started in
the 20th Century - after all, the major project management or-
ganizations were founded in the sixties.1 Yet how were all the
great projects of the past delivered, like the Giza Pyramid, the
Parthenon, the Colosseum, the Gothic Cathedrals of Europe,
the Taj Mahal, and the Transcontinental Railroad? Was project
management used? Were the concepts of project management
understood? Answering these questions is the fundamental rea-
son for this book. If project management has been around for
thousands of years, why has no one attempted to quantify histor-
ical examples, and link them back to today’s concepts of project
management?
This type of book is somewhat unique probably because of
the broad scope of the subject (the different types of projects)
and the lack of readily-available material. The writing of this
book has not been easy, taking over four years. My publisher
suggested it as a natural fit to the Lessons from History series.
But the turning point and the reason why it was finally written
came through two things: first, the Lessons-from-History.com
website, where the most popular pages were those related to
the History of Project Management; and second, in writing the
19
book Project Lessons from the Great Escape, I purposely looked

at this Second World War case study from the perspective of a
modern project to determine whether it followed all the modern
project management concepts. Surprisingly, it did which made
me ask what about other case studies that went further back in
time. As a student of history, I have viewed history as a natural
progression where things just don’t suddenly appear but evolve.
Similarly, project management has evolved with time. So, were
the historical mega-projects as complex as today’s? Yes and pos-
sibly more, because of the larger size of the project work forces,
inferior technologies, and less scientific knowledge.
Why the history of Project Management is

Important?
The Project Management Institute (PMI) has seen double digit
growth and much evolution throughout the last decade. People
entering the field are looking at the past to better understand
the background to project management today. Using examples
from the past helps make sense of today’s projects, and puts into
context the steady evolution in projects.
What Will This Book Help you Do?

The general perception in today’s project management
communities is that project management started in the 20th
Century, specifically after the Second World War. This book calls
this modern project management. The book will demonstrate
that project management started at least 4,500 years ago,
with the building of the Giza Pyramid. It will dispel myths like
ancient projects lacked the concept of scope management, or had
few time dependencies, or employed slave labor, or had no formal
project manager. It will show categorically that ancient projects
had to manage a budget, materials (equipment), and a project
workforce to create deliverables within a specific time frame, to
a predefined scope, and level of quality. It will demonstrate that
little has changed with time in that the same factors that affect
today’s projects impacted the past, and the overall approach is
similar. It will review the nine Knowledge Areas1 from the Guide
to the Project Management Body Of Knowledge (PMBoK® Guide)
20
Preface
and show how relevant these were in every selected project from
the past millennia and centuries.
What We Can Learn from the Past?

One example taken from the Giza Pyramid project relates
to Hemienu’s overall approach. Heminu was the overseer
of construction for the Giza Pyramid. Scope, cost, and time
management are recognized as modern project management
concepts yet Hemienu understood all three and managed these
in the project. Scope was not just the process of erecting two
million blocks over a period of 20 years. Hemienu knew that
certain complex features would have a significant impact on the
project scope. For example, the king’s burial chamber (61 meters
or 200 feet above the foundation), or the system of internal
and external ramps, or the raising of the cap stone. These all
had to be carefully thought through, well in advance, or the
project would not be completed in the life time of the pharaoh.
By understanding the scope, Hemienu could build and manage
the schedules accordingly. For example, one of the first critical
path activities was dispatching a quarrying team of 500 men 800
kilometers (500 miles) to Aswan to quarry the massive granite
blocks that would take ten years to deliver.2
In Summary
If project management is as old as the beginning of civilization
then we might consider changing our definition of it so it better
reflects this. I believe that project management has been a
continuous evolution. It has absorbed the best practices from
every field that it has come in contact with. This book aims to be
the first in linking the project management of the past with the
present.
The challenge of managing projects today is to combine the
technology of the near-future with the lessons from the past.
This is a principal objective of the Lessons from History series.
Hence the research in this book establishes a baseline by which
historical projects can be used for comparative purposes to
today’s projects, and with that a wealth of lessons learned. But
if nothing else I hope the journey through the book entertains as
much as it educates.
21
Finally, on finishing this book you will see that the

historical projects covered, and others beyond these, should
be reinterpreted again. This should be done from a project
management perspective with today’s knowledge base, tools, and
concepts. This will help dispel many of the myths surrounding
these projects and establish the continuum of project
management from the past to today, and into the future.
22
Introduction
S
tudies in the history of project management are rarely seen
which is somewhat surprising considering the mega proj-
ects of the last 4,500 years. These were not anomalies in
history but projects delivered in a systematic way with similar
characteristics to today’s projects. Typically, they had what we
would call today a project charter, and a business justification.
They followed a life-cycle of phases, and they incorporated the
equivalent of the Project Management Process Groups (initiat-
ing, planning, executing, and closing), and the nine PMBoK®
Guide knowledge areas (or PRINCE2® as identified in the map-
ping to PMBoK® Guide in Appendix E).
For most people, the starting point of reference in the his-
tory of Project Management is the project constructing the Great
Pyramid at Giza. This is a monumental structure for its time,
2550 BCE (Before the Common Era), and conjures up images of
thousands of slaves serving a merciless pharaoh and toiling in
inhospitable conditions. In reality, labor was not an inexhaust-
ible supply but came at a higher price. There is little evidence to
suggest the use of slave labor in any of the projects presented,
with the exception of peasant labor. For the next 2,700 years,
most significant projects, highlighted by the architectural mas-
terpieces of the Greek and Roman eras, were in the construction
of edifices and structures. Over time subtle changes were being
made in the use of ever-improving materials like brick, concrete,
and iron which provided the project architects with more design
options and greater flexibility in these structures.
23
Other types of projects flourished with the development of

new technologies. For example, the European Renaissance led
to the great European voyages of exploration during the 15th
Century, with advances brought about by the invention of grids/
maps, the astrolabe, the compass, the lateen sail, and the im-
provements in ship building (the Caravel).
In the last 400 years, there has been a further evolution
in project types. This was first influenced by the birth of the
scientific age that provided important discoveries and inventions
which impacted Western society. The advances in science during
the 17th Century created a better understanding of materials and
spurred advances in the field of engineering and the industrial
revolution. For example, advances in technology changed the
cost of materials so that by 1840, iron became so cheap it started
to replace clay and wooden pipes.
The Industrial Revolution of the 18th Century was a catalyst
for change and had an impact on projects not only with new
materials, that could be assembled more quickly, but also where
steam replaced muscle. This improved the productivity of labor
and advanced all sorts of machines and equipment to handle
materials and heavy loads. This in turn fueled a Transportation
Revolution in the 19th Century which saw the extensive building
of canals, bridges, roads, and rails.
Over time, the drivers for projects have included religious,
political and commercial factors, and often a mix of several of
these. Many ancient projects were driven by religion, for ex-
ample, construction projects like the Giza Pyramid, Stonehenge,
and the Gothic cathedrals. However, with the Gothic cathedral
projects there was a commercial side to as they did improve the
economy in a town. Florence Cathedral was all about prestige
and commerce. The Colosseum was political in nature and was
used to promote the Roman Government and provide employ-
ment. It also stabilized the Roman Empire for a time. The great
voyages of exploration were projects driven by commerce, but in
the name of religion and the monarchy. In the 18th and 19th cen-
turies, practically all projects during the Industrial Revolution
were commercial in nature like the Iron Bridge, Transatlantic
Cable, Crystal Palace, etc. Some projects were very strategic,
and political, like the Suez and Panama Canal projects, or the
U.S., Canadian, or Russian Transcontinental Railroad projects,
24
Introduction
but they were also very important commercial successes as well.

In the 20th Century public works projects emerged to address the
growth in unemployment such as the Hoover Dam and Golden
Gate Bridge in the U.S., Autobahns in Germany, ocean liners
(Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth) in the UK, and the Maginot
Line in France. These projects were not much different from the
Parthenon and Colosseum, 2,000 years earlier, which were also
major public works projects.
In writing this book, the challenge has been to try and iden-
tify the sequence of world developments and to determine what
to include as a project. For example, whilst Europe struggled
through the Dark Ages, other cultures and civilizations flour-
ished and significant projects continued to evolve outside of
Europe like Hagia Sophia, the Cathedral in Constantinople
(Istanbul).
More difficult was the debate on what not to include. For
example, this book is not a history of inventions. Yet some in-
ventions developed as projects and are very significant. As an
example, the development of Hollerith’s calculating engine and
mechanical computer both had a massive impact on history. In
this area, there are many omissions such as the phone, wireless
radio, and television.
Even more difficult was the debate on who to include as a
project manager. For example, Magellan’s voyage around the
world was delivered before its time, with levels of technology
and knowledge that were really inadequate. Was he a great
project manager? The pro argument is that he completed the
project objective. The con argument is that he used brute
force, and caused the loss of life among many of his crew, and
contributed to the loss of his own life. Another candidate is the
architect Hemienu at Giza who overcame major logistical and
technical challenges to deliver a very unique edifice, which was
not surpassed in height for 4,000 years. The last section of this
book covers selected project leaders/managers for the significant
projects included through the book.
This book covers projects up to the start of the Second World
War. After this, there were so many significant developments
from 1940 onward that it would substantially increase the scope
of this book. This latter period is seen as the birth of modern
project management.
25
26
Chapter 1
Project Management
P
roject management has existed in some form for thousands
of years. After all, anything that requires an approach
where humans organize effectively to a plan and achieve
specific objectives can be loosely defined as a project. How
else would have humans achieved its stunning wonders and
achievements? Here are some examples: the Great Pyramid of
Giza (2550 BCE) and the Great Wall of China (221-206 BCE).
But, how were things done before today’s “essential tools”
existed such as laptops, spreadsheets, and cell phones? People
had much different tools then, but the approach was the same
namely planning and executing. Today, we have a deep scientific
knowledge of the world around us that is essential for today’s
projects; however, the ancients could manage without this
understanding.
Abraham Maslow1 eloquently pointed out that for man
to complete certain functions and achievements requires a
hierarchy of needs to be in place, represented through a pyramid
consisting of five levels. In examining significant projects across
history there are a number of assumptions that can be made. For
example, for a society to carry out major projects it must have a
number of factors, similar to Maslow’s model; a specific purpose
for the project with an objective, the right skills available, a
level of societal stability, maturity of process and organization,
equipment (tools) and techniques, and the availability of
finances and resources.
27
Self-
actualization
personal growth
and fulfillment
Esteem
achievement, status,
responsibility, reputation
Love and belonging

family, affection,
relationships, work group
Safety needs
protection, security, order,
law, limits, stability
Physiological needs
air, water, food, clothing,
shelter, warmth, sleep, sex
The Evolution of Project Management

The evolution of project management has been very much
driven by external factors like war and economic forces where,
for example, there have been business pressures to organize
resources and meet end goals. The Industrial Revolutions of the
last 300 years created new technologies which solved problems
in transportation, manufacturing, and communication. Often,
these solutions required increasingly-complex projects to manage
their completion and delivery. Similarly, by the mid to late 20th
Century, software development projects became so complex they
required sophisticated management techniques.
An important question is when did modern project
management appear, or what aspects of it appeared when?
For example, the PMBoK® Guide to knowledge areas like Risk
Management was developed in 1983. Yet, risk management has
been practiced since projects began and is exemplified in the
insurance industry that began with insurance for ships and ship
cargos as early as 1800 BCE to help finance ship voyages.
28
1 - Project Management
The Term Project Management

The Latin word projectum means “to throw something forward.”
The word “project” originally meant “something that comes
before anything else is done.” When the word was initially
adopted, it referred to a plan of something, not to the act
of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in
accordance with a project was called an object. This use of
“project” changed in the 1950s when several techniques for
project management were introduced: with this advent the word
slightly changed meaning to cover both projects and objects.
However, in certain projects, there may still exist so-called
objects and object leaders, reflecting the older use of the words.
What is Project Management?

One modern definition of project management:
“The application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques,
to a broad range of activities to meet the requirements of the
particular project. For example, the use of methodologies, project
life cycles and plans, and tools like Gantt and Pert charts.”
—Unknown
Today’s Definition (post 1983)

A project is a temporary and a one-time endeavor undertaken to
create a unique product or service, which brings about beneficial
change or added value. This property of being a temporary and
one-time undertaking contrasts with processes, or operations,
which are permanent or semi-permanent, that drive ongoing
functional work to create the same product or service over and
over again. The management of these two systems is often very
different and requires varying technical skills and philosophy,
requiring the development of project management.
What Makes up a Modern Project?

Project management knowledge and practices are best described
in terms of their component processes. According to the PMBoK®
Guide these processes can be placed into five process groups
(initiating, planning, executing, controlling and closing) and
29
nine knowledge areas (project integration management, project

scope management, project time management, project cost
management, project quality management, project human
resource management, project communications management,
project risk management and project procurement management).
These are all modern terms; in fact, they were only fully defined
in 1983 as part of the PMBoK® Guide. So, the question is what
happened before that? That is what the book will examine.
Different Types of Projects

Where do you start with a book of such daunting scope? How do
you approach this subject? Projects broadly fall into different
types that emerged during different periods of history:
1. Structural construction projects - edifices, structures, and
buildings.
2. Transportation related projects - of people, vehicles,
water and this includes the building of roads, bridges,
aqueducts, canals, ships and railroads.
3. Project expeditions - voyages, journeys, or explorations.
Examples of these Types of Projects

1. Structural construction projects – like Giza, Colosseum,
Gothic cathedrals, Taj Mahal, Crystal Palace, Hoover
Dam, and Empire State Building.
2. Transportation (and other) related projects – Hadrian’s
Wall, Iron Bridge, Transcontinental Railroad, Panama
Canal, Golden Gate Bridge, and London’s sewer projects.
3. Project expeditions – Columbus, Magellan.
30
Era/ Period Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
Great Pyramid of Giza,

Necno circumnavigating
Pre Stonehenge, Great Wall of China
Africa
Ziggurat of Urnammu,
Parthenon, Alexander’s Campaign in
5th - 1st BCE 6 Wonders of World, Petra the East
Caesar’s Rhine Bridges,
100 BCE – Coliseum,
Hadrian’s wall,
500 Pantheon
Aqueduct - Pont du Gard
Cathedral at Hagia Sophia,
500 – 1050 Toltec Pyramid
Grand Canal of China Caesar’s Campaigns
Gothic cathedrals, Norman Invasion,

1050 – 1300 Gothic Castles, Grand Canal of China First Crusade - Holy Land,
Angkor Wat Viking voyages to Vineland
Marco Polo,
1300 – 1450 Florence Cathedral Duomo
Admiral Zheng’s Voyages
Columbus Voyage of
15th Exploration
St. Basil’s Cathedral
16th St. Peter’s Basilica
Magellan Circumnavigation
Taj Mahal
Palace of Versailles,
17th Blue Mosque,
Canal Du Midi
Hardwick Hall,
1ST
Industrial The Iron Bridge,
Menai Suspension Bridge, James Cook’s
Revolution First Railway (Stockton and Circumnavigation
1750-1840 Darlington)
Phase 1
1ST Transcontinental Railroad,
SS Great Britain,
Industrial Suez Canal London Sewers,
Revolution Crystal Palace Transatlantic Cable,
1840-1890 Hollerith’s Mechanical
computer
Phase 2
Second Panama Canal,
Industrial Empire State Building, Titanic, Hoover Dam, Golden Race to North Pole
Revolution Gate, Race to South Pole
1890-1940
Table 1.1: The succession of historical projects selected.
Projects driven by Institutions versus

Commerce
For the most part, significant projects up to the 17th Century
were driven by institutions like the state (government) or reli-
gious organizations (temple or church). For example, the Roman
Government collected taxes that were then applied to projects.
Likewise, the Medieval Church sponsored the building of church-
31
es and cathedrals although the latter became critical to the econ-

omy of towns as they attracted pilgrims. The economic success
spurred a competition between towns to build these structures.
Commercial projects became more prominent with the
Renaissance and the move to a money economy from one
based on barter. This transformation further evolved with the
formation of corporations (commercial organizations) in the 17th
Century and the development of national banks.
Different Views of Projects

In examining historical projects, it is essential to view the
project from the lens of that period. Undoubtedly the projects
were executed with very different mind sets, by different
cultures, and with different belief systems. The following were
significant projects from different periods:
1. The Giza Pyramid workforce of Egypt (2550 BCE) lived
in a state-controlled hierarchical society. In this world
the pharaohs had the stature of gods, priests held a
status that was greatly higher than the populace beneath
them. The elite lived off the masses who lived a basic
lifestyle.
2. In the Gothic cathedral workforce of medieval times
(1050-1300), most people lived within a seven-mile radius
of where they were born for most of their lives. The
church was the centre piece for a population that relied
on the spoken word (99% illiteracy). The church was a
conduit of information for villages and the priest was had
great authority.
3. The Titanic workforce at Harland Wolff in Belfast
(1908-1912) was working for the premier ship builder
in Europe. In the middle of the second Industrial
Revolution, they exuded great confidence as new
technology was pushed to its limits in creating the
Olympic class of ships. The workforce saw themselves as
craftsmen, with skills unparalleled anywhere, and with a
job for life.
4. The Hoover Dam was built during the Great Depression.
The large workforce was transient, willing to travel long
32
distances for work, and lived in substandard conditions

at risk to themselves and their families.
Program vs. Project

A “Program” is a term for a broad set of projects initiated to
fulfill common objectives and strategy. Sometimes, a program
can contain many nearly-identical tactics which are the same. A
good example of this is when an institution takes out a program
that may last centuries, like the Roman Road Building Program
where the same set of activities is repeated continuously. A
program is not a project.
The Evolution of Project Management in

Civilizations
Project management started in the field of construction and
quickly incorporated developments in new materials, technolo-
gies (equipment), and building techniques (through guilds). For
example, in the Roman era, both the evolution of concrete and
iron had a significant impact on project planning and execution
(see Colosseum page 134).
Beyond construction, different types of projects originated
with the great voyages of discovery and exploration across the
world. Through pioneers like Christopher Columbus, Vasco de
Gama, Cabral, and Magellan, voyages opened up new trading
routes and shortened traditional overland journeys.
In Europe, up to the 15th Century, books were copied by hand
and were laborious and expensive to produce. There was a reli-
ance on memorization of facts without the mass printing of the
written word. The development of printing was a massive cata-
lyst for change as knowledge became widely disseminated. It had
a major impact on projects as the project team could now consult
a book rather than find an expert on any technical subject.
The birth of printing and the scientific age (16th/17th Century)
had an impact on project management as it moved from a purely
non-empirical (derived from observation or experiment) ap-
proach to one based on scientific and mathematical calculation.
This period saw important discoveries and inventions, and sub-
sequent developments in the field of modern engineering.
33
The Industrial Revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries

saw the evolution of the machine age, and the mechanization of
society. The industrial age and the whole mode of life adapted to
the pace and capabilities of the machine,2 and the mechanization
of life we have today. This era saw project management deliver
significant projects in transportation, and infrastructure. It also
saw a new phenomenon with projects that were initiated by an
evidence-based approach and scientific results were used for
justifying the project. For example, the London Sewer project
was based on empirical evidence and was then widely copied by
other major municipalities.
The Role of Knowledge in the Evolution of

Projects
Through history, as the overall volume of knowledge expanded,
more complex problems were solved-especially those that
required different disciplines of engineering. For example, could
the South Pole have been conquered 200 years earlier? Could the
Panama Canal also have been built during the same time frame?
Probably not, as the ability to solve problems is based on having
the right tools and technology, and a repository of knowledge
which is also a major factor in managing risk to an acceptable
level.
The Uneven Adoption of Technology

Since the Victorian era, the development of technology in
the West has been linked to progress. However, the spread
of technology has been uneven and its rate of adoption is
affected by the culture. Sometimes a new technology exists in a
particular society but is inconsequential to it. For example:
• The Greeks developed a primitive steam engine, but its
further development and application were inhibited by
the low cost of labor. In today’s project terminology, there
was no return on investment (ROI) for it.
• The plough and the horse collar had little impact on
farming in the Mediterranean, but was a major factor in
the medieval agricultural revolution in Northern Europe.
In the Mediterranean, an ox pulling a primitive stick
34
was good enough to cut through the loose, dry top soil. In
Northern Europe only a steel blade could cut through the
heavy wet soils.
• In the 16th Century, the Japanese acquired firearms and
then abandoned them for 300 years. Their preference was
for precisely crafted steel Samurai swords.
• The Chinese had gunpowder, the compass, and lateen
sails centuries before the Europeans. Yet they did not
put these together to aggressively explore new lands and
conquer native populations.
• The steam shovel was developed in the UK, but only
adopted in the U.S., as cheap labor was available for
digging canals in the UK (through the Navigators). The
U.S. Panama Canal project could not have been built
without this technology.
Basic Essentials to Projects

Certain essentials need to be in place for a project to be feasible,
but there are always exceptions:
• Level of stability in the culture.
• Governance.
• Ability to plan and execute.
• Ability to measure.
• Financial support.
• Availability of knowledge and technology along with
skilled people who can use these.
• Verbal and written Communication.
Ability to Measure a Catalyst for Projects

The ability to measure is fundamental to almost any project,
and the ancient projects were able to do this to a high degree of
accuracy. For example, many early projects provided large scale
irrigation, such as the Persian tunnels, and the Roman aque-
ducts one of which had a gradient of 17 meters (56 feet) over 35
kilometers (21 miles) of tunnels, requiring the ability to measure
35
very accurate gradients over long distances. The Egyptian Cubit

evolved as a standard during the pyramid building era.
The early voyages of Stone Age Columbus (20,000 BCE)3 or the
Vikings (1000) relied on ice or land hopping across the Atlantic
Ocean to North America. This was a slow and difficult way of
exploring, but it was within the limitations of knowledge and
technology (carracks and long boats) available.
The Athenians that built the Parthenon understood the
optical illusion of line sag. They adjusted it by beveling up
horizontal lines very slightly, and adding a curve to the columns.
As the Romans established an empire a road building
program was essential to ensure the rapid movement of troops
and supplies. Land surveying was fundamental to this vast
initiative. With this basic skill the Romans were able to set
up a massive construction program consisting of thousands of
building projects.
With the Renaissance and the development of perspective
drawing, where a grid was used to frame a scene, Renaissance
explorers developed the ability to measure and travel long
distances. The grid was then applied to maps to give distances
and this helped spur the age of exploration where a ship would
venture into a large body of water rather than island hop
hugging the shoreline for security. However, sailing south of the
equator was a barrier for European ships as astrolabes could
no longer sight the North Star as it disappeared off the horizon.
Eventually, it was overcome by Portuguese sailors who in 1434
finally braved the passage, only after fifteen voyages had turned
back.
In 1492, Columbus had some measurements related to
earth’s circumference and with these he calculated on reaching
Japan some 2,000 miles after leaving Europe. His theory was
almost correct. He travelled the distance but it was the West
Indies he reached instead. He was very fortunate.
The declination of the sun could be used to calculate
latitude, but on rolling ships this proved difficult, and this was
not adequately solved until Harrison’s Chronometer in the 18th
Century. The Renaissance explorers were taking massive risks
in sailing large oceans without accurately knowing the latitude.
36
Modern Terms in a Historical Context

The terms “scientific,” “engineer” and “technology” are relatively
modern and problematic in the context of projects of classical
antiquity.4 The term “engineer” (derives from the Romance
languages) was incorporated into the English language in
the 14th Century. “Science” is derived from the Latin scientia
(knowledge) and has also been in use in English since the 14th
Century. However, the term “scientific” did not appear in general
usage until the late 16th Century. The English word “technology”
is derived from the Greek technología.5 In the 17th Century,
the term generally referred to a “discourse or treatise on an art
or arts; the scientific study of the practical or industrial arts.”
By the early 18th Century it also meant the mechanical or the
practical arts. The word “scientist” was not coined until the first
half of the 19th Century.6
Engineers versus Builders versus Project

Managers
It is important to note that the term “Project Manager” is recent
whereas “Engineer” is a term used for close to a thousand years.
The term project manager may not have existed even in
the 19th Century but the role on major historical projects has
always been fulfilled by an individual but under a different title.
Engineers, architects, master-builders, and sponsors have all
played a project leadership role within projects.
By definition, Roman architects were significantly different
from their modern counterparts, acting as engineers, architects,
artists, and craftsmen combined. Vitruvius was very much a
combination of these, a fact reflected in De Architectura where
he defined the characteristics of an architect (see page 136).
Right up to the medieval period, the master mason had
two responsibilities, that of architect, as in designer; and
builder, as in the contractor. In the Middle Ages, the builders of
catapults, battering rams, and engines of war were referred to as
ingeniators by Latin writers.
“….the name “engineer” itself originated in the 11th Century
from the Latin ingeniator, meaning one with ingenium, the
ingenious one. The name, used for builders of ingenious
37
fortifications or makers of ingenious devices, was closely related

to the notion of ingenuity, which was captured in the old meaning
of “engine” until the word was taken over by steam engines and
its like. Leonardo da Vinci bore the official title of Ingegnere
General. His notebooks reveal that some Renaissance engineers
began to ask systematically what works and why.” 7
“The first engineers were irrigators, architects, and military
engineers. The same man was usually expected to be an expert at
all three kinds of work. This was still the case thousands of years
later. During the Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo, and
Dürer were not only all-around engineers but outstanding artists
as well. Specialization within the engineering profession has
developed only in the last two or three centuries.” 8
Scribes played an important role in ancient societies and
projects; for example, the ancient Egyptian scribe was educated
in the arts of writing and arithmetic, and was part of a middle
class elite, employed in the bureaucratic administration of the
state, army, and temples. They drew up everyday legal docu-
ments for commerce and money lending, and they maintained
archives. Sons of scribes were brought up in the same scribal
tradition, were sent to school and, by entering the civil service,
inherited their fathers' positions. Monumental buildings were
erected under their supervision, and administrative and econom-
ic activities were documented by them.
Villard de Honnecourt, who lived in 13th Century Picardy
in northern France, provided writings through his model-book9
insights on a wide range of topics. These were part of the tool kit
of a cathedral master-builder and included architectural plans,
elevations and details, ecclesiastical objects and mechanical
devices like a mill-driven saw, a number of automata, and lifting
devices. Villard’s detailed sketch book of construction work was
based on his travels through many cathedral building sites.
38
Figure 1.1: Villard de Honnecourt10 through his model-book provided

a tool kit for the cathedral master-builder.
Evolution of Materials
One factor that has affected the history of projects has been
the transition from natural to man-made materials, and then
the subsequent evolution of those man-made materials. For
example, building with stone and timber materials reached a
plateau, that is a maximum in height and stability of structures,
until other man-made materials were developed like brick
and concrete. Significant Roman projects benefited from these
new materials, like the large viaducts and Colosseum. The
development of these materials was driven by several factors;
primarily, a better scientific understanding and the ability to
measure things accurately. To make concrete and bricks strong
39
and flexible required a level of scientific knowledge. How to

put these materials together into large and possibly complex
structures required an increasing sophistication in mathematics
such as practical geometry. The Roman’s extensive use of arches
allowed for vast structures to be built with less material, like the
Colosseum. In the 17th Century, cheap glass became available,
was manufactured in large sheets, and was used prominently in
construction projects. Similarly, in the 18th Century, cheap iron
became available and by 1840 it was cheap enough to replace
clay and wood pipes. As a result, the low cost of iron opened
all sorts of engineering possibilities, and construction projects
like the Crystal Palace (1851). The advent of Bessemer steel in
1856 had an important impact on building projects with its use
as a skeletal structure within buildings with concrete (1756).
However, the modern skyscraper was only viable with the
development of elevators (1860).
The Main Branches of Engineering

Engineering has evolved into a professional discipline over
several hundreds of years to include:
• Civil Engineering - The design and construction of public
and private works, such as infrastructure, bridges and
buildings. The first engineering school was opened in
France in 1747.
• Mechanical engineering - The design of physical or
mechanical systems, such as engines, power-trains,
kinematic chains, and vibration isolation equipment
The Institution of Mechanical Engineers in England was
founded in 1847.
• Chemical Engineering - The conversion of raw materials
into usable commodities. In 1885, a course in “chemical
engineering” was offered at Imperial College, London.
• Electrical Engineering - The design of electrical systems,
such as transformers, as well as electronic goods.
Darmstadt University of Technology is the first faculty of
electrical engineering worldwide in 1882.
• Aerospace Engineering - The design of aircraft,
spacecraft and related topics (early 20th Century).
40
The timing coincides with significant changes in project

management. First, projects became empirically based, as
precise mathematics and physics was available in the 17th
Century. Second, materials (glass, iron, concrete) become
available in quantity and at a lower price point.
Commonality across Projects

The world history of projects reveals that most projects, whether
construction, transportation, or voyages of exploration, have
strong similarities in terms of the phases or stages in the se-
quence of steps. They follow a method and have a set of require-
ments, designs, and constraints. They depend on communica-
tion, problem solving, decision making, and creative processes.
They involve a schedule, a budget, and a recipient, customer, or
audience. Importantly, they combine the effort of a team into a
singular coherent output useful to someone. Undeniably, there is
a core set of concepts that most projects share.
Structure of the Book

The chapters of this book are organized for a given historical
period along a time-line that runs through eras and centuries
with some overlap:
• From Village to City (2550-510 BCE).
• Roman Republic (510 – 100 BCE).
• The Roman Empire (100 BCE - 456).
• The Middle Ages.
◦◦ The Early Middle Ages, lasting from about 350 to
about 1050.
◦◦ The Central Middle Ages, lasting from about 1050 to
about 1300.
◦◦ The Late Middle Ages, lasting from about 1300 to
about 1450.
• The 15th Century and Renaissance and age of discovery
(European).
• The 16th Century and the Modern Age of Engineering.
41
• The 17th Century and the First Scientific Revolution.

• The 18th Century and the Industrial Revolutions.
◦◦ First Industrial Revolution 1700-1840 (Phase 1).
• The 19th Century.
◦◦ First Industrial Revolution 1840-1890 (Phase 2).
◦◦ The Second Scientific Revolution.
• The 20th Century.
◦◦ Second Industrial Revolution 1890-1940.
Structure of Chapters
The sections include:
• Brief synopsis of trends/changes (societal, economic,
ecological, technological).
• Impact of changes on society.
• Major events - natural disasters, wars, epidemics.
• New tools, techniques and breakthroughs.
• Regions significant to the historical period.
• Significant projects that arose (1 or 2) and notable
mentions.
• Key players of the historical period.
• Chapter Wrap-up.
a. Conclusions.
b. Key Lessons.
c. Tips for educators.
Trends and Changes

A trend is a general tendency or direction, in a civilization or
culture, or a market or industry, in which something tends
to change. For example, paper making originated in China
in 100, and then spread to Tibet 650, India 670, Central Asia
750, Baghdad 794, Cairo 850, Tripoli 1000, Valencia 1151,
42
Italy 1276, France 1326, and to England in 1490.11 In another

example, during the 11th Century the Chinese Government
introduced an early ripening rice from Indochina which allowed
two or even three harvests per growing season. The upsurge
of rice cultivation sweeping across South China, coupled with
terracing and irrigation, produced large surpluses which doubled
the population from 50 million (800) to 123 million in (1200).
Urbanization rocketed and a middle-class grew which increased
trade and manufacturing.12
Over time, the speed of adoption of new technologies started
to increase dramatically. In 14th Century Europe, the adoption
of print had many spin off effects and it can be seen as a rolling
wave sweeping across Europe from Mainz to Cologne in 1464,
Basel in 1466, Rome in 1467, Paris, Nuremburg and Utrecht
1470, Milan, Naples, and Florence 1471, Augsburg 1472, Lyons,
Valencia and Budapest 1473, Cracow and Bruges 1474, and to
London in 1480. By the end of the 15th Century there were 73
presses in Italy, 51 in Germany, 39 in France, and 25 in Spain.13
Through history, change comes along in spurts driven by:
• Introduction of new practices or technology.
• Warfare.
◦◦ Catalyst that spurs changes in technology or
evolution of it.
◦◦ Results in conquest and collapse of empires.
• The environment, climatic changes, extraterrestrial
(solar flares, comets).
• Natural disasters like earthquakes, or volcanoes.
• Diseases, plagues and epidemics.
• Gains or increase in knowledge.
Impact of Changes
Typically, there is a reaction to any trend/change which has an
impact on the civilization or culture. For example, the Medieval
Ice Age (1400 to 1750) had a long term impact to only a small
shift in temperature. Likewise, a dramatic fall in the population
during the 14th Century was a reaction to the bubonic plague.
43
Major Events
During the outlined historical period, what major events
happened? For example, the collapse of Empires like the Roman
or Mayan, and the birth of something new, or a discovery, or the
development of a new technology.
The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire and the
closure of the trade route to Asia were catalysts for the 15th
Century voyages of discovery and exploration; Most notably,
Columbus’ voyage west to establish a trade route to the Far
East.
The 20th Century Space Race became a reality when
President Kennedy made a commitment to complete the U.S.
project and adequate funding was made available. NASA got a
substantial 4% of the national budget. Looking back, Kennedy’s
speeches were a major catalyst in securing the funding and
changing the history of modern space projects.
New Tools Techniques and Breakthroughs

The development of significant tools, templates, and techniques
was a catalyst for many significant projects that could only be
attempted when this breakthrough was reached. For example:
• A building of the scale of the Roman Colosseum was
wholly dependent on a design driven by the arch and
barrel vault, and vast quantities of concrete and brick.
• The 15th Century voyages of exploration could only be
undertaken with a better understanding of what was
beyond the visible horizon. This required tools like
the astrolabe, and maps that were scaled, which were
becoming available with grid-lines and so provided a
guide to possible distances.
• Practically all ancient projects were completed on a non-
empirical14 basis, as precise mathematics and physics did
not appear until the 17th Century.
• The 19th Century London city sewer project (1860)
was only undertaken when there was overwhelming
statistical evidence that cholera was directly linked to
sewage polluting the Thames River, which was used for
drinking water.
44
Regions Significant to the Historical Period

In the outlined historical periods, certain regions may have
had a more significant impact on the evolution of projects, even
though the book takes a global perspective of projects. This may
be because there was an evolution of a certain technology driven
by a specific need in a region.
Significant Projects
So, how were the significant projects identified for the book? A
project had to be discernable as a project with a clear objective,
was predefined by a degree of planning, and was led by a
recognized leader (project manager). It had to be completed in
a specific time frame, or was just faced with many challenges
along the way like the lack of key resources, or physical
obstacles.
A significant project is one that is successful beyond all
expectations, a ground breaker, a catalyst for change, and will
have other projects following in its footsteps. These significant
projects are generally recognized as great achievements.
The output of a project has to be significant. With the Giza
Pyramid or the Gothic cathedrals, this is very obvious. But
successful project management brings together a combination
of scope, resources and time, often shown in a triangle. For
example, the Great Escape from Stalag Luft III15 was significant
not just in its output but for the hostile environment and the
perceived lack of resources that surrounded the project. The
Colosseum had a significant output, aggressive time frame, and
large project workforce.
Determining Significant Projects

The criteria used for determining a significant project are as
follows:
1. Reasonable supporting evidence of authenticity.
2. Significant output or project objective.
3. Remarkable use of resources, efficiently and within
budget.
45
4. Completed within a specified time frame.

5. Inspiring to other projects in how it was delivered.
6. Completed in a hostile environment.
7. Unique as possible, a first that sets a direction.
A project that measures up well to most of the above

criteria can be classified significant. Some examples include the
Transcontinental Railroad project (page 410). This project had a
significant objective, and depended on limited resources as it was
a government-instituted venture and depended on share issues.
It had to be completed in a time frame to see a commercial
return for investors. It also was inspiring to the watching
world in its rate of progress, was completed in an inhospitable
environment (across the Nevada mountains), and was unique in
its massive scale. The government had to underwrite it to the
point that contractors demanded to be paid in advance.
In another example, the Colosseum project (see page 134)
had a significant objective, and had to be completed in a time
frame to prop up a shaky political regime. It also was inspiring
to the watching world, and was completed in a challenging
environment. However, it was not built with limited resources;
in fact, huge amounts of resources were poured into the project
to make it a success. Was it always on course? The answer is no.
The Emperor Vespasian had to underwrite it to make sure it was
successful.
The Palace of Versailles (see page 341) has been listed as a
significant project as parts of it were widely copied, and the out-
put, the hall of mirrors, is viewed as a masterpiece. However, the
project was an out of control disaster, and the overall debt load
from this project was a contributing factor to starting the French
Revolution.
Key players
This section discusses some of the key players of the historical
period. Some were not necessarily related to specific projects,
but who influenced the era; for example, Vitruvius or Villard de
Honnecourt.
46
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
This section will list the conclusions for each chapter with a
focus on the significant projects of the era.
Key Lessons
This is a close examination of the nine PMBoK® Guide
Knowledge Areas against the significant projects to determine
their usage and importance to the project.
Educators
• Discussions in the context of today’s projects, impor-
tant aspects of project management, designed to help
educators.
Other
Projects not Considered for the Book

There has been a deliberate omission of certain projects because
they do not meet the criteria. A project should be unique to
qualify for consideration. Reasonable supporting evidence
and documentation about the project itself needs to exist. For
example, the Toltec Pyramid at Cholula is remarkable in scale
as the total volume is almost one third larger than the Great
Pyramid of Giza. Yet little is known about the construction
project from archaeological records or ethno history. It has been
classified as a “Notable Project,” (see page 185). Similarly, other
projects follow this classification where the documentation is
sparse and sporadic or nonexistent.
The First Project Managers

These were irrigators, architects, engineers and technicians
(typically military), and generally multi-skilled generalists adept
at dealing with many situations. For example, the Parthenon
project was under the general supervision of the sculptor
Phidias, who also had charge of the sculptural decoration. The
47
same man was usually expected to be an expert at organizing,

planning and directing work and the project work force. The first
project managers needed:
• Skills in communicating a vision.
• Theoretical knowledge in the subject area, for example,
construction, or mechanics.
• Experience in transforming a vision into reality.
• Skill in negotiating and implementing the work, knowing
the activities and the Work Breakdown Structure.
• Organizational skills; specifically, that of a project
workforce.
As an example the following had many of the skills and

traits:
• The Egyptian architect as exemplified by Hemienu.
• The Roman architect as laid out by Vitruvius.
• The medieval master-builder as exemplified by Villard de
Honnecourt.
• The Renaissance architect as exemplified by
Brunelleschi.
• The Renaissance explorer as exemplified by Columbus or
Magellan.
• The Victorian engineer as exemplified by Darby or
Stephenson.
For more information on these project managers see page
527.
48
Modern Project Management

This book ends at the dawn of modern project management
which started in the 1940s; in many ways, the Second
World War was a catalyst for the transition. Modern project
management borrows from elsewhere and is rooted in Empires
and later in Western civilization, as well as the output of the
three Industrial Revolutions and the development of scientific
techniques. In 1983 these century year old practices were
distilled into the PMBoK® Guide.
49
50
Chapter 2
Evolution of PMBoK® Guide

Knowledge Areas
What are the PMBoK® Guide Knowledge Areas
I
n today’s projects, each project phase is completed by the
delivery of one or more deliverables. The PMBoK® Guide™1
advocates that not only phases and deliverables but also
knowledge areas need to be used through the course of a project
(see Table 2.1 below).
Knowledge
Description
Areas
Integrates all eight knowledge areas and includes project
Integration
plan development, integrated change control, and project
Management
execution
Scope Plans and defines the scope, identifies major deliverables
Management and the work breakdown structure (WBS)
Time Defines the activities in the project, completes the
Management activity sequencing, and develops the schedule
Cost
Defines estimates, develops a budget, and controls cost
Management
Plans the approach to quality in a project, identifies
Quality
the required quality characteristics, and builds
Management
the quality assignments into the schedule
51
Human Manages the stakeholders and the team throughout the

Resource life cycle, identifies skill requirements for assignments,
Management and sets team development and rewards
Determines stakeholders, plans communications, sets
Communications
expectations, distributes information, reports performance,
Management
and manages stakeholders
Makes initial assumptions that affect the project, develops
Risk the risk management plan, identifies and analyses risk,
Management and plans response and implementation of the risk and
contingency plans
Procurement Plans and solicits bids, assesses make-or-buy decisions,
Management and negotiates contract, administration, and closeout
Table 2.1: The nine knowledge areas that are essential to a project as
Advocated by PMBoK® Guide.
Significance of PMBoK® Guide Areas

The PMBoK® Guide plays a significant role in projects today
and brings a framework to the profession, both discipline and
structure. Its use is generally accepted as best practice within
the project management discipline and it is recognized as an
international standard (IEEE Std 1490-2003). It describes the
fundamentals of project management, irrespective of the type of
project, be it construction, software development, engineering,
automotive, etc.
PMBoK® Guide recognizes five basic process groups and nine
knowledge areas typical of almost all projects. The basic concepts
are applicable to projects, programs and operations.
The five process groups are:
1. Initiating
2. Planning
3. Executing
4. Controlling
5. Monitoring
6. Closing
52
2 - Evolution of PMBoK® Guide Knowledge Areas
The following section provides an initial definition for each

knowledge area (listed in Table 2.1).
Integration Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition - Integrates all eight knowledge areas
and includes project charter and plan development, project
execution, monitors and controls the project, integrated change
control, and closing the project. The integration management
processes are useful for project managers to start, control and
shutdown the project.
Origins
Integration management is important as it acts as the glue
for the other knowledge areas. The written project plan was
probably not developed until the 20th Century although through
history the chief architect or master-builder would have been
very familiar with the sequence of activities. Most projects
were targeting a project end date, often for political reasons, so
the concept of the schedule and plan has always been in place.
Like today’s project most projects had a significant return on
investment whether through indirect revenue, like the Gothic
cathedral projects which drew in pilgrims into the towns and
boosted the economy; or like the Parthenon project which
stimulated the local economy, small businesses, and reduced
unemployment.
Scope Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition – collects requirements, plans and
defines the scope, identifies major deliverables and the work
breakdown structure, and verifies and controls scope. The project
scope management processes are useful for project managers to
determine what is, and is not, included in projects, and to control
project/product scope during the project life cycle.
53
Origins
Scope management is fundamental to project management in
that it is hard to imagine how any project can move forward
without this element. There is strong evidence that the master-
builders on ancient projects had a comprehensive grasp of the
totality of their projects, the entire building operation, including
all the major activities and the concept of a work breakdown
structure. From the earliest ancient projects scope had to have
been understood and used then as it is used today with very
little difference. Otherwise projects like the Giza Pyramid and
the Colosseum would have been very difficult to manage and
deliver in the required time frames. The main exceptions to this
were projects that were clearly out of control.
Time Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition - Defines the activities in the project,
completes the activity sequencing, estimates the activity
resources and durations, and develops and controls the schedule.
The project time management processes are useful for project
managers to apply and explain the steps needed to create the
project schedule, and the ability to plan and finish the project in
a timely manner.
Origins
The ancient building projects of the past, as do projects today,
required effective administration and management of many
activities in a complex schedule. The master-builders had to
have a comprehensive grasp of the totality of building operations
and all their ramifying complexities so they could sequence the
activities most efficiently. The projects did not only consist of
assembly and erection activities but also the preparation of the
site and the logistics for the project. Logistics scheduling evolved
in the military. In 2000 BCE, Sun Tzu wrote about strategy and
scheduling from a military perspective. This is one of the earliest
descriptions of a project management function.
54
Cost Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition - Defines estimates, develops a
budget, and controls costs. The project cost management
processes are useful for project managers to apply and explain
cost management and cost control, including earned value.
Origins
Cost management has played a significant role in all projects
since the development of money, and its origins are in the
development of banking. Ancient projects relied on investments
and loans as do projects today. The workforce required some
sort of a regular payment. The Gothic cathedral projects
are an excellent example of very effective cost management.
These projects ran for decades if not centuries and they had to
successfully manage and control their budgets. This was done
through very effective governance structures, that consisted of
chapters (boards) and overseers of works, and their priority was
to keep the project going.
Quality Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition - Plans the approach to quality in a
project, identifies the required quality characteristics, and builds
the quality assignments into the schedule. It performs quality
assurance, and control. The project quality management
processes are useful for project managers to apply required
quality to projects, and to apply metrics to improve project
performance.
Origins
A major feature of quality control is the establishment of self
control where a party producing a product has the means
and knowledge to determine compliance with specifications
and, furthermore, is empowered to initiate corrective actions
when needed. An individual performing the work conducts an
inspection of his product. Implementing self control implies a
comparison of actual results to specifications.
Within ancient projects a non-empirical approach to the
project was the only option available as science and mathemat-
55
ics had not evolved enough to predict empirically potential

outcomes. Experience with materials and construction was para-
mount and continuous inspections of materials, assemblies and
structures was part and parcel of the project. The inspections
would look for defects, anomalies, decayed areas, and overall
structural quality. Appraisals employed scale models of proposed
buildings and visual observations, and assessments of failures in
existing buildings.
Human Resource Management

PMBoK® Guide Definition – Develops the human resource plan,
acquires and develops and manages the project team throughout
the lifecycle. It identifies skill requirements for assignments,
and sets team development and rewards. The Project Human
Resource Management processes are useful for project managers
to get and keep productive staff for projects, and improve project
performance.
Origins
Human resource management addresses both the theoretical
and practical techniques of managing a workforce who
individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of
the objectives of an organization. Within the PMBoK® Guide, it
is not just acquiring but developing and maintaining a qualified
workforce.
Human resource management has always been critical to
projects. A common perception today is that projects of ancient
times relied on an almost inexhaustible, low cost labor pool.
This is not the case. The reality is the labor pool was limited
and composed of skilled and unskilled labor, the former being
considerably smaller and much more valued. As far back as
3000 BCE in the early Empires of the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris,
and Indus valleys there were separate classes of craftsmen
concentrated in the cities, skillful in metallurgy and working
with wood and stone. A strong central government was required
to coordinate the labor pool for projects.
56
Communications Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition - Identifies stakeholders, plans
communications, distributes information, manages stake-
holder’s expectations, and reports performance. The Project
Communications Management processes are useful for project
managers in continuously managing all project communications
with stakeholders.
Origins
Ancient projects with an extremely large workforce (in excess
of 10,000 and vast by today’s standards) needed very effective
communications management. On an ancient project the
communications had to exist between all the places of work
including the offices, construction site, workshops, quarries
and workers villages. One aspect of communication was rapidly
transferring design ideas to all areas of the project team. This
was done through simple templates and miniature models,
reducing the need for lots of documentation.
Risk Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition - Makes initial assumptions that
affect the project, develops the risk management plan, identifies
and analyses risk (qualitative and quantitative), plans response
and implementation of the risk and contingency plans, and
monitors and controls risk. The Project Risk Management
processes are useful for project managers to manage and track
all the project risks holistically, and to be better prepared for the
unexpected.
Origins
Risk management is probably the oldest of the PMBoK® Guide
areas. A simple examination of ancient projects shows that over
time civilizations took on projects knowingly with increasing
amounts of risk. The project architects were getting more
comfortable with the increased level of risk and more effective in
managing it. For example, Romans pushed concrete technology
in their buildings to the limit, with extensive arches, barrel
vaults, and domes as seen in the Colosseum and Pantheon.
57
The Romans like the Greeks had a trial and error approach to
construction based on experimental construction knowledge
that was not theoretical. For example, they did not know the
exact structural strength of stone. This non-empirical approach
would qualify for a qualitative risk analysis based on experience,
rather than a quantitative risk analysis based on metrics.
Procurement Management
PMBoK® Guide Definition - Plans and conducts procurements,
soliciting bids for products and services, assesses make-or-
buy decisions, and negotiates a contract. It also administers,
and closes-out the procurements. The Project Procurement
Management processes are useful for project managers to take
a more comprehensive approach to procurement in tracking the
various activities, and ensuring contracts are fully delivered.
Origins
Procurement management has its roots in trading and can be
traced back to very early civilizations. It has been constantly
critical from ancient to more recent projects, unsurprising
with the volume of materials required for some of the projects
like the Giza Pyramid and the Colosseum. Both had extensive
supply chains moving many millions of tons of materials. The
Colosseum project was delivered by four contractors through
contracts with requirements for guarantees. More recent projects
like the Hoover Dam were completely tendered out and the
contract was driven by bonuses and penalties, attached to the
delivery.
Conclusion to PMBoK® Guide Knowledge

Areas
The book will reveal that all nine PMBoK® Guide areas were
practiced throughout ancient projects through to the 20th
Century. The main difference between then and now is that
these have not been formulated and documented in terms of the
conceptual way that these areas exist today. The main changes
through the historical eras were the evolution of new materials,
and their usage in projects. This was coupled with an increased
58
knowledge, scientific and engineering which in turn introduced

empirical methods into projects. The transition was often a
challenge as with the Iron Bridge project (page 371) that had no
precedent and where existing practices were used. The pieces of
the iron that were assembled into the Iron Bridge were modeled
on wooden pieces that were based on the principles of carpentry.
Because of the property difference in materials they were
somewhat inefficient.
59
60
Chapter 3
From Village to City

(2550 - 510 BCE)
T
his historical period was dominated by the very early
civilizations that were forming.
“The city is almost the most defining characteristic of
civilization.”1
High civilizations emerged in lands between rivers in both

China and Mesopotamia (Tigris-Euphrates Rivers). With these
civilizations came the early projects and these were driven by
a “temple economy” (grain silos held in religious structures)
where the ruler initiated communal work projects as the head
of administrative and religious activities. These were typically
construction projects using stone, and newly emerging materials
like bricks, using metal tools like bronze, copper, and later iron.
The edifices quickly evolve in scale and complexity.
In this Historical Period

• Brief synopsis of trends/changes (natural disasters, wars,
technology, epidemics).
a. Agricultural revolution - 10,000 years ago man went
from hunting and food-gathering to raising crops and
taming animals.
61
b. Communal living and the creation of early

communities.
• Impact of changes
a. Agriculture led to several major changes.
i. It created food surpluses.
ii. It allowed far larger population densities.
iii. This led to the birth of the first towns and cities.
b. The creation of large hierarchical class based societies
ran by large-scale government.
c. Large hierarchical societies could afford to explore
and develop sciences to create new materials (like
metals), tools, and writing through script.2
• Major events
a. Rapid evolution of autocratic societies in Egypt and
China.
• New tools, techniques and breakthroughs
a. The development of simple tools like wheels, levers,
and wedges, around 3000 BCE.
i. The wheel evolved from the potter's wheel but
there is no single common geographical origin,
3200-3500 BCE.
b. The harnessing of animal labor in carrying materials.
c. The forging of materials specifically bronze 3000 BCE
and iron 1200 BCE.
d. The discovery of Geometry, (ability to measure),
in ancient Babylonia 3000 BCE which covered
lengths, angles, areas, and volumes for surveying,
construction.
e. The earliest recorded postal system in Egypt 2000
BCE.
f. The oldest record of writing in China on bones and
tortoise shells 1400 BCE.
g. The first encyclopedia is written in Syria 1270 BCE.
62
3 - From Village to City (2550 - 510BCE)
h. The foundation of Rome in 753 BCE.

i. The Greeks start the very first library 530 BCE.
• Regions
a. Fertile Crescent (Levant (Eastern Mediterranean)
and Mesopotamia, and Egypt).
• Significant projects (primarily structural construction
projects).
a. The Great Pyramid of Giza (2,550 BCE) was in
a succession of evolving monumental large scale
projects in Egypt.
• Other Notable Projects
a. The Great Wall of China (600 BCE - 206 BCE).
b. Stonehenge (2,550 BCE).
c. Necno voyage around Africa (610 BCE).
d. Ziggurat of Urnammu, Ur.
• Key players
a. Imhotep.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

The world population in this period grew from 25 to 100 million.
Agricultural Revolution
10,000 years ago man went from hunting and food-gathering
to raising crops and taming animals based on discoveries that
enabled a square mile of fertile land to support 20 to 200 times
as many people, through the control of water through irrigation
channels. This revolution first took place in the hills around the
north of Iraq and Syria and spread to the valleys of the Nile and
the Indus to become centers of cultural radiation.
63
Early Communities
A community can be defined as a group of interacting people,
united by ties of descent from a common ancestor, living in a
common location with common customs and traditions.
Impact of Changes
The agriculture revolution led to several major changes simul-
taneously. First, it created, and allowed for, the storage of food
surpluses that could support people not directly involved in food
production. This allowed for far larger population densities, up
by a hundred fold. This in turn allowed for the creation and de-
velopment of the first cities which led to civilization.
The earliest surviving business records can be traced back
more than 7,000 years ago to the Chaldean-Babylonians,
Assyrians, and Sumerians.3
Food surpluses freed people for other specialized occupations
and features of civilizations. This led to the creation of large
hierarchical societies ran by large-scale government, ruled from
the top. Autocratic societies evolved in Egypt and China where
priests held and controlled knowledge and held a high position
in society. Skilled and unskilled labor was used for monumental
large scale projects. These large hierarchical societies had
surplus resources and materials. They could therefore afford
to explore and develop sciences to create new materials (like
metals), tools, and writing.
Major Events
From Village to City

The first communities developed around the Fertile Crescent
driven by the agricultural revolution. New technology spread
through the Middle East as metal replaced stone tools, and oxen
replaced human muscle. The period saw the rapid evolution
of the autocratic society of Egypt (then later China) along the
banks of the Nile river around 3150 BCE Ancient Mesopotamia
emerged 3000 BCE hosted by the Sumerians, succeeded by the
Akkadians, then Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians.
64
Simple Machines
The development of simple machines4 like the lever, inclined
plane, and wedge around 3000 BCE was a catalyst for early
simple construction projects. For example, the diversion of water
using dams and channels. The wheel evolved from the potter's
wheel but the two shared no common geographical origin, 3200-
3500 BCE. These helped man move from a hunter/gatherer, to a
farmer/city dweller.
Metal Tools
The forging of materials, specifically bronze around 3000 BCE,
and then iron around 1200 BCE, impacted the farmer/city
dweller by providing metal tools. Bronze immediately improved
the durability and efficiency of hand tools. The first metal tools
were knives, important for hunting and survival, and weapons
(swords) for warfare.
Improvements in Agriculture
Farming revolved around planting seeds which requires
breaking up the ground. In the early days this was achieved by
scraping with a pointed implement, like a deer antler, or a sharp
stick. But to grow a surplus required a useful furrowed field. The
first ploughs consisted of sharp pointed timber, hardened in a
flame or tipped with flint, projecting downwards at the end of a
long handle. This type of plough was sufficient to break up the
earth and form a shallow trench in the light soil of Egypt and
Mesopotamia. The plough could be dragged by a couple of men
but the process was greatly sped up by the harnessing of plough
and draught animals, which first appeared from 3000 BCE. In
Egypt the centralization of harvests in state warehouses also led
to the development of a system of banking.
The harnessing of animal labor in carrying materials had a
significant effect on construction projects as it reduced the size of
the workforce significantly.
65
Ability to Measure
It was not until the discovery of Geometry, and the ability to
measure, in ancient Babylonia in 3000 BCE that heralded con-
struction projects of edifices, temples, and civilian buildings.
Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered princi-
ples concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes. These were
used to meet practical needs in surveying, and construction.
Ability to Write
The Egyptian papyrus, an aquatic plant, appeared in 3000 BCE
and has remained in regular use longer than any other material
in the history of written documents. Writing transferred from
clay tablets to papyrus. Lightweight papyrus could be easily
carried, in volume, made records less cumbersome and permitted
a wider use of supporting documents.5 This catalyzed the
development of the earliest recorded postal system in Egypt 2000
BCE. Egyptian authorities required that records of transactions
be kept by two different scribes, whose records had to agree. This
was an example of early internal control procedures.
The oldest record of writing in China was on bones around
1400 BCE. The first encyclopedia was written in Syria 1270
BCE, and the Greeks started the very first library in 530 BCE.
Keeping Time
The invention of the sundial provided a crude mechanism for
breaking the day up into morning and afternoon. As early as
1500 BCE, the Egyptians had developed an advanced sundial. A
T-shaped bar placed in the ground and was calibrated to divide
the interval between sunrise and sunset into 12 parts. Although
the hours within a given day were approximately equal, their
lengths varied during the year, with summer hours being much
longer than winter hours. This didn’t get around the problem of
time variation. In projects, scheduling was done using the day
as the basic unit of measure, although the day length varied
through the calendar.
The next major breakthrough arose around 1400 BCE, when
Egyptians used a simple water clock to break down the day into
hours. A simple stone vessel with sloping sides allowed water
66
to drip at a constant rate from a small hole. There were twelve

separate but differently marked columns on the inside that
measured hours. Each monthly column had differently spaced
markings that allowed for the seasonal variations of the hours.
Regions
The pace of development started and continued in and around
the Fertile Crescent (Levant (Eastern Mediterranean) and
Mesopotamia, and Egypt).
All were civil construction projects based on large labor pools,
that required vast resources and materials, and spanned across
decades. Simple machines were used predominantly.
The Great Pyramid of Giza Project (2550-2530 BCE)

Although Egypt was subject to outside influences the principal
defining characteristics of its culture remained homogeneous
throughout the course of its long history.
Background
The Nile, the heart of Egypt, with its yearly floods provided
an abundance of food that helped establish a wealthy society.
Egyptian society was dominated by a rigid class system with
little social mobility - although it was possible to move based
on merit, luck or patronage. Women worked and were valued
individually, but held subservient. Overall labor was the
property of the community who at different times contributed
to the construction of the pyramids, the building of temples,
cities, roads, the banks of the Nile, and other public works. Some
people were exempt as they were required in areas of support
for social and state interests. Egypt’s foundation was the poorest
class. Although slaves were common in Egypt, for the most part,
they were the property of rich and not the state.
The excess food of Egypt could readily feed the population of
one million and it allowed Egypt to have a standing professional
army. War was part of the Egyptian economy, and with this
67
army Egypt was successful in its unification to become the first

nation in history (3200 BCE) and the greatest nation at the time.
With unification the first king or pharaoh became ruler but,
who was also considered a god (sun). When a new pharaoh was
crowned the calendar was reset to day one for that dynasty.6
The ancient Egyptians believed that death was the start
of a journey to the next life. The king was embalmed and
entombed within the pyramid to protect him and allow for this
transformation and ascension.
Initiating
Prior to the Giza Pyramid (2550 BCE) there was a succession of
pyramids that progressed over a few centuries. The first pyramid
ever built, was Djoser’s Step Pyramid (2668 BCE) in Saqqara,
by Mahnud Hotep (Imhotep). Imhotep was a royal architect and
physician, but more importantly he was the top government
administrator (equivalent to a prime minister) of Egypt. He was
in a unique position as he had all the money he needed, and
he didn’t have to worry about approval from committees. If the
Pharaoh Djoser (2668–2649 BCE) wanted something it would be
built.
Imhotep had a very clear project charter. He was going to
build a very unique tomb out of stone as he wanted a tomb that
would stand for all of time. It was the largest stone building
ever constructed and impressive in that there were no smaller
structures first. It was a 70 meter (240 foot) pyramid that used
blocks of stone less than 100 pounds (45 Kilograms). It was
surrounded by a stone city of houses, chapels and statues.
68
Figure 3.1: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (Zoser) was an early attempt
of Pyramid building. Painting by Johann Frey (19th Century).7
The Step Pyramid (2630–2611 BCE) kicked off a frenzy of

projects. The Meidum Pyramid (2613 BCE) was also a stepped
pyramid but some time near the end of the project the steps were
filled. The casing blocks were not securely tied and the pyramid
was abandoned. The Pharaoh Sekhemkhet (2649–2643 BCE)
was never buried in it. It is now in a ruinous state, and was
quarried for stone by the locals.
The next two Pharaohs were Khaba (2643–2637 BCE) and
Huni (2637–2613 BCE), and there is much uncertainty about
them. Khaba is commonly associated with the Layer Pyramid,
an unfinished pyramid that rose to about 42-45 meters (140 feet)
in height. There is no pyramid associated with Huni.
The next Pharaoh in line was Sneferu (2613–2589 BCE) who
wished to be buried in a pyramid. At this time the Egyptian’s ap-
proach to pyramid building was experimental. They didn’t have
the scientific calculations to determine load bearing capacity of
various materials. It had to be worked out by trial and error, or
prototyping. The next pyramid, whose modern name is the Bent
Pyramid, was the first pyramid disaster. It started as a true pyr-
amid with a 54 degree slope. About two-thirds up the face 45 me-
ters (147 feet) the angle of incline changes to a flatter 43 degree
69
slope. The reason for the disaster was one of the corners was
built on a layer of gravel rather than bedrock. As the pyramid
grew the mass increased and there was a problem with stability
and subsidence as the angle proved too steep. The inner burial
chamber cracked and the pyramid was stabilized by adjusting
the angle. The reduced angle brought increased stability.
Figure 3.2: the Bent Pyramid of Sneferu showing the two build cycles
in the project.8
70
Sneferu’s next attempt was the Red Pyramid (at Dahshur)

built with a very gentle 42 degree slope. It proved to be very
successful and he was laid to rest in it. This was an intense
period of pyramid projects, with the largest structures ever built.
Through the process the Egyptians gained skills in cutting and
transporting large blocks of stone.
The Egyptians now had the experience of several centuries
of pyramid projects and a somewhat successful track record.
They were ready to scale up their efforts and deliver a truly
monumental pyramid.
Egyptian construction knowledge was not theoretical but ex-
perimental based on trial and error, for example, the structural
strength of stone. They could make schematic drawings, plans
and cross-sections for their colossal structures with very simple
tools like a builder's thread to delineate vertical lines, an angle,
a measuring arm 0.52 meters (1.7 feet) long and a straight edge.
By Ptolemaic times, the Egyptians were known to track
building projects and create a very formulated approach to new
projects. For example, when it came to building an Egyptian
temple, they consulted the “Book of Foundations of Temples,”
which listed complicated and ever-present ritualistic formulas.
These carried the proper procedures and operations for each
step in minute detail. Every temple had its archives preserved
with instructions and best practices. The formulas were rigidly
observed as the priests demanded that their buildings conform
to the regulations laid down9 by earlier generations.
The next Pharaoh in line was Khufu (2589–2566 BCE). The
Giza Pyramid (2550 BCE) was initiated under the architect
Hemienu, Khufu’s brother and Sneferu’s son, following a tradi-
tion of young princes taking the architects role. The funding for
the project was never an issue through the project time line as
the Pharaoh’s stature was that of a god (sun).
Planning
Planning for the Pharaoh Khufu‘s pyramid started as Sneferu’s
body was being embalmed. Khufu was 40 years old so there was
not a lot of time to complete the project.10 Hemienu’s first task
was to select the building site, so together with the overseers of
quarries and transport, they sailed along the Nile. They could
71
fairly readily determine the suitability of a site as they knew the

volume and the external dimensions of the pyramid, based on
the location and size of the pre-determined internal chambers.
The technical challenges to the project were going to be
enormous. First, a perfectly level base was required, inaccuracies
of centimeters at the bottom translated into meters at the top.
Second, the burial chambers would have to be supported by
large granite blocks to prevent collapse. But at 60 tons each
and 42 meters (140 feet) above the base the maneuvering and
positioning of these blocks to a high degree of accuracy was
going to be difficult. Third, ramps were required to move the
material to the required height. The completion of the last third
of the pyramid was going to be particularly challenging with the
placing of the cap stone.
The work breakdown structure laid out the project with the
following activities: site preparation, construction, removal and
ramp demolition.
When Hemienu’s party saw the Giza plateau they recognized
it had several advantages in that it was a quarry itself, and a
harbor could be readily built for handing the huge volume of in-
coming materials. The Giza Pyramid was to become the centre of
an extensive supply chain as millions of tons of materials poured
onto the site. Copper and bronze were needed for the chisels, in
all about 250 tons, which had to be shipped in from the red sea,
on a nine day journey. Around half a million tons of gypsum
was mined and transformed into a mortar, used to bind the core
rubble. There were several other materials that were needed in
quantity like the smooth white facing blocks, backing blocks,
and rough blocks for core rubble. Large quantities of timber were
needed for equipment (sled, scaffolding, rollers, etc). As part of
the planning the team also worked out the logistics for:
• Site preparation - determination of true north, creation of
a perfect square of limestone blocks, within which was a
natural limestone core cut into shape.
◦◦ Perfect leveling of the base as being off one inch
would mean yards at the top. Each side is 230 meters
(767 feet) in length and almost perfectly level (to
within 15 millimeters).
72
◦◦ About 10% of the pyramid is part of a limestone

outcrop that was shaped to look like the rest of the
blocks.
• Quarry operations
◦◦ Limestone, 80% of it came from Giza quarries (on-
site), with two off site quarries in Tura, eight miles
upstream. The Tura stone was milk-pure with fewer
fossils and required a workforce of 500 in the first
years.
◦◦ Robust copper/bronze chisels were used by the gangs,
these blunted after 100 blows so sharpening teams
were needed. Stone pounders and wooden wedges
were also used.
◦◦ Sleds were used for the limestone blocks as wheels or
rollers would sink in the sand.
◦◦ Miles of hand woven thick rope was required.
◦◦ The granite blocks, including the massive
sarcophagus required dolerite pounders to hack it
out. It would take a workforce of 500 a decade to
extract the required quantity.
• The transportation of the finished stone
◦◦ Limestone (2 ton blocks) from Tura (8 miles or 17
kilometers away).
◦◦ Granite (60 ton blocks, 4 x 4 x 24 feet) from Aswan
(500 miles (800 kilometers) away).
• The creation of a harbor and canal
◦◦ Right up to site to float granite blocks up the canal
for half a mile. Wooden sledges would not have been
effective and would have sunk into the sand.
• The creation of a workers' village
◦◦ For permanent skilled workforce, of up to 25,000,
including houses, bakeries and breweries. Ranches
were set up around Egypt to provide meat in vast
quantities. It was a luxury item of the middle classes.
• The construction of the ramps
73
◦◦ To deliver the blocks to a precise position in the

structure.
• The performance of the finished work.
• The removal of the ramps at the end of construction.
All the experience in pyramid projects over the previous

centuries helped work out the problems of social organization
which the Egyptians would run into at Giza. According to one
report by the 5th Century BCE Greek historian Herodotus,11
at Giza there were two gangs, each of 100,000 men (at
peak periods). Each gang was then divided into five zaa’s of
20,000 men. The zaa’s were further sub-divided into crews of
approximately 2,000, and then sub-divided into named gangs
of 1,000. Recently-found graffiti shows that the workers named
themselves the 'Friends of Menkaure' and the 'Drunkards of
Menkaure'. These gangs were divided into phyles of roughly 200.
Finally, the phyles were split into divisions of maybe 25 workers,
who were allocated their own specific task, like transporting
stone from quarries to site, which were being delivered at a
rate of one every two minutes. Each gang had their own project
leader, a soldier for a foreman.12 Thus a 20,000 workforce
could be separated into efficient, easily monitored, units and
a seemingly impossible project, the raising of a huge pyramid,
became an achievable ambition.
Figure 3.3: The breakdown of the hierarchical organization.13
74
The skilled workforce was made up of many trades like

scribes (to track the stone blocks), stonecutters, mason,
surveyors, draughts men, mortar makers, and carpenters (for
the equipment and sleds), potters, and cooks. They (4,000 to
5,000) worked all year around either on site or in the quarries.
Recent excavation of tombs of dressed stone, belonging to the
wealthier classes, found titles such as Director of the Draughts
men, Inspector of the Craftsmen, and Overseer of the Masonry.
These men led the skilled workforce.
The unskilled workforce, mostly farmers, were conscripts
who worked between July and November when their fields were
flooded. Around 20% of the adult male population could have
been available for conscription.14 The logistics were substantial
as the workforce had to be housed, fed and supplied with
equipment. Food and beer were produced on an industrial scale.
This project workforce was rotated and worked in a modular,
team-based kind of organization.
“…as barracks housing for a rotating labor force, perhaps as
large as 1,600 to 2,000 workers. There were slaves in Egypt
but the discovery that pyramid workers were fed like royalty
buttresses other evidence that they were not slaves at all, at
least in the modern sense of the word.”
—Wrote Mark Lehner at the end of the 2002 season15
The workers village, uncovered recently, highlights the

workers were well looked after. The excavated bones from
workers’ graves were mineralized indicating the workers ate
meat which was the food of the Egyptian middle classes. There
are scores of bakeries flanking the galleries, as well as an
abundance of animal bones from sheep, and cows.
The 100,000 work force figure seems high in the light
of what we know today. DMJM (Daniel, Mann, Johnson, &
Mendenhall)16 surmised that there was a full-time workforce
of about 4,000 to 5,000, not including the workers responsible
for cutting limestone at the distant quarries, transporting it to
Giza, and bringing it to the site. DMJM concluded that the total
project required an average workforce of 13,200 persons and a
peak workforce of 40,000, over the 10-year duration. The study
has been criticized for only using 2 million, rather than the 2.5
75
million blocks, that are believed to have gone into the Great
Pyramid.
Executing
The project faced a series of technical challenges that dictated the
scope and schedule. The first technical challenge, to create a per-
fectly level base, was addressed by digging a thin trench around
the perimeter and filling it with water. A base line was then
traced on the water mark and the perimeter leveled with this line.
The quarry gangs formed a production line as a steady
stream of 2 ton blocks was hacked out of the on-site quarry, and
transported to site and placed in position. The process demanded
backbreaking efforts and considerable endurance and patience
on the part of the gangs working in harmony and unison. It is
likely the gangs competed between themselves as to how many
blocks were pulled up in a day. The gangs from the off-site
quarries rowed stone-carrying boats across the Nile River, and
then pulled the blocks overland to their destination.
After ten years the first of the 43 granite blocks (30 to 60
tons) arrived from Aswan, for setting up the king’s burial cham-
ber. The team had to address the second technical challenge.
Nine of these large blocks would make up the roof. They had to
be raised 42 meters (140 feet) onto the pyramid, and then ma-
neuvered and positioned with a very high degree of accuracy.
The third technical challenge, required ramps so as the ma-
terial was moved to the correct height. An external ramp up to
the 61 meters (200 feet) level was sufficient and relatively easy
to build. Beyond 61 meters (200 feet) and up to a height of 146
meters (480 feet) the ramp would reach an 8% grade, too steep
to pull blocks. It would also stretch out at least a 1.6 kilometers
(1 mile) beyond the pyramid. This would not have been feasible
as the volume of material for the ramp would be equal to the
pyramid. It would have added years to the project in terms of
the ramp construction time, and added considerable time in the
transportation. An external corkscrew ramp was more feasible
but the one flaw with this theory is it would have been difficult
to make repeated measurements along the edges to make sure
the pyramid angles were constant. The ramp would have ob-
scured this. An alternative is the internal ramp theory which is
76
getting acceptance today since first introduced in 2005.17 The in-

ternal ramp at a height of 4.6 meters (15 feet) would have start-
ed at the bottom and snaked up the sides at a 7% slope, making
fourteen turns and stretching out to 1.6 kilometers (1 mile). The
internal ramp would be coupled with a 61 meters (200 feet) ex-
ternal ramp, made up of smaller blocks.
Figure 3.4: Workers pulling up granite blocks along the external

ramp of the Giza Pyramid.18
The number of blocks by various estimates is around 2.5

million blocks. The four quarries supplied a total of 100,000
blocks per year.
Figure 3.5: Giza in the 19th Century. The height used was 201 steps
high, or 146 meters (480 feet).19
77
Controlling and Monitoring

As the project neared completion the short external ramp would
have been dismantled and then pulled through the internal
ramp to finish the top half of the pyramid. Hemienu was
concerned with the structure of the pyramid`. He was worried
about the king’s burial chamber holding up as limestone blocks
were piled up above it. Hemienu had stonemasons chisel a
narrow tunnel through the limestone at the top of the Grand
Gallery so he could assess the chamber. Small cracks were found
in the granite roof beams, it wasn’t serious but could get worse.
The cracks were plastered, to monitor them so further expansion
would be apparent. Over time the roof beams held. Recent
investigations speculate20 that one side of the burial chamber
settled too quickly when the external ramp was dismantled,
causing a drop in the wall and the ceiling to crack.
Closing
The output of the project was significant, the only one of the
seven wonders of world to have survived to today. The scale
of a 40 story building has inspired generations, and remained
the tallest building for 4,000 years until the Eiffel Tower was
erected in 1870. It was completed within a specified time frame
of twenty years, remarkable when considering that it required
81 two ton blocks to be laid per day.
There was a remarkable and efficient use of resources
within the budget to support the project. It was a limited project
workforce which required a high degree of organization. It had
to work in a very constrained and complex environment for
example, the maneuvering of mammoth blocks up small ramps.
The project was remarkable in the simplicity of the equipment
used like wooden mallets and wedges, copper saws and chisels,
ropes, and wooden sledges. The masons would have used very
simple tools to finish the shaping of the blocks namely, set
squares for right angles, plum-bobs and a-frames for leveling.
The Giza Pyramid was constructed over a twenty year
period in a hostile desert environment. The project highlighted
how careful planning could create a highly effective social
organization. The work was so broad it touched almost everyone
78
in Egyptian society such that it helped the nation consolidate

into a true state, the first in history.
With time, our understanding will continue to increase about
this project, as we have not discovered any documents on the
construction details.
Other Notable Projects
The Great Wall of China Project (600-206 BCE).
Background
With the threat of “barbarian” invasions or raids, the Great
Wall of China was built to serve as a site for lookout posts, and
to provide the armies a swift warning system, and to create an
elevated military roadway through rugged terrain. The Wall
safeguarded the trade routes like the Silk Road, and facilitated
safe transmission of information and transportation. The
Great Wall also provided a protection to the overall economic
development and cultural progress.
The wall was part of a rigorous defense project composed of
countless passes, watchtowers, garrison towns, beacon towers
and blockhouses. It would assume the shape of a horseshoe and
be built on an unprecedented scale.21
Figure 3.6: Great Wall (19th Century print).22
79
Initiating
Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and unified China
in 221 BCE, when he established the Qin Dynasty. He was the
first Emperor of a united China and connected a number of
existing defensive walls, from the disparate border fortifications
and castles of individual Chinese kingdoms, into a single system.
He ordered the building of a new wall to connect the remaining
fortifications along the empire’s new northern frontier, that
terminated at the shores of the Yellow Sea.
Planning
During the Qin Dynasty (221BCE - 206BCE), 300,000 soldiers
were redirected to build the wall, and fight if necessary, after
General Meng Tian conquered the Huns. It took nine years to
finish the work.
Figure 3.7: Great Wall in the 19th Century.23
80
Executing
Transporting the large quantity of materials required for
construction was difficult, so the projects always tried to use
local resources. Stones from the mountains were used over
mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used for construction
in the plains. In the deserts, sanded reeds and juniper tamarisks
were put to use. The mortar in the wall used a rice adhesive to
better hold it together.
The project was completed in a hostile environment, under
attack by the Xiongnu people from the north. The regime was
brutal and hundreds of thousands were killed in its creation,
mainly by the cold. It had a very high death rate of 25%, mainly
in the winter. These bodies were just added to the wall. After Shi
Huang’s death and the fall of the Qin dynasty, the wall was left
largely ungarrisoned and fell into disrepair.

The next major construction projects, which were nearly as
extensive in scope as the building projects of the Qin dynasty,
were launched in 552 by the Northern Zhou, the Bei (Northern)
Qi kingdom (550–577) to strengthen the northern frontier and
prevent invasion from the west.
Three years later the emperor ordered the recruitment of
a project workforce of 1.8 million to repair and extend other
sections. The workforce was made up of three groups: soldiers,
common people, and criminals, of which soldiers made up the
main construction group.
A section of Sui’s (581 - 618) wall in Inner Mongolia required
more than 1 million men for the project. Criminals were forced
into labor as punishment. During the day, they were ordered
to take turns patrolling the wall, while at night, building and
extending the wall. They were required to serve four years of
hard labor according to laws at that time.
Closing
The great wall produced something that was very significant. It
was built, rebuilt, and maintained between the 6th Century BCE
and the 16th Century. Initially it was not planned as one wall,
81
but different sections built over time. The total length reached
6,700 kilometers (4,160 miles). Today remaining sections of the
wall rise to a height of 10 meters (33 feet) and are 4.5 meters (15
feet) wide with a paved road running along the top.
It could be argued that the Great Wall had a negative
influence on technological development as the enormous project
consumed vast numbers of people, resources, materials, and
equipment, but without stimulating innovation.24 It is the only
man made structure seen that can be seen from space.
Stonehenge Project
Background
Stonehenge, in England, means hanging stone and was a
formidable technological achievement. A high level of precision
was involved, not just in the construction but the positioning
itself. The output was significant, a huge calendar, and the
stones had to line up precisely with celestial events. The
architects laid out the monument in a true circle using practical
geometry and a standard measure the megalithic yard.
Initiating
The workforce was likely seasonal and required surplus stores
of food to feed it. A centralized authority would have distributed
food and supervised the project. The labor requirements are
estimated to range to 30 million man-hours,25 equivalent to an
annual productive workforce of 10,000 people (8 hours x 300
days). The 100 meter (330 foot) circular ditch produced 3,200
cubic meters (3,500 cubic yards) of dirt.
Planning
A good deal of planning had to go into the project particularly
with scheduling the delivery of the stones, specifically the larger
25 ton blue stones that had to be quarried and transported
a great distance. The site itself had to be very carefully laid
out with a high degree of precision, to achieve the objective of
creating a celestial calendar where the stones had to line up
precisely with celestial events.
82
Executing
Stonehenge consists of an outer circle of 30 upright sacred
“blue” stones, 4.1 meters (13.5 feet), each weighing 25 tons were
transported 438 kilometers (300 miles). The 30 lintels weighed
7 tons each. An inner circle of Standing Stones up to 7 meters
(22 feet) high, weighing up to 45 tons each, were moved about 40
kilometers (25 miles) using sledges and ropes as transportation
by water would have been very difficult. Altogether it needed
1000 tons of stones. Today’s calculations show that it would have
taken 500 men, using leather ropes, to quarry and pull one large
stone, with an extra 100 men needed to lay the huge rollers in
front of the sledge.
One of the most challenging aspects was aligning the
massive stone structure so that on various calendar days, the
sun would shine precisely from the outer ring openings to the
central point on main days, such as equinoxes and solstices. The
principal alignments are on the midsummer solstice sunrise and
the midwinter solstice sunset.
Closing
Stonehenge is an example of a project that was planned and
executed, over a long time frame. The output of the Stonehenge
project was significant as it was used as a calendar to help
measure the seasonal cycles and plan agricultural and religious
events.
The overall project was completed over 1,600 years in three
phases with specific outputs for each phase. What we can learn
from this project is not that different from Giza, there are many
parallels, with the quarrying, transportation, and placement
of stones. A society that puts resources to an end goal,
surplus food, and takes care of its workforce by rotating
seasonally can achieve astounding results.
83
Figure 3.8: Stonehenge in the 19th Century.26
Necno (610 BCE)

According to Herodotus, the 5th Century BCE Greek historian,
the Pharaoh Necno II, who reigned c. 615-595 BCE, was deter-
mined to see if Africa could be circumnavigated (east to west).
He commissioned a number of ships manned by Phoenicians for
the task to sail down the Red Sea and along the East Coast of
Africa. Every year they settled for a while on the coast, cleared
a strip of land, planted a crop and, when they had harvested it,
continued on their journey. In the third year they sailed through
the Pillars of Hercules and back to Egypt again. They reported
that as they sailed around Africa they had the sun on their right.
Herodotus refused to believe this possible ‘but perhaps others
may.’ This is good evidence that such a voyage was made.27
Ziggurat of Urnammu Project (between 2113-2096 BCE)

The vast scale of the Ziggurat at Ur, built by the Sumerians,
qualifies it as the output of a major project, although there is not
a lot of documentation about the project.
“The third dynasty of Ur strictly supervised the economy.
Huge numbers of laborers and craftsmen were employed in the
service of the state in the ‘grand households,’ which included
the great temples and palaces. The chancelleries produced
documentation which bears witness to complex administrative
processes. A standardized form was established for the high
temples-multi-storied structures with a central flight of steps-
called Ziggurats, made of mud bricks. This form was used for
religious edifices erected by and for the kings.”28
84
Figure 3.9: The Ziggurat Temple and Shrine of Ur in Iraq, up to 91

meters (300 feet). Today only the bottom layer survives.29
Key Players
Imhotep (2650–2600 BCE)

Egyptian meaning “the one who comes in peace,” was an
Egyptian Polymath (broad, or varied knowledge), who served
under the Third Dynasty king, Djoser, as chancellor to the
pharaoh and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. He is
considered to be the first documented architect and physician
in history known by name. As one of the officials of the Pharaoh
Djoser, he designed the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid,
Figure 3.1) at Saqqara in Egypt in 2630–2611 BCE. As an
instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep’s idealized image lasted
well into the Ptolemaic period (332–30 BCE).
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
The technical challenges of the Giza Pyramid project were
enormous, from creating a perfectly level base, to building the
burial chambers, to completing the last third and mounting
the cap stone. The history of pyramid building shows a clear
evolution in learning, and this was applied to the Giza Pyramid
project. The Egyptians had such a comprehensive grasp of the
whole project, work breakdown structure and schedule, that
85
at the project start they sent teams 800 kilometers (500 miles)
to Aswan to quarry granite. They understood the difference in
properties between granite and limestone, and the use for each.
They knew it would take 10 years to hack out the 62 tons granite
beams needed for the roof of the king’s burial chamber. This
was scheduled accordingly to stay within time-lines as they had
calculated that within this 10 year span the pyramid would be
48 meters (150 feet) high and ready for the granite beams.30
In contrast the Great Wall of China was a completely
different project, punitive in nature. It really was a protracted
building program that improved and extended an existing
infrastructure. This was done in spurts as the pressure of
external invasion mounted. As a result, the project pressed
groups into forced labor notably soldiers, and criminals. A point
of note is this project had the greatest number of laborers ever
used (1,800,000) in a single period.
Key Lessons
PMBoK® Guide Knowledge Areas:
• Integration Management
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project had a very clear charter
and deadline to deliver the project before the pharaoh
died which was approximately 20 years. The project
was pushing the limits of technologies, materials, and
resources in terms of the heights and stability of the
evolving structures, and the ability to organize a vast
workforce in a confined environment.
◦◦ The project had a well defined governance structure.
It also had a mechanism for course adjustment and
controlling change. Lessons from the Bent Pyramid
demonstrated how these were used to rectify design
problems and deliver the project.
◦◦ There was less consideration for a business
justification as the project was built for the pharaoh
the all powerful ruler. However, there was not
unlimited state funding available for the project.
There was a significant payback in the way the
project helped to unify the nation and provided a
86
boost to the economy, as its wide logistics and supply

chain touched everyone through Egypt.
• Scope Management
◦◦ With the Giza Pyramid project a great deal of
planning had to take place and Hemienu would
have had ground plans and three-dimensional
models. Planning included preparation and logistics.
Preparation required the physical planning of the site
including surveys, site selection, layout, and initial
steps in the process. For this surveying skills were
required, and the Egyptians had established these
because of the inundations and flooding of the Nile.
◦◦ The functional requirements were principally
centered around the king’s granite burial chamber.
◦◦ The non-functional requirements included creating
a secure site that would deter grave robbers. Much
attention was paid to concealing entrances and
creating obstacles and traps.
◦◦ The scope in terms of materials, and equipment was
dictated by:
• The height of the pyramid following established
angles.
• The availability of materials, quarrying,
transporting of stone.
• The hacking and transporting of the granite
blocks was particularly challenging.
◦◦ The work breakdown structure laid out the project
with the following:
• Site preparation with determination of true
North, and creation of a perfect square foundation
of limestone blocks.
• Construction of ramps, and delivery of blocks to
a precise position in the structure, and creation
of a harbor and canal, workers’ village for 25,000
including houses, bakeries and breweries.
• Construction of the structure.
87
• Ramp removal and demolition, incorporating the

rubble into the pyramid core.
◦◦ The scope was decomposed down to a level where
a small team of 10 could undertake a task, like the
quarrying and transporting of single blocks.
◦◦ The scope was decreased by building in a quarry.
Similarly, the Great Wall used local materials were
possible varying from stone, to tamped earth, to
sanded reeds.
• Time Management
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project activities were well
understood, and the estimating was reliable and
based on experience. The project required careful
sequencing and scheduling of activities so that the
skilled on-site workforce was kept busy year around,
either on site or in the quarries. For example, enough
stone had to be quarried out and brought to site for
work to continue without interruption. As the project
team shrank in the winter there had to be enough
work to keep the skeleton skilled workforce busy.
◦◦ The Egyptians worked with granite and limestone,
and understood the difference in properties and how
each should be used. It would take 10 years to hack
out the granite beams needed for the roof of the king’s
burial chamber that were up to 62 tons. Copper tools
were ineffective and dolerite pounders were used.
Because of this, quarrying had to be scheduled to stay
within timelines. The project manager had calculated
that at the end of this 10-year span, the pyramid
would be 46 meters (150 feet) high and ready for the
creation of the king’s burial chamber.31
◦◦ The extensive supply chain had to work in lockstep
with the project schedule. For example, the late
delivery of copper and timber materials was a
showstopper to the schedule, as well as food and
provisions for the project workforce.
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid had to be built within the lifetime
of the pharaoh. The project followed a schedule with a
88
target end-date. Hemienu, as the pharaoh’s, nephew

was close enough to his uncle to be aware of his
health and well-being. He therefore could crash the
project schedule if required to meet the end-date.
◦◦ At Stonehenge the enormity of the project required
independent teams to be coordinated to work in
parallel and independently to quarry, transport, and
deliver the stones.
• Cost Management
◦◦ Based on 200 years of Pyramid projects, both success-
ful and not (Red, Bent, and Step Pyramids), analo-
gous estimating was used. Giza was a continuation in
this line of projects but a scale up in size.
◦◦ Determining the budget was relatively easy based on
the accuracy of the cost estimates.
◦◦ Giza was built by a project workforce of tens of thou-
sands of skilled and unskilled workers (farm labor-
ers). They camped near the pyramids and worked for
a salary or as a form of paying taxes, and were paid
in food and clothing32 until the construction was com-
pleted. The large unskilled workforce worked between
July and November when their fields were flooded by
the Nile. Project accounting was thorough and com-
pleted by a system of scribes working for the state.
◦◦ The agrarian economy of Egypt, with a population of
1.5 million, could provide the resources to support a
project of such an undertaking over a period of time.
◦◦ Cost control would have been relatively
straightforward as the principal activities were
consistent year to year.
◦◦ The project employed tens of thousands of skilled
and unskilled workers (farm laborers) who camped
near the pyramids. They worked in lieu of paying
taxes as well as pay through food and clothing. The
large unskilled workforce worked between July and
November when their fields were flooded by the Nile.
Project accounting was thorough and completed by a
system of scribes working for the state.
89
◦◦ In the Great Wall of China project the government

accounting reached a peak of sophistication with
the introduction of timely-reports. A lunar calendar
was used dividing the year into twelve months, and
each month into three ten day periods called hsun.
Accordingly, ten-day, monthly, and annual reports
were prepared throughout the budget cycle.”
◦◦ With the Great Wall of China project, some sections
were built in a hostile environment were the
workforce was under the threat of attack. This would
have increased the cost.
• Quality Management
◦◦ With the Giza Pyramid project quality was
paramount in site preparation, and ensuring firmness
of the base. An imperfect leveling of the base out by
one inch would mean yards at the top. The Egyptians
were able to build with incredible accuracy and
precision even by today’s standards.
• The site was leveled within a fraction of an inch
over the entire 13.1-acre base.
• The four sides of the base of the Great Pyramid
are perpendicular to within 58 millimeters (2.28
inches) in length, over 230 meters (767 feet) in
length on each side, and 1 minute in angle of a
perfect square.
◦◦ The cap stone and limestone casing fitted walls,
joined at a consistent angle, on all four sides, to
create a singular smooth surface.
◦◦ Another area of quality control was positioning the
nine granite blocks, 60 tons, on the roof of the king’s
burial chamber. Great care had to be taken not to
collapse the structure.
◦◦ The project adopted an approach to quality based on
continual inspections. At the top of the Grand Gallery
stonemasons chiseled a narrow tunnel through the
limestone so Hemienu could assess any damage.
Small cracks were found in the granite roof beams, it
wasn’t serious but could get worse. The cracks were
90
plastered, to monitor’ them so further expansion

would be apparent. The roof beams held and further
tunnels didn’t have to be cut above.
◦◦ Likewise the gradient of the ramp could not be
steeper than 8% otherwise it would have been
impossible to pull the blocks up the slope.
◦◦ The Egyptians had readily transferred the concept
of inspection to their construction projects. For
centuries they had used “Inspectors” to survey work
done for the water-houses or irrigation units that cut
the dykes and canals, and kept these under constant
repair.
◦◦ Stonehenge required great accuracy in aligning the
massive stone structure to equinoxes and solstices on
various calendar days. The architects had accurately
laid out the monument in a true circle using practical
geometry and a standard measure - the megalithic
yard.
◦◦ The ancient Egyptians tracked building projects with
a very formulated approach to building an Egyptian
temple. They consulted the “Book of Foundations of
Temples,” which listed complicated and ever-present
ritualistic formulas.
• These carried the proper procedures and
operations for each step in minute detail.
Every temple had its archives preserved with
instructions and best practices. The formulas
were rigidly observed as the priests demanded
that their buildings conform to the regulations
laid down.33
◦◦ Similarly, the Sumerians adopted a quality approach
in their projects. A standardized form was established
for the high temples, multi-storied structures made
of mud bricks with a central flight of steps-called
Ziggurats. The chancelleries produced documentation
which outlined the complex administrative processes.
This form was used for religious edifices erected by
and for the kings.34
91
• Human Resource Management

◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project required an average work-
force of 13,200 workers and a peak workforce of
40,000, over its duration. The 200 years of experience
with pyramid projects helped in identifying the size of
the project workforce and the mix of trades and skills.
◦◦ The logistics were substantial as the workforce had to
be housed, fed and supplied with equipment.
◦◦ The skilled project workforce was made up of of
between 4,000 to 5,000 skilled craftsmen,35 typically
stonecutters, masons, surveyors, mortar makers,
and carpenters. They worked all year around either
on site or in the quarries. They benefited from a
system of privileges. The unskilled workforce, mostly
farmers, worked for five months between July and
November when their fields were flooded by the
Nile. This was known as the annual “inundation”
one of the three seasons. The other two seasons were
winter and summer, each four months long36. Each
month consisted of three weeks of 10 days each. The
workforce of up to 20,000 was made up of excavators,
carriers, and haulers that provided the labor for
moving the vast number of blocks from quarry to site.
◦◦ The project workforce was well looked after, recently
excavated bones were mineralized indicating the
workers ate meat which was the food of the Egyptian
middle classes.
◦◦ There is evidence that the workers received good
medical care as one skeletal remain shows a worker
who suffered several leg fractures healed well and
straight, another shows evidence of brain surgery,
and others had broken hands treated by binding.
These were not expendable slaves.
◦◦ Egyptian workers stopped working when they were
not being paid enough. Workers in Egypt were also
known to have approached authorities with grievanc-
es, which resulted in the punishment of their supervi-
sors who had treated the workers unfairly.37 The Giza
92
Pyramid project highlighted how careful planning

could create a highly effective social organization.
◦◦ The workforce extended well beyond the site as an
extensive supply chain poured in millions of tons of
materials (copper, gypsum, limestone, marble).
◦◦ The organization of the workforce into gangs
encouraged a healthy competition to develop between
these, and a team spirit to evolve.
◦◦ The workforce was sourced from communities across
Egypt that were required to provide a steady worker
supply on a rotational basis.
◦◦ They were organized into gangs of 25 men to trans-
port the stone from quarries to site with a soldier for
a foreman. Typically, 10 men would pull one block.
◦◦ In ancient construction projects where operations
were carried out over a period of time and in a remote
area (quarry, logging camp) the master-builder was
responsible for housing the project workforce, its
security, as well as the worker’s tools, equipment and
food.38
◦◦ The Great Wall project required the organization of
a huge project workforce force (1,800,000) made up
of soldiers (the main construction group), common
people, and criminals.
◦◦ Criminals were forced into four years of hard labor
as a punishment. During the day, they patrolled the
wall. While at night, they worked on it.
• Communication Management
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project was a national project,
designed to unite a nation, and therefore it had a very
high visibility with the Egyptian population. It was
popularized by having a large number of stakeholders
amongst the villages and towns, who supplied the
laborers and craftsmen.
◦◦ The workforce had to be well organized for it to
function effectively. It was divided into crews of
2,000, subdivided into gangs of 1,000, and then
93
into phyles of roughly 200, and then divisions of 25

workers. A hierarchical organization that was quasi-
military could be led through top down oral/audio
communications, the oldest form.
◦◦ Other forms of written communication included an
organized courier service for written documents,
where the pharaohs diffused their decrees (2400 BCE
was the first documented use of this).
◦◦ Another common form of written communication,
where important information had to be distributed,
was through the mason’s marks. This was common in
stone construction projects that required accurately
cut, closely fitting and usually unmortared blocks,
like at Giza. These ciphers communicated a record of
the work done, the identity of the stonecutter so he
could be credited for the work, and held accountable
for its craftsmanship.
• Risk Management
◦◦ With the Great Wall project there were huge risks to
the project workforce (25% death rate) from external
attacks and raids, to the cold conditions in winter.
◦◦ In contrast, the Giza Pyramid project workforce was
housed in well organized villages and well looked
after.
◦◦ Risk management was absolutely critical with
the project, as the extensive supply chain that
spanned quarries, workshops, and construction site
was fraught with dangers. The risk to the project
workforce was high because of the quantities of
materials being moved with relatively simple
equipment (sleds, ropes, levers). Huge granite blocks
had to be pulled out of quarries and up ramps into
position. There was little room for maneuver on the
site itself. All these were identified and managed.
Losing workers through injury or death was very bad
for the morale of the project.
◦◦ In an example of risk monitoring the king’s burial
chamber had to be reinforced with massive 30 to
94
60 tons granite blocks to prevent collapse. When

cracks appeared in the granite roof beams, they
were monitored by plastering over them to see if any
further expansion would occur.
◦◦ This was a public works project which improved
its popularity with the Egyptian population. It also
increased the range of stakeholders and this broader
support helped mitigate some of the project risks.
• Procurement Management
◦◦ Procurement management has its roots in trading
and the earliest surviving business records can
be traced back more than 7,000 years ago to the
Chaldean-Babylonians, Assyrians, and Sumerians.39
In the 5th Century BCE the rich farming area
between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers saw a
civilization grow where small businesses were
established and an extensive trade grew. The city of
Babylon was labeled the “queen of commerce.”
◦◦ Scribes were the predecessor of today’s accountants.
Their duty was to record the business transactions
on commercial tablets, for example, the types and
quantities of goods as they arrived at storehouses.
They also prepared inventories of assets on hand
and charge-and-discharge40 type summaries of
commodities received and paid out.
◦◦ After a contract or an agreement had been
negotiated, written and signed, the scribe took a new
piece of clay and wrapped it completely around the
original tablet providing a carbon copy where any
tampering could immediately be detected.
◦◦ Logistics encompasses procurement and is a military
term for procurement and acquisition, shipping and
distribution, maintenance (upkeep), and replacement
of materials and personnel. The military has always
been concerned with logistics going back to ancient
times, and this is where it has its roots.
◦◦ Procurement Management was core to the Giza
Pyramid project as the extensive supply chain moved
95
millions of tons of procured materials, food and provi-

sions to the project site. The materials that poured
into the site included copper (250 tons), gypsum (half
a million tons), smooth white Tura facing blocks,
backing blocks, rough blocks, and granite. The logis-
tics in keeping the project going was enormous as this
workforce had to be fed, watered, and housed.
◦◦ Families in the Delta and Upper Egypt sent 21
buffalo and 23 sheep to the plateau every day just
to feed the workers. The worker’s village housed
bakeries and breweries that could produce on an
industrial scale an expansive production line of food.
◦◦ The Egyptian agrarian economy, with a population
of 1.5 million, provided the resources to support the
project over the period.
Educators
• Discuss in the context of today’s projects the importance
of what the Giza Pyramid project achieved?
• Did the project have any benefits beyond its main
objective, a grandiose tomb for the pharaohs?
• Discuss which of the nine PMBoK® Guide Knowledge
Areas were most significant to the project?
96
Chapter 4
Roman Republic
(510 - 100 BCE)
T
his historical period was dominated by the Greek and
Roman empires in Europe and those of Mauryas in
India, and Han in China. From a project management
perspective construction projects continued to be driven by a
temple economy (grain silos held in religious structures) where
the ruler initiated communal work projects. These were typically
construction projects using stone, brick, and new materials
like concrete. There was an increased scientific knowledge
specifically with geometry, and a more sophisticated use of
equipment such as lifts and cranes.

a. Urban revolution, development of cities and evolution
of city-states into republics and empires.
b. Ionian (early Greeks) explorers created a different
society away from autocratism that mapped and
explored the known world.
a. Development of rational and logical thought.
97
b. Birth of democracy in the Greek city-state.

c. Development of cities leads to a golden period for
Greece with the construction of magnificent formal
buildings.
d. Growth of standing professional armies.
• Major events
a. Greek wars.
b. Roman Republic created in 509 BC.
c. Roman wars.
a. The Greek machines invented by 500 BCE included
the screw, the ratchet, the pulley, the water wheel
and the aeolipile (Hero’s turbine).
b. Coins and money.
c. Cement.
d. Maps.
e. Philosophy (Plato, Aristotle).
• Regions
a. Mediterranean.
b. China.
• Significant projects
a. Parthenon in Athens, Greece, 477 to 438 BCE.
a. Terra Cotta Warriors (246-210 BCE).
b. This category covers ancient wonders and structures,
buildings, and towers. It includes five of the seven
wonders of the ancient world.
• Key players
a. Pericles.
• Chapter Wrap-up
98
4 - Roman Republic (510 - 100BCE)
Trends and Changes

The world population in this period grew from 100 to 150
million.
Cities and City-States

The urban revolution continued and saw the development of
cities and evolution of city-states. The city-states of ancient
Greece were quarrelsome and fought one another repeatedly
with citizens fulfilling military requirements.
Similarly, the city-state of Rome became more powerful
and was constantly at war with neighboring peoples in Italy.
Eventually Rome transitioned to a republic but continued its
life and death struggle with rival powers like Carthage and the
Hellenistic kingdoms (in 146 BC).
Ancient Greek Explorers

As the population of ancient Greece grew beyond its limited
food production the ancient Greeks started to explore and settle
colonies in all directions from about 750 BCE. By 300 BCE they
had mapped and explored most of the known world.
Impact of Changes
Change in Thinking
The Greeks through the Greek city-states were instrumental in
the development of reason, inquiry, and rational thought. They
were the first Europeans capable of analyzing and explaining
political institutions, and considering alternatives.
Path to Democracy
To prevent Athens from becoming a Spartan puppet state, an
Athenian noble Cleisthenes proposed to the citizens of Athens
to share power regardless of status and create a democracy. The
democracy solved many problems for Athens, and helped repel a
Spartan-led invasion. Magistrates were elected by all freemen,
and jurors in trials were paid fees, so democracy wasn’t just
99
for the rich. The democracy did not include women, slaves, or
foreigners.
Growth in Buildings
This was a golden period for Greece and then Rome, a classical
era with the construction of magnificent formal buildings.
Today’s sense of an ideal city is derived to a great extent from
Athens around 450 BCE.1
Professional Armies
The city-state armies were made of citizen soldiers and each
time war broke out raising an army was inefficient, and for
Rome this was disruptive to the economy. It was also harder to
keep the levels of discipline in a citizen army. By the 1st Century
BCE Rome had a standing professional army of career soldiers,
recruited from the poor and equipped by the state. This allowed
for the development of military skills, guaranteeing further
Roman conquests as the republic became an empire.2 These
were based on the Assyrians who were the first to organize a
professional army (745-727 BCE).
The foremost features of this Assyrian army were its logistics
arrangements, supply depots, columns, and bridging trains.
Central supply depots held war materials of all sorts, with
chariots and horses. This was the first long range army that
could campaign 300 miles (500 kilometers) from base and move
at advanced speeds of up to 30 miles a day. It was paid regularly
and supplied with weapons. The army was organized into units
led by professional generals. The recruits were multi-ethnic
with foreign mercenaries and prisoners of war making up the
major elements of the ranks. The Syrians were experts in siege:
attacking foundation walls, digging mine shafts, building siege
ramps, and working on siege engines. Many successor armies of
other empires were modeled on this army including the Roman
legions.3
The Persians took the concept of specialization further as
they assembled specific ethnic groups like Greek mercenaries for
infantry, Medes and Scythians as horsemen, and Phoenicians
as sailors. Strict training welded these forces into disciplined
armies.
100
Major Events
Greek wars
The city-states of ancient Greece fought one another. This was
done to prevent any one city-state from dominating, like Athens
or Sparta. They also contested external threats like the Persians
which they united into a democratic military alliance to push
back these invaders. Athens was determined to maintain its
democratic society
Roman Republic (509 BCE)

The Romans were determined to prevent dictatorial kings from
taking complete power. They set up a complex system of controls
were power was shared by two consuls, elected yearly. One was
in Rome and the other was with the army. Other officials were
elected as well.
Roman Wars
Similar to the Greeks, the Romans fought to preserve a fledgling
democracy - a republican form of government. Rome survived a
series of civil wars and wars against its neighbors, notably the
Etruscans in the 5th Century BCE.
Simple Machines
The Greeks were renowned inventors and over a thousand years
of empire they contributed the screw, the ratchet, the water
wheel and the aeolipile (Hero’s turbine).
101
Figure 4.1: The Water Screw, a simple machine used in projects.4
In the 4th Century BCE the pulley was developed. This was
a very useful device in construction projects for lifting heavier
objects. A major mechanical advantage was achieved when two
or more wheels were used together. This explains their use in
machines like yardarms (pulleys with ropes) for sailing vessels
and for moving moderate weights.
Cement
In 200 BCE the Greeks evolved cement as a structural material,
to replace weaker mortars such as gypsum plaster or bitumen.
The use of lime, a new material, could bind sand, water and clay.
Astrolabe
In 140 BCE Hipparchus, a leading Greek astronomer, created
the astrolabe (meaning star taker) to measure the angle of the
sun or a star above the horizon and provide a chart showing
the heavens at differing latitudes and times. The altitude of
the Pole Star revealed the observer’s latitude, in relation to the
position of sun and stars at the time of day or night. It is the
world’s oldest scientific instrument and was to become critical
for navigation.
102
Accounting
Athens in the 5th Century BCE was a city run by its citizens
as they “possessed real authority over government finance and
the official bureaucracy.”5 There were 10 publicly chosen state
accountants, who recorded all revenues as they came into the
city and compiled lists of government debtors. The fact that
Athens was run by popular sovereignty introduced the idea
of financial disclosure for the first time in history. “To ensure
maximum publicity, certain accounts were even engraved in
stone and placed on public view.”6 Fraud was common and this
created a requirement for the records of government officials to
be examined by auditors at the end of the official’s term.
Origination of Risk
The term risk can be traced back to classical Greek where the
word risk, meant root, stone, cut from firm land (later used in
Latin for cliff). The original term was used in Homer’s Rhapsody
M of Odyssey “Sirens, Scylla, Charybdee and the bulls of Helios
(Sun).” Odysseus tried to save himself from Charybdee at the
cliffs of Scylla, where his ship was destroyed by heavy seas
generated by Zeus.
Standardizing the Quality of Gold

The touchstone7 (Schist, flint-like black stone) was first used in
ancient Greece and Anatolia circa 500 BC. It standardized the
quality of gold, and made it into a tradable commodity that could
be used as a currency. This was the first time something could be
trusted and it had a massive impact on trade.
Coined Money
The Greeks began issuing coined money in about 630 BCE.
Records were kept in money form and this medium of exchange
also guaranteed consistency. Although they could record
business transactions in money terms often they did not. At
times they represented property in physical quantities and
monetary assets in money terms with inventory and the cash
equivalent of assets on the books of any company.
103
Banking System
Athens in the 5th Century BCE was the first state to make finan-
cial disclosures to create transparency with public projects. The
Greeks had a highly developed banking system8 that changed
and loaned money, accepted deposits, acted as intermediaries
and trustees, and arranged cash transfers for clients through
correspondents in distant cities. Bankers kept account books
that had to be produced as evidence in court.
Regions
There was significant prosperity in Greece and Rome that saw
growth in thriving cultures around the Mediterranean. In the
East, China started to emerge as a significant power when the
first Emperor of China harnessed the resources of the nation and
started to pull it together.
All the significant projects in this historical period were civil con-
struction projects that had an increasingly more sophisticated
architecture, delivered by a smaller and more skilled labor pools.
These projects spanned years and sometimes across decades.
Parthenon Project (447-438 BCE)
Background
Greece was devastated by the Persian invasion of 481 BCE,
where the Persian forces sacked Athens and demolished the
buildings on the Acropolis. Under the leadership of Athens,
one hundred Greek city-states joined forces to form the
Delian League, a democratic military alliance to push back
the invaders. Following victory Pericles, the military leader
victorious at the Battle of Mycale, took the initiative to restore
the destroyed parts of the city.
104
Figure 4.2: The Beginnings of Historic Greece 700-600 BCE outlines

the city states.9
Initiating
The primary objective for Pericles, the principal stakeholder,
was to rebuild the ancient shrines destroyed by the Persians and
to architecturally adorn the Acropolis with a magnificent temple
dedicated to the goddess Athena, known as the Parthenon. The
Acropolis is a limestone hill that rises 150 meters (about 500
feet) above sea level. The agora beneath the Acropolis was the
commercial and administrative center of the city.
The Athenians had notions of perfection that they called
Symmetria, the harmonious relationship of part to part and
of the part to the whole. As part of the project charter the
Parthenon was to be an expression of these ideas, a perfectly
symmetrical building, where the harmony depended on a certain
mathematical system of proportions.10
Pericles initiated the building program. He proposed to the
Assembly (primary stakeholders) that the project financing
came from a war chest (the treasure of the Delian League) from
any part that was not used for the common defense. He argued
it should be used to beautify what he deemed the legitimate
capital of a magnificent empire. For the Athenians this was
105
quite acceptable although they were loathed to spend great

amounts on adorning the city. "Very well," responded Pericles,
"let nothing be charged to the public treasure, but all to my own
estate, and I will dedicate the public buildings in my name."
Whether it was surprise in his show of spirit or a desire to get
in on the glory, the Athenians shouted their approval, "Spend
on and spare no cost until all is finished," (from Plutarch).
The Athenians were seasoned record keepers and believed in
the freedom of information, which they published in the form
of inscribed marble slabs atop the Acropolis. The Parthenon
accounts are now fragmentary but tell us about the funding.11
Planning
The Acropolis and other public buildings were part of this
public works program. Pericles devised a plan to rebuild
ancient shrines, and his human resource plan would utilize
the flourishing artistic talent along with the unemployed12
Athenians, so that every Athenian had food on his table. It would
keep the unemployed workers off the streets, and stimulate the
Athenian economy by creating a number of important feeder
industries13 by putting the whole city into state-pay. This was
an important part of the project charter and it helped get buy-
in to the project on a broad scale. The population of Athens was
around 250,000–300,000 people in this period.
The workforce consisted of artisans and tradesmen including
smiths and carpenters, molders, founders and braziers, stone-
cutters and stonemasons,14 dyers, goldsmiths, ivory-workers,
painters, embroiderers, turners. The workforce was organized on
military lines. Where a captain had a company of soldiers, every
trade had its own hired company of journeymen and laborers
belonging to it, and banded together as in an array.15
A driving and critical requirement was the esthetic qualities
of the building. It was to be an object of beauty and inspiration.
But this had to be incorporated into the project without
increasing the scope or the cost.
The plans laid out a perfectly symmetrical building where
symmetry was a 9:4 ratio present in various dimensions like the
length of the stylobate (the base of the building) to its width, and
to the height of the column (see figure 4.3).
106
Figure 4.3: Floor plan of the Parthenon showing the Doric columns.16
The temple measures over 7,000 meters2 (23,000 feet2) at the level of
its top step.
In fact, the Parthenon incorporated so-called optical

refinements where deviations from the perfectly horizontal
or vertical, and the straight and perpendicular were in fact
intentional. The slight beveling in the blocks was intended to
create a curvature of the steps. A perfectly straight line carried
over a long distance would appear to sag. The upward curvature
of the long steps would counteract that optical illusion, making
the line look perfectly straight horizontally and vertically.17
Quality was planned for from the start.
Executing
Work began on the Parthenon in 447 BCE. The Athenian Empire
was at the height of its power. The project team is known today.
Phidias had the oversight of all the works, and was the surveyor-
general, though other great masters were employed upon the
various portions. The main architect was Iktinos, and the master
107
builder was Callicrates. Kalamis was in charge of the design of

the sculptures and decorations.
The whole temple, from the base to the roof tiles, was built
of marble although other materials included brass, ivory, gold,
ebony and cypress-wood. The quarries were located about 16
kilometers (10 miles) from the site. Quarry workers used iron
tools like wedges to split natural fissures in the marble, with
iron headed mallets, and iron levers. These were then fashioned
in the quarry into partially finished blocks, so as to withstand
any damage on-route to site. The blocks weighed 11,800
kilograms (26,000 pounds or 13 tons) and were pulled out of the
quarry on sleds using a combination of ropes, pulleys, winches,
levers and rollers. The sleds were maneuvered with ramps onto
heavy wagons (Tetrakykyle) which were pulled by mules.
Figure 4.4: Doric Order of the Parthenon.18
Some of the financial accounts that survive today show the

largest single expense was transporting the marble from Mount
Pentelicus, about 16 kilometers (10 miles) from Athens, to the
Acropolis. The day long journey required the wagon to be pulled
up a steep slope. The approach used pulleys and ropes attached
to an empty wagon going downhill pulled by mules.
The project workforce cut 100,000 tons of marble, about
70,000 pieces. Quarrying and transporting the marble from the
quarry to site were likely the most significant cost items, but this
was quite common to most ancient projects.
108
Figure 4.5: Art Hum Section: Parthenon (447-438 BCE) Athens,

Acropolis, 19th Century photograph, the west end of the Parthenon
Item ID: 1651.19
On site the partially finished blocks went through the final

stages of carving, and polishing into column drums. The Doric
columns were assembled from thousands of these.
The workforce used highly sophisticated tools like the
antique mason's device called the Pantograph with which they
were able to record the three-dimensional shape of an object
(piece of stone), and then precisely replicate it. This allowed
them to achieve an incredible level of precision when fitting
similar pieces together.
On site the master stonemasons did all the carving by hand.
They used red clay to ensure that their pieces would fit together
precisely that is, mating the two pieces. They applied red clay
to the inside surface of one of the blocks to ensure there was a
perfect match between pieces. Often the difference between a
perfect fit was down to just a tenth of a millimeter, the thickness
of a human hair. The quality standards were very high and
unique for their time. The masons were then able to sand the
marble pieces to within 1/20th millimeter accuracy by using a
metal plate and sand to grind the surfaces.
The workforce used ingenious axial dowels to align massive
the column drums (2 meters (6 feet) in diameter and 0.75 meter
109
(2½ feet) thick) into the columns. Near perfect alignment was
not just there for esthetic purposes. Accuracy of structural
judgment was integral were thrust had to be balanced by
opposing thrust. The quality requirements were continually
audited at a local level to assure the quality.
The most complex part of the project was the completion
of the Doric columns which measured 1.9 meters (6.2 feet) in
diameter and were 10.4 meters (34.1 feet) high. The corner
columns were slightly larger in diameter. The Parthenon had 46
outer pillars and 19 inner pillars in total.

The propylaea, or entrances, were finished in five years’ time.
The Parthenon took nine years to complete (447-432 BCE), yet
would survive some 24 centuries. The building was substantially
completed by 432 BCE, but work on the decorations continued
until at least 431.
The building’s original function was as a temple dedicated
to the goddess Athena, but upon its completion the structure
housed the Delian League’s financial reserves. Some experts
maintain that the early Parthenon was used as a treasury.
Figure 4.6: Art Hum Section: Parthenon (447-438 BCE) Athens,

Acropolis, 19th Century photograph, view from the southwest Item ID:
1659.20
110
Closing
The Parthenon became the glory of the city and the legacy of
this building is its contribution to Western architecture and the
many buildings that have followed in its influence. In particular,
the harmonious and integrated way it is architected, the steps
curve upward, the columns tilt inward, the metopes (marble
panels) tilt outward, the columns swell, the corner columns of
the building are slightly thicker than the other columns of the
building. All of these refinements are combined masterfully.
“Greek Architecture (and by this I mean the architecture of
the sixth and fifth centuries BCE) remains one of the great
outstanding facts in the history of the Architecture of the Western
world.”
—By Sir Reginald Blomfield, F.S.A., R.A.
The project was remarkable in that such a refined and

sophisticated building could be built to such incredible
specifications in the time frame and with the level of technology
available.

Worthy of an important mention are the following projects.
Terra Cotta Warriors (210 BCE)

The first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, conquered and
united China from a collection of warring states. He built
the Great Wall and amassed great works of art. He obsessed
with a quest for the secret of immortality. As result, a project
workforce of 70,000 built his tomb with over 8,000 life-size
clay warriors to protect it, with 130 chariots, and 520 horses
and 150 cavalry horses. The warriors are unique life-size and
individually modeled figures in clay with a remarkable level of
detail. This includes body armor with heads of rivets. The hands
and the heads were made separately, and each is different and
individual.
111
The Grand Canal of China Project

This is the world’s oldest and longest canal, surpassing the Suez
and Panama Canals and was begun in 486 BCE. It was extended
in 605 (see page 220).
The City of Petra

This was carved out of rock in the foothills of modern Jordan, in
the 6th Century BCE by the Nabataeans. The project workforce
created a sophisticated system of clay pipes that brought water
into the city for a population of 30,000. They created tunnels and
channels to prevent floods from destroying the buildings.
Figure 4.7: El Deir Petra (6th BCE). Picture by David Roberts created
8th of March 1839.
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

The list is very subjective as few of these wonders (the project
outputs) remain today, and details about the projects are
scant and only now coming to light through archaeology. The
most astonishing fact about these projects is the scale of the
deliverable (the construct itself) considering the main resource
available was human capital. Social organization played a big
part as did ingenuity. These wonders include:
112
1. Giza Pyramid, 2580-2560 BCE (see previous chapter).

2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 604-562 BCE, near modern
day Baghdad. No confirmed finds exist, only accounts by
a Babylonian priest from the 2nd Century. The gardens
were constructed with massive walls 25 meters (80
feet) thick that were stepped to form the terraces of a
structure that was 122 meters wide x 122 meters long
(400 x 400 feet), and 30 meters (100 feet) high. The
garden was sloped like a hillside and thickly planted with
trees of every kind, and hidden water machines supplied
water from the river.
3. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 353 BCE, in Turkey, a
huge marble tomb for Mausolus, a Persian official. It
initiated the trend of calling all large tombs mausoleums.
The Mausoleum was almost square, 125 meters (411 feet)
and bounded by 36 columns. The top formed a 24-step
pyramid surmounted by a four-horse marble chariot with
base dimensions of about 40 x 30 meters (120 x 100 feet).
The total height was 45 meters (148 feet). Fragments of
the sculptural decoration survive today.
4. Colossus of Rhodes, 304 BCE, near the harbor of Rhodes
on the Aegean Sea stood a huge bronze statue which
stood 45 meters (148 feet) high and upon a 12 meters (50
feet) pedestal near the harbor mole. It was constructed
in 12 years and was destroyed by an earthquake in 224
BCE. The Statue of Liberty is roughly the same size.
5. Lighthouse of Alexandria, 270 BCE, in Alexandria har-
bor, Egypt, stood on the island of Pharos, and the word
“pharos” came to mean lighthouse. The total height of the
Lighthouse, including the foundation, was 117 meters
(384 feet), equivalent to a 40-story modern building. It
guided sailors into the city harbor for 1,500 years and
was the last of the six lost wonders to disappear. A shaft
in the internal core lifted fuel for the fire used during the
night. A mirror reflected the sunlight during the day, and
could be seen more than 50 kilometers (35 miles) away.
The building was constructed of marble blocks with lead
mortar. A statue of Poseidon adorned the summit of the
building. It is likely that it was lost to earthquakes.
113
6. Statue of Zeus at Olympia, circa 2nd Century at Olympia,

Greece, likely perished with the temple when burned
in 425. The base of the statue was about 6.5 meters (20
feet) wide and 1.0 meter (3 feet) high. The height was 13
meters (40 feet), equivalent to a modern 4-story building.
The Olympic Games, in honor of the King of the gods,
were first started in 776 BCE and were held at the shrine
to Zeus.
7. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, 262, was destroyed by
a flood in the 7th Century. The Temple was 80 x 130
meters (260 x 430 feet) in plan. The 127 columns were
20 meters (66 feet) high with Ionic capitals and carved
circular sides.
Key Players
Pericles (495 – 429 BCE)

Pericles was an able general but after the war he devoted his
energies to the beautification of Athens, and creating a stable
peace time economy and environment. Sculpture, architecture,
drama, and philosophy all flourished wondrously during the
thirty years of his leadership.
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
The Parthenon set the pattern for future large-scale projects,
or public works, where the objective was to stimulate the local
economy and help the unemployed. What Pericles achieved
though went much further as he created one of the most
stunning buildings ever built, a massive contribution to Western
architecture which was copied for millennia to come. This set
the notion it was possible to deliver in a short time frame
(9 years) esthetically pleasing buildings within the scope
of a modest project budget.
114
Key Lessons
◦◦ Although the Parthenon project costs were high,
the business justification was based on stimulating
the local economy and helping the local population.
The project charter stated that the project would
incorporate local small businesses, and unemployed
workers in its vast workforce.
◦◦ The project charter was voted upon by the Ekklesia
(the assembly of the citizens of Athens), so that
the final deliverable would be a monument of the
democracy and not of one man.
◦◦ The building was larger and more opulent than
any temple that had been constructed on the Greek
mainland before. The building was to become a
showcase to the world and a symbol of the culture
and sophistication of Athenian society. Sophisticated
public buildings were important as they underpinned
the Greek public institutions and commitment to
democracy. Today it is one of the most representative
symbols of the ancient Greeks. This was an intangible
benefit but very important to the business case. Many
of Seven Ancient Wonders of the World followed a
similar kind of logic.
◦◦ The project was run on the principals of freedom of
information and financial disclosures. These were
traits of Athens, and the project had a well defined
governance structure.
◦◦ A driving requirement for the project was the esthet-
ics of the building. It required a lasting beauty pleas-
ing to the eye and an enduring legacy. The project
had to follow this requirement which typically would
add tremendous scope to any project. This was built
into the project and stemmed from a design of perfect
proportions, but importantly it was kept within a
budget and time frame.
115
◦◦ The scope in terms of materials and equipment was

dictated by:
• The height, breadth, and width of the structure.
• The quarrying and transporting of marble to site.
• The ornate pieces (sculptures) on the exterior.
with the following:
• Site preparation creation of a solid foundation
with resilience to earthquakes.
• Construction of ramps, and delivery of marble
blocks to site.
• Construction of the structure.
• Assembly and precise positioning of the blocks
within the structure.
• Removal and ramp demolition, and site clean up.
◦◦ The project’s scope was increased by the distance of
the quarry, and the location of the site on a hill.
• Time Management
◦◦ The high profile and prestigious project had to be
completed in a single lifetime (that of Pericles), as it
was a showcase building built for political purposes
and to put Athens on the map as the center of an
empire.
◦◦ Scheduling of activities was critical as a long supply
chain of marble had to continuously feed the on-site
assembly teams. The rate of marble quarrying had
to arrive in lockstep with the project construction
schedule. The site itself did not have a lot of room for
temporary storage of blocks which would be at risk of
being chipped or damaged.
• Cost Management
◦◦ The project was initiated only after there was
consensus that the finances would be available for
the project from what was left over in building the
116
city defenses. Some of the financial accounts for the

Parthenon survive today and show that the largest
expense was transporting the stone from the quarry
16 kilometers (10 miles) from site.
◦◦ The cost of the esthetic requirements was built into
the project within the project budget.
◦◦ Analogous estimating was used based on a tradition
of Temple projects such as the Temple of Zeus which
was finished 10 years earlier.
◦◦ The Greeks evolved sophisticated accounting
techniques in an effort to create transparency with
public projects, through the disclosure of accounts.
These techniques helped manage the project budget.
◦◦ The cost of extracting and transporting the marble
was the most expensive major activity in the project
and cost over 400 silver talents, the equivalent
of 400 fully-equipped Greek warships.21 This was
found inscribed in part on a stone placard from 434
BCE. The gross annual income of the City of Athens
was 1000 talents. Athens had a democratic system
of government so that the Greeks required the
expenditure of public monies be made public.
◦◦ The quality management plan was critical and
incorporated quality control at a local level with the
craftsmen. The quality requirements were continually
audited at a local level to assure the quality of work.
◦◦ The temple was not geometrically straight and not
built from interchangeable parts. Deviations from
the perfectly horizontal or vertical lines were in fact
intentional. The upward curvature of the long steps
counteracted an optical illusion that made the line
look perfectly straight. Likewise the columns tilted
inward and the corner columns were slightly thicker
than the other columns.
◦◦ The Greeks used a number of tools that helped
achieve quality. For example, the use of red clay in
mating two stone pieces, the pantograph in recording
117
the shape of an object, and ingenious axial dowels to

align the massive column drums 2 meters (6 feet) in
diameter and 0.7 meters (2.5 feet) thick in the col-
umns of the Parthenon. Near perfect alignment was
not just there for esthetic purposes but safety as well.
◦◦ The quality standards of the project were taken
to a new level, not seen before in projects, with a
perfection in the craftsmanship that provided a
standard of excellence for Western civilization.
• For example, marble pieces could be sanded
to 1/20th of millimeter accuracy, so the fit was
precise. The surface was perfectly connected and
airtight.
◦◦ Pheidias was a sculptor who was made the overseer
of the project. This ensured an emphasis and higher
standards on the esthetics parts of the project.
◦◦ Stonemasons were recruited from throughout the
Greek islands which had many different systems
of measurement. Without a common standard,
coordinating this workforce would have been a
logistical nightmare. The project used the Salamis
Stone which represented all the competing ancient
Greek measurements: the Doric foot, the Ionic foot,
and, for the first time, the Common foot—virtually
the same measurement used today.22
◦◦ There was a clear assignment of responsibility with
individual roles dividing the work between architects,
designers, over-seers and sponsors.
◦◦ The project was part of a public works program
to keep unemployed workers off the streets, and
stimulate the Athenian economy by creating a
number of important feeder industries.
◦◦ The project workforce was organized on military
lines where every trade had its own hired company of
journeymen and laborers.
118
• “And every trade in the same nature, as a captain

in an army has his particular company of soldiers
under him, had its own hired company of journey-
men and laborers belonging to it banded together
as in array, to be as it were the instrument and
body for the performance of the service. Thus, to
say all in a word, the occasions and services of
these public works distributed plenty through ev-
ery age and condition.”
• This is clear evidence of the existence of guilds.
“As then grew the works up, no less stately in size
than exquisite in form, the workmen striving to
outvie the material and the design with the beauty
of their workmanship, yet the most wonderful
thing of all was the rapidity of their execution.” 28
• The trades included smiths and carpenters,
molders, founders and braziers, stone-cutters,
dyers, goldsmiths, ivory-workers, painters,
embroiderers, and turners. They wrought and
fashioned materials such as stone, brass, ivory,
gold, and ebony cypress-wood.
◦◦ From minute differences in the chisel marks, the
distinctive workmanship of about 200 different
stonemasons has been recently identified. The
stonemasons were so experienced that they may have
only required minimum direction.
◦◦ The project had to take a disparate pool of skilled and
unskilled workers and hone them into a team that
could follow very high standards of quality.
◦◦ The increased use of simple machines, like yardarms
with pulleys, reduced the workforce size in certain
areas of the project.
◦◦ Pericles was recognized as the most distinguished
orator. Indeed, it was with him that oratory became a
political force of the first magnitude.
119
◦◦ Pericles had to get buy-in and support for the project

which he did by offering payment in return for some
level of personal recognition.
◦◦ The project was further popularized by making this
a public works project were unemployed Athenians
were given an opportunity to work. It also gave small
businesses a boost in providing feeder industries.
This raised the profile and support for the project
very high amongst Athenians.
◦◦ The project team used plans to communicate ideas.
In particular, the craftsmen used templates and full
scale models.
• Risk Management
◦◦ From a construction perspective the biggest risk was
with a potential structural failure in the material
affecting the 55 marble columns and their overall
height of 10.4 meters (34.1 feet).
◦◦ This was greatly mitigated by assembling the
columns from massive column drums, 0.7 meters (2.5
feet) thick, were it was far easier to spot defective
(poor quality) stone, and swap out the drum. Careful
tracking of where the stone was coming from within
the quarry further helped in mitigating defects in the
materials.
◦◦ The quarrying of oversized stone was widespread
in ancient projects and in the medieval period.
For example, with the Parthenon the Greeks cut
oversized diameters of the column drums to protect
them from injury in transit and during erection, a
form of risk mitigation.
◦◦ Another risk was the use of very large cranes for
lifting the drums and lintels to over 10.4 meters (34.1
feet).
◦◦ When it was discovered that parts of the substructure
was higher in relation to the natural ground, the
temple was made smaller all around in relation to the
substructure to reduce the pressure on these parts.
120
◦◦ To mitigate the risk of an earthquake the foundation

was built partly on the bedrock and partly on a bed-
ding of stone so that so it was more flexible.
◦◦ Plutarch wrote about the project as a “Public Works”
and “services of which distributed plenty through
every age and condition.”
◦◦ The flourishing artistic talent of Athens was put into
state-pay to keep unemployment down.
◦◦ The project depended on a number of feeder indus-
tries specifically the quarrying and transporting of
marble.
◦◦ A vital part of the project was securing the
procurements arrangements with the quarries to
guarantee a continuous supply of marble.
◦◦ An important part of the project was the planning
and administration of procurements and the
incorporation of local small businesses into the
overall supply chain.
Educators
• Discuss in the context of today’s projects how quality
management was incorporated into the Parthenon
project?
• Discuss the challenges of public works projects and
comment on the perceived differences of today’s projects
versus those of the past, like the Parthenon project?
• Discuss the impact of Pericles in sponsoring, initiating,
and leading the project. Did a war time record help him?
121
122
Chapter 5
The Roman Empire

(1st Century BCE - 500)
T
his period saw the Roman Empire reach its zenith were
25% of the world’s population was part of it. From a project
management perspective construction projects were
driven primarily by the state of the Rome. New architectural
forms like the arch reduced the volume of materials, and
increased the strength of the structure. New materials primarily
concrete, with a veneer of stone, provided flexibility. There was
an increased usage of draft animals and more sophisticated
equipment for lifting, and moving materials.

a. The Roman Empire grew to cover Europe, North
Africa, and Middle East. Roman organizational
abilities transfer from the military to projects.
a. The principal monuments of Roman architecture
belong chiefly to the period between 100 BCE and 300
as the Romans complete hundreds of high profile civic
construction projects.
123
• Major events
a. Birth of Jesus Christ in 0.
b. Mount Vesuvius erupts in 79 and destroys the cities
of Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Pompeii. It kills thou-
sands of residents.
c. Split of the Roman Empire (the collapse is covered in
the next chapter).
a. Roman Law and the legal system.
b. Roman Financial System.
i. Money economy emerges.
c. Treatise on architecture1 written by the Roman
architect Vitruvius.
d. Roman Army Specialists (Immunes).
e. Roman Construction Materials and Techniques.
i. Organizational ability based on the militar.
ii. Scientific (concrete).
iii. Roman roads.
iv. Arch, barrel and tunnel vaults, and coffered roofs.
v. Viaducts.
vi. Baths.
f. Chinese developments – paper, the wheelbarrow, the
rotary fan, and the stern post rudder for junks.
g. Stirrup.
h. Plough.
• Regions
a. Mediterranean, Western Europe.
b. Middle East.
a. The Colosseum (70–82) in Rome.
124
5 - The Roman Empire (1st Century BCE - 500)
b. The Pantheon (118–125) in Rome.

a. Bridge over the Rhine (army).
b. Hadrian’s wall in Britain.
c. Aqueduct - Pont du Gard, France.
• Key players
a. Julius Caesar.
b. Vitruvius.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

million. The population of Rome reached 1.25 million in 200.
The Roman Empire grew to cover Europe, North Africa, and the
Middle East. It is the largest empire in the world. Trade within
the Roman Empire was substantial because it was one big
trading organization with low tax rates, a common currency, and
custom fees. The Romans transferred organizational abilities
from the military to government and civilian institutions, and
into project.
Impact of Changes
As the Roman Empire reached its zenith the Romans undertook
a massive construction program of infrastructure (roads, towns,
fortifications, civic buildings) to underpin the Empire.
Major Events
Birth of Jesus Christ (0)

The influence of Christianity and its impact on the Roman
Empire, and on civilization for the next 2,000 years.
125
Mount Vesuvius erupts (79)

Mount Vesuvius erupts in 79 and destroys the cities of
Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Pompeii, and kills thousands of
residents.
Split of the Roman Empire (324)

When Constantine became the Emperor of Rome he realized the
empire was getting unmanageable. So he split it into two halves,
the Western and Eastern, and ruled the Eastern part.
Figure 5.1: Map of Territorial Expansion of Rome.2
Roman Law and the Legal System

At the core of Roman Empire was Roman law which brought
order and a level of societal stability. This in turn, became the
foundation of law in all civil law jurisdictions across Europe and
the West.
126
Roman Financial System

The Romans had a tradition of accounting which started in
the home. Accounts began “as elaborations of the records
traditionally kept by the heads of families.” These records
included daily entries of household receipts and payments
in a day book called an adversaria. There were also monthly
posting’s made to a codex accepti et expensi which served as a
cashbook for the families. The keeping of household accounts
was very important because taxpayers were mandated by law to
prepare statements of all their property and debts outstanding.
Another reason for the compilation of these statements was the
dependency of a citizen’s civil rights on the amount of property
that a citizen declared.3 The sophisticated tax system (with
different rates) was core to the Roman Empire along with a
common currency, and fees for customs.
If we believe Caesar’s Commentaries on the Gallic War, the
Gauls were groaning in his time under the pressure of taxation,
and struggled hard to remove it. Rome lightened their burden;
but the fiscal system of the metropolis imperceptibly took root
in all the Roman provinces. There was an arbitrary personal
tax, called the poll tax, and a land tax which was named cens,
calculated according to the area of the holding. Besides these,
there were taxes on articles of consumption, on salt, on the import
and export of all articles of merchandise, on sales by auction; also
on marriages, on burials, and on houses. There were also legacy
and succession duties, and taxes on slaves, according to their
number. Tolls on highways were also created; and the treasury
went so far as to tax the hearth. Hence the origin of the name, feu,
which was afterwards applied to each household or family group
assembled in the same house or sitting before the same fire. A
number of other taxes sprung up, called sordides, from which the
nobility and the government functionaries were exempt.4
In 48 BCE Julius Caesar took back from money changers
the power to coin money and began minting coins on behalf of
the state. With this plentiful supply of money he established the
ability to complete many massive construction projects.
As in Greece, the Roman banking system was highly
developed in that “bankers maintained three books: an
adversaria, in which transactions were noted as they occurred;
a codex accepti et expensi or cashbook; and a liber rationum,
127
literally personal ledger or book of accounts, where data from

the adversaria were classified”.5 In the Roman financial world
the bankers were an imperial elite of senators and knights, who
made loans either directly or through intermediaries. These
loans financed a variety of operations: conspicuous consumption,
tax obligations of provincial cities, and, to a lesser extent, also
some production and trade (pp.28, 148). These elite financiers
did not call themselves bankers. They were basically wealthy
landowners, not entrepreneurs, who cherished a strategy of
security, not of profit (p.24). This mentality imposed limits
on the Roman economy (p.28). This elite thought in terms of
networks, not of commercial companies; and this complex is
supposed to explain the absence of a bill of exchange (p.26).6
The Romans had heaped up at home the silver of the
conquered countries, and so silver was very abundant in Rome
and scarce in the provinces. Rome was the money centre of the
world, where the great companies were organized to lend money,
construct public works projects, collect taxes, and engage in the
shipping trade. With their central offices in the capital they sent
out their representatives to all parts of the Roman world. In
Rome, the borrowing rate was 4% to 5%, in the provinces not less
than 12%. The row of banking offices which ran along one side of
the Forum made it an ancient Wall Street or Lombard Street.
In 116 the Emperor Trajan in his eastern campaign reached
Ctesiphon, the capital of Parthia (modern Iran), the supposed
limit of the Roman world. Yet he found Roman merchants al-
ready settled there. Besides the merchants and capitalists who
were engaged in business on their own account in the provinces,
there were thousands of agents from the great Roman corpora-
tions scattered throughout the Empire.
Treatise on Architecture
This treatise on architecture7 was written as a guide for building
projects by the Roman architect Vitruvius and dedicated to his
patron, the Emperor Caesar Augustus. The work is one of the
most important sources of modern knowledge of Roman build-
ing methods as well as the planning and design of structures,
both large (aqueducts, buildings, baths, harbors) and small (ma-
chines, measuring devices, instruments).
128
Roman architects were significantly different from their

modern counterparts, acting as engineers, architects, artists,
and craftsmen combined. Vitruvius was very much of this type,
a fact reflected in De Architectura. He covered a wide variety of
subjects which he saw as touching on architecture. This included
many aspects which may seem irrelevant today ranging from
mathematics to astronomy, meteorology and medicine. In the
Roman concept of life, architecture needed to take into account
everything touching on the physical and intellectual life of man
and his surroundings. Vitruvius specified an architect to be:
“A literate, skilled draughts man, and good at geometry, well
versed in history and philosophy, knowledgeable about music,
medicine, law, with experience in astronomy.”
Roman master carpenters played a vital role equal to the

architects. They built the centering and frameworks for erecting
arches, vaults, and domes. They created scale models for
centering’s requiring a continuous surface.
Roman Army Specialists (Immunes)

Building work played an important part in the Roman army
and the legionaries built roads, bridges, fortresses, canals, river
widening’s, and mines. Entry soldiers joined the Roman army
as labor-working soldiers, the lowest class. After a period some
soldiers achieved through promotion immune status. The im-
mune’s were legionary soldiers who possessed specialized skills
but were exempt from tedious and dangerous tasks like guard
duties, and latrine cleaning. The skills included the drill and
weapons instructors, military police, musicians, engineers, car-
penters, hunters and medical staff. They also included surveyors
and ditchers (to mark out camps), transporters of materials,
and builders including roof-makers, stone cutters, woodwork-
ers, metal cutters, glass workers, plumbers, water pipe makers,
cartwrights, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, and lime-burners. The
clerical staff included a range of assistants for keeping records
(of stores), and financial accounts.8
The Roman genius for organizing and controlling huge
numbers of men in the army was transferred to large scale
projects. Most teams of workers were small although the total
workforce ran to tens of thousands.
129
Figure 5.2: Fresco of Roman builders (Tomb of Trebius Justus in Ostia)

showing the simplicity of techniques – Source: National Museum of
Rome.
Roman Construction Materials and Techniques

One of the most significant Roman Construction Materials was
concrete (200 BCE). The Romans improved Greek Cement by
using finely ground volcanic lava (pozzolana) in place of clay, and
this was the strongest mortar in history until the development
of Portland cement. The addition of small fragments of volcanic
rubble resulted in concrete which made possible the arch.
With these materials it was possible to employ unskilled labor
for the great bulk of this massive masonry, and to erect with
the greatest rapidity and in the most economical manner those
stupendous piles which, even in their ruin, excite the admiration
of every beholder.
130
Figure 5.3a: Roman Wall Masonry with exterior of a), Brickwork;

b), Tufa ashlar (blocks); Ordinary concrete walls were frequently
faced with small blocks of tufa, called, according to the manner of its
application; r), Opus reticulatum; i), Opus incertum.9
The arch made up of concrete and stone voussoirs (wedge-

shaped stones in a semi-circle with a keystone in the center)
was used in all aspects of Roman architecture and was pushed
forward in various deviations like the vaulted ceilings, barrel
vaults, bridges, and aqueducts.
Figure 5.3b: Barrel and Groined Vaults extensively in the

Colosseum.10
131
Figure 5.3c: Arch within the Pantheon made of up Tufa ashlar

blocks.
Ancient Rome had 350 kilometers (220 miles) of ducts that

supplied 1 million cubic meters of water per day to 11 public
baths, 856 smaller baths, and 1,352 fountains and cisterns.
The Romans used a very wide variety of construction
equipment in the form of various types of massive cranes and
lifting devices, using complex configurations of pulleys. This
helped the Romans establish over 80,000 kilometers (50,000
miles) of stone-paved roads including permanent stone bridges
spanning at least the smallest rivers, primarily for military and
governmental purpose.
Some of the construction equipment was massive and
included large lifting towers whose four masts were arranged in
the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege
tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure.
Travertine or lava, a heavy rock, was used as an aggregate
for foundations. Stone of this class stands impervious to damage
whether from a heavy load laid upon it, or from the weather, or
exposure to fire. Travertine limestone was quarried in Tivoli, 32
kilometers (20 miles) from Rome.
132
Figure 5.4: Travertine quarries on the Roman campagna. The tracks

or rails on which the carts ran were cut into the stone itself.11
Quarried stones were transported by ox and cart, as there

were no rivers. Imported stones from around the Empire were
transported by boat and stock piled in warehouses along the
Tiber River.
Chinese Developments
The Chinese developed the wheelbarrow, the rotary fan, the
stern post rudder for junks. They also created gunpowder.
The discovery of paper in 105 was attributed to a eunuch Cai
Lun at the Chinese imperial court who presented the emperor
with a report on the new material paper. In the 2nd Century
it was produced in quantity in China from rags, the fibers of
mulberry, laurel and Chinese grass. Its significance was its
relatively low cost as a writing material. Overtime paper spread
reaching Europe in the 13th Century.
Stirrup
The stirrup was developed as early as the 2nd Century BCE and
was widely spread until the 7th Century. It was probable that
early nomadic horsemen, such as the Scythians, used some form
of looped fabric to support their feet. But the first direct evidence
of a stirrup was a loop for the big toe as used by Indian cavalry
from the 2nd Century BCE. Suitable only for use by barefoot war-
riors in warm climates, this device spreads gradually through
133
Southeast Asia. At some time before the 5th Century the Chinese,
who needed to keep their boots on, transformed the toe loop into
a metal stirrup for the whole foot. From China this crucial device
moved westwards, through Iran to the Muslim world in the 7th
Century, and then through the Byzantine empire to Western
Europe. Coupled with the saddle in 365, the two devices were in-
strumental in harnessing animal power for projects.
Plough
In northern Europe a machine was developed, probably by the
Celts in the 1st Century BCE, in which a sharp steel blade cut
into the wet earth and an angled board turned it over to form
a furrow. With heavier soil in Northern Europe, this type of
plough was effective and was a major factor in the agricultural
revolution.
Regions
The Roman Empire dominated the Mediterranean, Western
Europe, and the Middle East.
In this period there was a quantum leap in the number of large
scale construction projects based on Julius Caesar’s financial
initiatives. The projects took a very systematic approach,
through better organization of teams (based on the military) and
a wider spread of knowledge, and specialists (Immune’s). This
led to two projects that defined Roman project management:
• The Roman Colosseum project (70–80) in Rome.
• The Pantheon project (118–125) in Rome.
Colosseum Project (70–80)
Background
The project was initiated in the aftermath of Nero’s rule who
after the great fire of Rome in 64 had built himself a huge
pleasure palace. A much hated figure for his excesses Nero
134
was forced to commit suicide in 68 when faced with military

uprisings and civil wars engulfing the empire.
The next Emperor Flavian Vespasian (69-79), a very
successful general, was under pressure to restore confidence
and wipe away the memory of Nero. As Rome grew, swelled by
immigrants, the state policy of civic control was through free
benefits (bread) and entertainment (circuses).12 Up to that point
gladiatorial events were held in temporary structures.
Initiating
The Emperor Vespasian conceived the idea of a Colosseum on
the site of the lake in the gardens of Nero’s palace. He needed a
pleasure palace for the people, capable of holding some 50,000
spectators, to host gladiator contests and other public events.
It was a political project, a gift to principal stakeholders to
highlight the generosity of the government and to give back
something to the people. The project shored up the emperor’s
shaky regime as the Empire was close to ruin. So, there was
a strong business case and rationale for moving forward. The
project funding came from booty captured in the Jewish War by
Vespasian. Roman political propaganda required these buildings
to be showcases and also to emphasize that Rome was at the
center of a vast empire.
The project was part of a continuum of projects delivering
these types of structures that was a gradual development, and
not merely one original design. The Romans had mastered
several technologies that made the project possible. First, the
use of concrete and bricks: both of these were strong and flexible.
They used concrete for the core with a veneer of costly materials
applied to the outside of the core. This material technology had
been perfected over 300 years. Second, the extensive use of
arches and vaults which allowed for vast structures to be built
with only a fraction of the materials. Third, the increased use of
sophisticated mathematics and geometry in the design process.
With this combination it was possible to deliver a stadium
capable of seating around 50,000 spectators in a relatively short
time frame.
135
Planning
For the project vast quantities of essential equipment had to be
planned for including capstans, windlasses, gins, cranes, as well
as sleds and wagons. Some equipment had to be manufactured
at the site like the centering for large arches or heavy shoring for
a structure.13
Figure 5.5: On the left three counter weights. On the right a simple
pulling device. Source: Colosseum Museum of Rome.
The project was supported by a well organized work-yard.

The Colosseum consisted of 240 arches built throughout the
complex to reduce the total volume of material required.
The project was delivered by four contractors.14 Their con-
tracts detailed the specifications of the work, the requirements
for contractor guarantees, and the methods of payment and the
schedule as well.
As to construction contracts the Romans employed highly
sophisticated oral and written contracts that “were explicit in as-
signing detailed responsibilities” for all parts of the job, including
labor and materials—and there were even arbitration clauses...
they possessed the same basic function of our modern contracts.15
136
The government went through a rigorous procurement

process. Much of this was lost with the fall of the Roman Empire
and did not re-emerge until the Renaissance.
Construction had been one of the most important industries
in the city. Any emperor who could not find work for this large
body of men created a significant man management problem;
Vespasian’s awareness of this is demonstrated by his refusal
to use certain labour-saving devices commenting “you must let
me feed my poor commons”. We should therefore also see the
Colosseum in terms of the diversion of labour which was required
to build it.
For the workforce the contractors used the guilds, the
employment of soldiers (Immunes) from the Legion, and some
government slaves. The skilled Roman workers were highly
organized through the guilds (trade union or collegium fabrum
tignuariorum), and this is referred to by the Theodosian Code.
In the city of Rome there were more than 100 guilds.16 The guilds
were social clubs and burial associations, and often they took
an active part in politics. The Theodosian Code also refers to
unions of painters, ship masters (sailors), bread makers, pack
animal drivers, armament makers, boatmen, collectors of purple
dye, weavers, minters, herders, lime burners, grain measurers,
porters, physicians, professors (teachers), public service guilds,
ragmen and transporters of wood. There existed other unions
that were not regulated by the Theodosian Code. They included
unions of builders, sculptors, metal workers, leather workers,
butchers and jewellery workers. Years later Justinian amended
the Theodosian regulations to add several provisions. The most
interesting amendment was the recognition that unions were
given the legal right to manumit17 slaves and accept them into
their union.18
The planning detail for the project was worked out before
the construction started as the building was built according
to a set of architectural principles, developed through other
amphitheaters constructions.19 To date the project manager and
principal architect are unknown.
In 2008 an analysis of the Colosseum Project Walkthrough20
was completed by Karen Frecker. It summarized from the
Colosseum calculations (dimensions, volume, and weight) the
137
overall likely human/animal energy requirements (778,325

Labor days) based on the effort required to create the structure.
From this the number of humans required per day for the
project was calculated at 2,135. In all, the project workforce
was between 20,000 to 30,000 which solved many of the
unemployment problems of Rome.21
The design incorporated a three-storied arcade with rows
of arches at each of the levels. The first level consisted of Doric
“order” or style arches that were 7 meters (23 feet) high and 4.2
meters (14 feet) wide. The second level was designed with Ionic
arches 6.4 meters (21 feet) high and 14 feet wide, and the third
level with Corinthian style arches 21 feet high and 14 feet wide.
This was a natural progression from the sturdiest and plainest
arches (Doric) at the bottom, to slenderest and richest arches
(Corinthian) at the top.22
Figure 5.6: Colosseum side view profile highlighting the three-

storied arcade surmounted by a fourth story pierced with window
like openings. Each of the three arcaded stories originally had 80
arches. Behind each of the outer arcades, two corridors circled the
Colosseum, and beyond these were two other smaller concentric
corridors.23 The seating reflected the hierarchy of Roman society with
the most important sections at the bottom.
138
Figure 5.7: Colosseum front profile showing what it would have

looked like. Note the masts for the awning or velum. Source:
Colosseum Museum of Rome.
Executing
Construction work on the Colosseum began with a complex
drainage network, the ring drain running 8m (28 feet) below the
ground into Nero’s lake, and then into the Tiber river. A heavy
storm could deliver 175 liters of water a second.
The next activity was to build an enormous 14 meter (45
foot) foundation extending beyond the perimeter of the building
by 6 meters (20 feet). This was in the shape of a donut, 32
meters (105 feet) wide, or 200 by 168 by 6.5 meters (656 by 553
by 22 feet). This hole of 100,000 cubic meters, 220,000 tons, was
excavated using ox and cart (half ton load). Two great perimeter
retaining walls were built (inner and outer) within the oval
hole, 3 meters (10 feet) thick and to a height of 12.5 meters (40
feet). The inner gap (a volume of 250,000 cubic meters (850,000
cubic feet)) was then filled with concrete, lime, mortar, and sand
mixed with volcanic rock and water.24 A concrete foundation
ring was capped with travertine (heavy limestone), upon which
was built a skeleton of travertine concentric rings. These were
in-filled with tufa (blocks), and roofed with opus caementicium
(roofing concrete). The use of tufa, recommended by Vitruvius,
139
was durable under cover as screen walling in the non load-

bearing sections.
The site was not large enough to accommodate the whole
workforce. So, the outer perimeter was divided into four quarters
and independent teams worked in parallel. The outer wall, the
main pillars, the ground floor, and the skeleton of the interior,
up to the second story, were constructed of large blocks of
travertine bonded without mortar and 300 tons of iron clamps.
Travertine which is relatively easily quarried but hardens
on exposure to air was used on all the load-bearing piers. An
estimated 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 Cu. yd.) of travertine
were required. This was covered with a roof.
Figure 5.8: Roman construction techniques show the use of winching

cranes, to move materials off ox pulled wagon. In a large project
over 100,000 poles would have been used for the scaffolding. The
Colosseum construction is to the far right of the image. Source:
Colosseum Museum of Rome.
Inside the Colosseum there were four tiers of seating. Each

subsequent tier or layer was made lighter. The ceilings of the
passages and corridors which circled the arena on each tier
consisted of vaulted arches made of concrete supported by the
140
travertine. This added strength to the building without adding

excessive weight. The vaulted arches made the ceilings much
stronger than a flat ceiling would have been. The mixture of
stone and roofing concrete on such a large scale solved the
structural problems, height to weight ratios, inherent in such a
design. Over 6,000 tons of concrete were poured.
Figure 5.9: Colosseum Half Plan of design. This massive stadium

was 550 meters (1,800 feet) in diameter, 195 meters (638 feet) long,
163 meters (535 feet) wide, and sits on a 6 acre lot. The outer walls
reached 48 meters (160 feet) high.25
The aqueducts of Ancient Rome were run by a Water

Commission which was the first in the world to “standardize”
parts to supply water. These included settling tanks, ducts,
mains, and lead home-delivery pipes. The Colosseum was
constructed in the same way around the arch and vault. Outside
the Colosseum there were three tiers of 240 arches. Each arch
was assembled by a work gang or team of low skilled workers.
They could then rapidly replicate the arch and mass produce
these as they were standardized throughout the structure.
In fact, the simplicity of the design meant minimum project
supervision was required.
As is done today skilled work was done in the stone yards for
pieces brought already cut and finished to be installed. Marble
was used to cover the outside walls (veneer) and for some of the
141
seating (elite classes), statues and ornaments, and drinking

fountains. Tiles were used for the floors and the walls.
Figure 5.10: The Colosseum in the 20th Century. The outer wall is
estimated to have required over 1,000,000 cubic meters (3,531,466
cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set, and held together by
300 tons of iron clamps.26
Similarly, the stairs and seats were standardized, all built to

the same size, and were interchangeable. They were constructed
off-site in workshops and then brought to site and fitted by
teams. They were filled in on two levels at the same time.
Lead and terra-cotta pipes were installed in the walls for
carrying water throughout the complex. Rainwater was collected
in the Cavea by concentric ducts and poured into vertical pipes
leading to the ground floor. Because of a double incline in the
floor the water flowed both towards the arena and the outside
where it was drained into a brick conduit which surrounded
the arena 2 meters (6 feet) below ground. The Aqua Claudia
aqueduct was used to supply water to the area of the Colosseum.
In addition, a system of drinking water and toilets (latrines)
was incorporated through the stadium. Over 100 drinking
fountains were installed to discourage the consumption of wine
in large quantities. Communal toilets, or latrines, consisted of a
row of holed seats. A flow of water circulated under the seats. A
142
system of small sewers led from all parts of the Colosseum to one
great circular drain which surrounded the amphitheater which
connected to the Cloaca Maxima, the main sewerage system of
Rome.
The structure was covered with a retractable roof called a
Velarium based on the principle of mast and sails.
It was the tallest Roman structure ever built. The Colosseum
was the pinnacle of the Roman Empire when it was completed in 80.

Over time the modifications continued and improvements were
made. Further work was carried out at the top of the building,
hence the markedly different styles of Corinthian capital around
the interior. In effect, the building’s style evolved over the reigns
of three emperors.
Figure 5.11: The Colosseum in the 19th Century.27
The Colosseum was a pleasure palace for the people. It was

capable of regularly holding some 50,000 spectators, and 87,000
143
when really pushed. The network of entrances through 76

numbered (and 4 unnumbered) arches ensured that all classes,
citizens or non-citizen, would be guided directly by stairways
and ramps. Each had a ticket with an entrance and their seat
assignment.
Figure 5.12: The Colosseum today, most of the outer wall is gone
due to earthquakes over the years, but much of the inner walls still
remain.28
Closing
The Colosseum opened with 100 days of festivities. Some of the
features that are worth mentioning include:
• The sand-covered floor was built of wood supported by
deep substructures, from which elevators brought up
animals from dens using elevators to the trap doors.
• Aqueducts supplied water, stored in three reservoirs, to
flood the floor of the Colosseum for the extravagant naval
fights using large galleys.
144
• Awnings, designed to shade about one third of the

spectators, were supported by masts (Mediterranean
pines) held by stone socles (plinths).
• Drinking fountains and toilets (latrines) throughout the
structure.
The Colosseum was a continuum of stadiums and was

followed by the great amphitheater at Capua.
The whole decade witnessed an unparalleled programme of
sustained building activity demonstrating both his munificence
and strengthening his grip on power.29
In later years Antoninus Pius is said to have restored the
Colosseum.
The Pantheon Project (118–125)
Background
In 120, Hadrian was looking to rebuild the Pantheon which was
burned in 110. He initiated a project to create a building on the
lines of a Greek temple.
Figure 5.13: Plan of the Pantheon showing the drum and the ground
entrance portico.30
145
Planning
The most striking design feature was the dome on the drum. The
architect designed the structure so that it would fully enclose
an imaginary sphere, 43.3 meters (143 feet) in diameter. The
mathematics that were required to locate the construction points
on the inside of this ball-like structure were a challenge. To date
the architect is still unknown.
The practice of giving large sums of money to embellish the
city, and to please the public, had grown up under the Republic.
The people of Rome had come to regard it as the duty of their
distinguished fellow citizens to beautify the city and minister
to their needs and pleasures by generous private contributions.
It was common for all the Roman emperors in varying degrees
to follow this, as well as gifts from generals, from distinguished
citizens, and from candidates for office.31 The project funding in
this case would come from the Emperor Hadrian.
My intentions had been that this sanctuary of All Gods should
reproduce the likeness of the terrestrial globe and of the stellar
sphere... The cupola revealed the sky through a great hole at
the center, showing alternately dark and blue. This temple, both
open and mysteriously enclosed, was conceived as a solar
quadrant. The hours would make their round on that caissoned
ceiling so carefully polished by Greek artisans; the disk of
daylight would rest suspended there like a shield of gold; rain
would form its clear pool on the pavement below, prayers would
rise like smoke toward that void where we place the gods.
—Emperor Hadrian
The project charter entailed a vision where the principal

stakeholder Emperor Hadrian would be enthroned directly
under the Pantheon’s oculus (opening or eye). He was a near-
deity around whom not only the Roman Empire but the
universe, the sun, and the heavens obediently revolved. The
oculus was a key requirement of the structure.
The sequence of major activities included creating the
foundation, the drum, and a dome over the drum and finally a
ground entrance portico with massive granite columns.
146
Executing
Hadrian’s project workforce cleared the site and prepared the
foundations by digging a circular trench 8 meters (26 feet)
wide and 4.5 meters (15 feet) deep for the rotunda’s foundation
and rectangular trenches for the pronaos and the connector.
The trenches were lined with timber forms and layered with
pozzolana cement. The Romans had been building with concrete
and brick since about 200 BCE.
The work on the Pantheon was difficult and graduated.
Because other buildings surrounded the site, the laborers lacked
space in which to work. They also lacked machinery. Vitruvius
(20 BCE), a noted Roman architect (see page 136), recorded
the process followed by the Pantheon’s project. Wet lime and
volcanic ash were hand mixed in a mortar box with very little
water so that the composition was nearly dry. The mixture was
carried to the job site in baskets and poured over a prepared
layer of rock pieces. The mortar was then tamped into the rock
layer reducing the need for excess water and stimulating the
bonding.
Eventually, work began on the drum. The workforce built
extremely thick 20 foot (6 meters) footings and drum walls. The
load-bearing walls of the drum, without reinforcing rods, had
to be built upward with progressively changing concrete. The
workforce reduced the weight of the concrete by using aggregate
of different weights. The foundation had an aggregate of lava
or travertine, a heavy rock. In the higher parts of the walls, the
aggregate was lighter with. The drum itself was strengthened
by huge brick arches and piers set above one another inside the
masonry walls. Hidden voids and the interior recesses hollowed
out this construction, so that it worked less as a solid mass and
more like three continuous arcades which corresponded to the
3 tiers of relieving arches visible on the building exterior (see
figure 5.10). Originally, these exterior walls were faced with col-
ored marbles.
147
Figure 5.14: Outside the Pantheon and the entrance portico visible
with massive granite columns, it is the most intact Roman building
to have survived.32
The dome was the most complex part of the construction as

it was unsupported with a large opening or oculus. The dome
and its internal geometry would create a perfect sphere, since
the height of the drum to the top of its dome would match its
diameter: 43.30 meters (142 feet). Roman building techniques
were sophisticated enough to vary the weight of concrete by
controlling the caementa, the careful selection and grading of
the aggregate material. This ranged from heavy basalt in the
foundations of the building and the lower part of the walls,
through brick and tufa (a stone formed from volcanic dust), to
the lightest of pumice toward the centre of the vault.33
To prevent the risk of collapse lightweight concrete was
used in the dome thus reducing the outward thrust on the
walls. Empty clay jugs were roped together and embedded into
the dome's upper courses to further lighten the structure and
facilitate the concrete's curing. These ropes of jugs were used for
reinforcement and compensated for the weakness and weight
of the concrete. Quality standards required the tapering layers
of concrete to be the thickest at the base 6 meters (20 feet), and
thinnest at the oculus 2.3 meters (7.5 feet). The quality of the
concrete composition was very carefully controlled. The builders
also used stepped rings (see figure 5.11) because they understood
that this would strengthen the dome.34
148
Figure 5.15: Inside the entrance of the Pantheon showing the dome
and the opening or oculus.
Figure 5.16: Inside the Pantheon showing the stepped rings of the
dome, and the cornice lines around the dome. The roof was recessed
with panels or “coffers.”35
149
The most likely approach to constructing the dome and the

oculus was with heavy wooden scaffolding, from the floor to
the highest point. This would have reduced the risk of collapse
during the construction itself. Another approach speculates that
centering was not required for the lower third of the dome, so the
workforce used a lighter centering system supported from the
dome's interior second cornice line.
The dome's oculus acted as a compression ring and the
workforce built two circles of bipedales using handmade bricks
that were 23.4 inches2 (0.60 meters2) and 1.56 inches (0.04
meters) thick. They laid the bipedales edgewise in three vertical
courses and then circled the oculus with a bronze cornice. The
oculus is open completely to the elements and rain water can
pour through onto the Pantheon floor. There are rain water
drains, holes in groups of four, in the floor.
Figure 5.17: The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th Century, painted
by Giovanni Paolo Panini, showing its usage. The height of the drum
to the top of its dome matched the diameter of 43.30 meters (142 feet)
enclosing a perfect sphere.36
150
Figure 5.18: Inside the Pantheon showing the modern looking

stepped rings of the dome, and the cornice lines around the dome.
The weight of the dome decreased with each level of rings.
The interior of the building is lined with colored marble, and

the walls are marked by seven deep recesses and screened by
pairs of columns.
Transportation presented the project another challenge. All
material had to come via the Tiber by boat. Hadrian ordered for
the Pantheon's Pronaos (front façade), 16 gray granite columns
(see figure 5.20 below), each 11.8 meters (39 feet) tall, 1.5 meters
(5 feet) in diameter, and 60 tons in weight. These were quarried
in Egypt's eastern mountains, dragged on wooden sledges to the
Nile, floated by barge to Alexandria, and put on vessels for a
trip across the Mediterranean to the Roman port of Ostia. From
there the columns were barged up the Tiber.
Figure 5.19: Example of Roman transportation techniques of an

obelisk. The 16 granite columns (60 tons each) were shipped this way
from Egypt. Source: Vatican Museum of Rome.
151
The columns would have added considerable cost to the

project. But it did significantly enhance the beauty of the
building giving a level of grandeur on the Parthenon.
Figure 5.20: The Pantheon and the 16 granite columns in the grand
entrance portico shipped from Egypt.
The great domed temple remains today and is the most

complete and best-preserved monumental interior to survive
from Roman times. The dome has a span of 43.2 meters (142
feet), the largest dome until Brunelleschi's dome at the Florence
Cathedral of 1420-36 (see page 250). Light floods through the
8 meter (27 foot) eye, oculus at the centre of the dome, and this
was revolutionary as it was the only light source.
152
Figure 5.21: The Pantheon in the 20th Century, with its grand
entrance portico.37
In later years Agrippa's Pantheon was rebuilt by Hadrian.

Across the Roman Empire there were many notable construction
projects that were used to highlight the power and might of
Rome in its conquered territories.
Pont du Gard Aqueduct Project (124-122 BCE)

Built by the Romans through the 1st Century, the aqueduct
route went around the east side of the higher Massif Central in
France, following a total gradient of about 17 meters (58 feet)
through a series of some 35 kilometers (22 miles) of tunnels.
The Gardon valley was spanned with aqueduct bridges with the
most intact remaining today at Pont du Gard. Rome is fed by 7
aqueducts. This fresh water allows the city to grow to 1 million.
153
Figure 5.22: Pont du Gard, Roman aqueduct in France, image taken

in 1850s.38
At least 20,000 cubic meters (44 million gallons) of water

were brought in daily to the Roman town of Nemausus (Nîmes)
via an impressive aqueduct system of 50 kilometers (31 miles)
from springs at the Fountaine d’Eure in Uzès.
Caesar’s Rhine Bridge Projects

The Romans chose not to conquer some of the lands beyond great
rivers like the Rhine, but used it as a natural barrier. However,
they wanted to keep in check the populous on the opposite bank
by the ability to build enormous bridges with great speed. Julius
Caesar famously constructed a bridge across the Rhine in only
10 days and demonstrated the might and power of Rome.
Technical Details of Wooden Beam Bridge

Double timber pilings were rammed into the bottom of the
river by winching up a large stone and releasing it, thereby
driving the beam into the riverbed. The most upstream and
downstream pilings were slanted and secured by a beam, and
multiple segments of these then linked up to form the basis
of the bridge. Conflicting models have been presented based
on his description. Separate upstream pilings were used as
protective barriers against flotsam and possible attacks while
guard towers protected the entries. The length of the bridge has
been estimated to be 140 to 400 meters (160 to 1,300 feet), and
its width 7 to 9 meters (23 to 29 feet). The depth of the river can
reach up to 9.1 meters (30 feet).39
154
The ability to build a bridge of this scale in such a short time

frame required incredible organizational ability, and engineering
skill as only the most basic tools were used. The barbarians soon
learned to see the bridges themselves as Roman weapons.
Figure 5.23: Caesar's Rhine Bridge, by John Soane (1814). The

supporting pilings were driven in at angles to strengthen the core.40
Hadrian’s Wall Project (122-130)

The northern frontier of Britain was under threat from uncon-
quered tribes. Under the Emperor Hadrian in 117 the Roman
Empire had ceased to expand. Hadrian was concerned to consoli-
date his boundaries and had no desire to capture further terri-
tory. He visited northern Britain in 122, and ordered a wall to be
built between the Solway Firth in the west and the River Tyne
in the east a distance of 117 kilometers (73 miles) “to separate
the Romans from Barbarians”.
The wall was built by Roman legionaries, men from all over
the Empire, and at one of loneliest outposts at the farthest
edge of the Roman world. The Roman army had within its
ranks highly skilled architects, mason builders, surveyors and
carpenters as well as soldiers. Some local people may have
willingly helped, as they would have undoubtedly benefitted
from trade in goods and services. In all, the project workforce
was made up of 3 legions (15,000 to 25,000 men).
155
Figure 5.24: Hadrian’s Wall (19th Century map) built for 117
kilometers (73 miles) across the width of northern England between
two river estuaries.41
The construction was broken into lengths of eight kilometers

(five miles). One group of each legion would excavate the founda-
tions and build the mile castles and turrets whilst other cohorts
would follow with the wall construction.
Figure 5.25: Painting by William Bell Scott.42
156
The actual sequence of activities was twofold. First, con-

struction of the wall of stone itself, 2 meters (6-8 feet) thick, and
originally perhaps 3.5 meters (14 feet) high, with a deep ditch
in front, and a connecting road behind it in an open area which
allowed easy access to all parts of the wall all along its length.
This wall was the most striking feature. Second, there was the
so-called "Vallum," a broad flat-bottomed ditch out of which the
earth was cast up on either side (North and South) into regular
and continuous mounds that resemble ramparts. Typically, the
"turf wall," was constructed of sods first laid in regular courses,
and then reconstructed in stone. Any perilous precipices and
natural features were incorporated into the wall. Local limestone
was used unless there were no useful outcrops nearby then turf
was used instead. Eighty forts and mile castles and turrets were
built along the connecting road where each could garrison be-
tween 8 and 32 men. During the six years of building the wall
reached this final basic form see figure 5.26 below.
Figure 5.26: Outline Hadrian’s Wall defense system (19th Century

print).43
As Hadrian's project evolved, more legionaries were moved

up to the wall and within a few years a further (14) full-sized
forts were added along the connecting road length. A total of 17
forts each housed between 500 to 1,000 auxiliary troops. These
forts had gates to allow traffic to pass north and south through
the wall.
For the native inhabitants the ditch and mounds to the
south may have signified the start of a sort of reserved military
zone. From the point of view of a "barbarian" from the North,
the wall might have seemed a psychologically daunting symbol
of power.44 The wall survived the Roman Empire and a few
centuries beyond.
157
Key Players
Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)

Caesar’s financial changes were significant in funding a wave of
construction projects in the Roman world which continued for
many centuries and built a series of thousands of civic buildings.
Vitruvius (80/70 -15 BCE)

The Roman architect Vitruvius wrote the treatise on
architecture, and defined the role of the architect in one role as
a combination of the engineer, artist, and craftsman. He also
defined the required education for an architect, and the required
skills and traits.
On the assessment of project contractors he concluded:
“…things of this sort should be known to architects, so that,
before they begin upon buildings, they may be careful not to leave
disputed points for the householders to settle after the works are
finished, and so that in drawing up contracts the interests of both
employer and contractor may be wisely safe-guarded.” 45
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
The Roman projects were remarkable because the Romans were
able to deliver solidly built structures in a very short time frame
(decades), when compared to the medieval cathedral builders
that required centuries. The interior of the Pantheon is a tes-
tament to the quality of the project, and the fact it is the most
intact structure of that age. The Romans also built with limited
mechanization in the ox and cart, and treadmills, winches, and
capstans.
The Colosseum project established a public works program
to employ a large unskilled project workforce that has the char-
acteristics of a modern project. When the Emperor Vespasian
was presented a labor saving device, he rewarded the inventor
but rejected the device, so he did not deprive laborers from their
work. The availability of capital, through financial reforms, gave
158
the project impetus. The project took a systematic approach,

borrowed from the military, with a high level of organization of
teams. It incorporated a wide spread knowledge, specialist skills,
and far reaching construction techniques using the arch and con-
crete that allowed for a very large unskilled workforce.
The technical complexities of the Colosseum included:
• The aqueducts which supplied water, stored in three
reservoirs, to flood the floor for naval battles.
• The awnings, to shade about one third of the stadium,
supported by masts held in by stone plinths.
• The extensive drinking fountains and toilets (latrines)
throughout the stadium.
• The wooden floor supported by deep substructures, with
elevators and trap doors built in, used for bringing up
animals, props, and performers.
The Pantheon project is somewhat similar in its vast use of

concrete but more aligned to esthetics of the Greek style. The
project incorporated the sophisticated use of concrete, where the
weight of concrete varied through the aggregate material which
ranged from heavy basalt in the foundations to the lightest of
pumice toward the center of the dome.
The Pantheon was one of the most elegant buildings since
the Parthenon, hence its style was copied not just for centuries
but for millennia to come (the Pantheon in Paris had its façade
modeled on the Pantheon in Rome).
Through this period the Roman’s initiated a massive
construction program of thousands of building projects including
cities, civic institutions, forums, markets, religious temples,
public baths, libraries, roads, bridges, amphitheaters, aqueducts,
and sewers, military fortifications. For the Romans land
surveying was fundamental to the creation of this vast program
(see the ability to measure page 36). Toward the end of this
period the program slowed down as funding dried up.
159
PMBoK® Guide Knowledge Areas

◦◦ As in many projects the Colosseum project charter
was based on maintaining the principal stakeholder’s
(the Emperor Vespasian) power and position, by
placating and gratifying the public.
◦◦ The costs of the Colosseum project were anticipated
in advance as much of the detail was worked out
before the project started. The costs were funded
through taxes as the business case was driven by
political motivation. The principal benefit was to
satisfy the Roman public with a place for lavish
entertainment.
◦◦ The business justification for these public projects
was helped by the increased supply of money created
by Julius Caesar’s when he took back the power to
coin money and cheap loans.
◦◦ Booty from the military campaigns went towards
funding the project.
◦◦ The principal requirements for the Colosseum were
based on a rich history of experience for example the
amphitheater completed in Pompeii in 70 BCE. In
Rome a standard practice was to complete a wooden
structure where it would be dissembled after the
gladiatorial show.
• Any further requirements were to come from the
emperor and his entourage.
◦◦ By the time of the Colosseum, construction time
lines were mature, the Romans were very savvy
when it came to scope. The site was in a valley where
there was previously a lake so it had to be planned
carefully.
◦◦ In the ancient world, the design process would have
defined the scope and involved floor plans (preserved
on inscriptions) drawn to scale, a handful of three-
160
dimensional scale models, perspective drawings, and

for the artisans, some full-size design sketches.
◦◦ The Romans worked with standard templates and
made use of repeatable processes. The arch is a prime
example of this. This approach simplified determining
the scope.
dictated by:
• The ground, set on the site of an artificial lake.
• The length, height, diameter of the oval and
breadth.
• The availability of materials, quarrying, and
transporting of traventine blocks and marble, and
the production of concrete.
• The ability to fill and empty the building in a
short time with 40,000 spectators.
• The ability to flood the arena for naval battles.
◦◦ In this building of huge scale and complexity, much of
the detail was worked out before the building started.
The work breakdown structure laid out the project
with the following:
• Site preparation installation of circular drainage
system, deep foundations, plumbing, and leveling.
• Assembly of scaffolding, delivery of materials
(within site quadrants).
• Construction of the structure, both on and off
site workshops, blocks to a precise position in the
structure.
• Removal of scaffolding and site clean up.
◦◦ A further example of the work breakdown structure
can be found in Appendix A.
◦◦ The Pantheon’s oculus increased the complexity
and scope of the project but it proved to be the most
significant esthetic feature that differentiates the
structure.
161
◦◦ The varying thickness and weight of the concrete roof

(dome) towards the oculus increased the scope.
• Time Management
◦◦ Most ancient projects had to keep to a deadline. The
Roman Colosseum was built by the government as
a political project to highlight its generosity, and to
give back something to the people. Any delays would
have been problematic. Time cost money then as it
does today.
◦◦ Further into the Roman Colosseum project cycle,
activities related to the assembly and coordination of
construction equipment was almost as significant as
the erection activities. For example, vast quantities
of essential equipment were required including
capstans, windlasses, gins, cranes, sleds and wagons.
Some equipment had to be manufactured at the site,
like the centering for a large arch or heavy shoring
for a structure.46
◦◦ In addition, the principal sponsor Emperor Vespasian
was sixty years old and was very anxious to see the
project completed. This put the project manager
under tremendous pressure to finish quickly.
◦◦ To help keep their building projects on track and to
schedule the Romans used a building technique with
concrete for the core and a veneer of costly materials
applied to the outside. The structural core was
constructed in a single building campaign. Thus the
structure could be built without any work contingent
or delays because of uncertain shipments from afar
of costly imported finishing materials. Both the
Pantheon and Colosseum exemplify this approach.
◦◦ The use of standardized parts where pieces were
made to be interchangeable, like the same width
stairs, simplified installation and saved time.
◦◦ With the Colosseum project Roman concrete was
a relatively new material and the project required
efficiencies when using it, because of the speed at
which it was laid.
162
• Cost Management
◦◦ A history of amphitheater project experience was
critical to the estimates although this was a consider-
ably larger project.
◦◦ The arch was so fundamental to projects the Romans
were able to estimate it parametrically.
◦◦ Managing a project budget came from a Roman
tradition and requirement of managing household
accounts, and preparing statements of property and
debt for taxes.
◦◦ The Romans, in their public building projects like the
Pantheon and Colosseum, controlled costs by using
concrete for the core with only a veneer of costly
materials applied to the outside. The structural core
was constructed in a single building campaign, thus
lowering the costs. For the Romans the raw materials
for concrete were in abundance where volcanic sand
lay just below the surface, and great quantities of
large aggregate came from the stonecutter’s yards,
and discarded pottery from community waste heaps.
◦◦ Costs were also reduced by the use of:
• Unskilled labor enabled, with the use of concrete,
and the arch.
• Construction equipment like lifting towers
reduced costs by reducing the project workforce.
• Standardized interchangeable pieces which were
made in workshops and then brought to site for
assembly.
◦◦ Construction blocks were imported in great quantities
from marble quarries right across the empire and
from distant provinces. For example, marble slabs
in the Colosseum were transported by sea from the
Greek island of Paros in the Cyclades. Each block was
carefully marked with the quarry, the section it came
from (locus), the owner (Emperor Vespasian), and
163
with the freeman who excavated it. The blocks were

catalogued according to their quality and provenance.
◦◦ The Colosseum was built in an identical way
around the structure using the arch and vault. Up
to 240 arches were replicated in three tiers. Such
standardization allowed tight quality control at
a local or micro level. Because the arches were
standardized they could be mass produced quickly
and consistently by relatively unskilled laborers.
◦◦ Quality control was applied where it really mattered
and the degree of accuracy was very high. For
example, the Voussoirs (wedge-shaped stones) in the
arches, crucial to the stability of the structure, were
close to identical. The outermost annular corridor
on the ground floor was 5 meters (17 feet) wide and
varied along it entire length by less than one per cent.
Where it mattered less, like the stairways or some
arches, there was a variation of several centimeters.47
Inspections were widely used in these areas.
◦◦ The Pantheon project controlled the careful selection
and grading of the aggregate material to get a
grading of weight with progressively changing
concrete. Each concrete batch was hand-carried in
baskets to the placement, a very slow process, and
with very strict quality control.
◦◦ Lime was one of the first man-made products that
relied on a chemical reaction of burning limestone
pieces in a crude kiln. Again strict quality control
was required for the processing temperature and
hydraulic reaction.
◦◦ Roman legions built roads and had milestones
that carried the names of the troops’ commanders,
acknowledging them as the road builder. These were
simple rewards and recognitions of the achievement
put in place which instilled a sense of pride in the
builder and helped establish quality standards and
a level of quality control. It made sure that quality
improvements spread throughout the organization.
164
The Roman army was based on a regime of harsh

discipline.
◦◦ Roman architects individually had a broad training
and experience which incorporated the skills of an
engineer, artist and craftsman.
◦◦ In the Colosseum project the main construction force
was made up of contractors, who used the guilds for
the workforce. Aside from these the employment of
soldiers from the Legion, some government slaves
(Servi Caesaris were the most renowned and on the
path to freemen) were used.
◦◦ Concrete allowed for the increased use of unskilled
labor.
◦◦ Simplicity of design with the arches allowed for
minimal supervision of the teams from the overall
designer.
◦◦ Under-architects led teams for less critical parts of
the structure where high levels of quality mattered
less.
◦◦ The Colosseum project was designed from two semi-
amphitheaters joined back to back. This allowed the
workforce to be split because of the restricted size
of the site. The use of standardized interchangeable
pieces allowed a large off site workforce to complete
these in workshops.
◦◦ Caesar's Rhine Bridges were estimated to be up to
400 meters (1300 feet) long, 9 meters (29 feet) wide,
in a river depth of 9.1 meters (30 feet). The ability
to deliver a bridge of this scale in only 10 days
required incredible project management acumen,
organizational ability, and engineering skill as only
the most basic tools were used.
◦◦ Even though slaves existed in these times, with 21
million in the Roman Empire48, these were mainly
owned by private families and individuals.
165
◦◦ Major projects tended to use citizens or contracted

companies rather than the mass use of slave labor.
Construction became the single largest industry in
Rome creating much needed employment.
◦◦ For the Romans transport and communications were
at the heart of the Roman phenomenon of order, form
and stability. Roman roads helped the Roman army
make much use of dispatchers with written or oral
communications. Roads also greatly assisted the op-
eration of the Imperial postal service, the cursus pub-
licus,49 and good communications across the empire.
◦◦ The Colosseum project was popularized with the
public through constant communications. These
reiterated it was a public works project that helped
keep the unemployed off the streets.
◦◦ There are five different representations of the
Colosseum on coins and medals of the Emperors,
one of Vespasian, two of Alexander Severus, and
one of Gordianus. These all appear to have been
made from the architect's designs before the work
was completed. This was a clever way of promoting
the project, and building awareness and interest.
The project was also popularized with the public by
communicating it as a public works project providing
employment (stakeholder management).
◦◦ For the project team the plans (ground and floor),
perspective drawings, and models were absolutely
critical in communicating spatial ideas non-
linguistically. In particular, to guide the builders,
perspective drawings were very analytical and
communicated a feel for the building in space.50
• Risk Management
◦◦ Roman architect Vitruvius laid out in his treatise
specific dangers; everything from erecting roof
vaulting, to digging wells (working in confined
spaces), to working with large construction
equipment, and to the dangers of fire to certain
166
materials.51 Overtime these types of best practices

were incorporated into the building codes of
municipalities like Rome and medieval London that
assured good practices in building construction.52
◦◦ Risks during the construction of the Pantheon’s dome
roof and oculus were somewhat mitigated by a system
of heavy wooden scaffolding.
◦◦ The construction of the structure of the Pantheon’s
concrete dome carried significant risk, in its ability
to hold together with a large oculus at the center.
The risk was reduced by lightening the weight of
the dome as much as possible, progressively getting
lighter towards the centre.
◦◦ The Colosseum had to deal with a public safety
issues and was able to safely accommodate 50,000
people entering and exiting a 48 meter (157 foot) high
structure.
◦◦ The Romans could only estimate the strength of
concrete a relatively recent invention. With the
Colosseum project they didn’t want to take risks
with such a prominent building. So, they combined
concrete with stone, a tried and tested material.
The corridor ceilings were vaulted arches made of
concrete but, the supports were of heavy limestone.
◦◦ As to construction contracts the Romans employed
highly sophisticated oral and written contracts
that “were explicit in assigning detailed responsi-
bilities” for all parts of the job, including labor and
materials—and there were even arbitration clauses...
they possessed the same basic function of our modern
contractors.53
◦◦ The Colosseum project was very much in line with
the practice of contracting out public works projects.
The project was delivered by four contractors whose
contracts detailed specifications of the work, require-
ments for guarantees, and the methods of payment
167
and time. Thousands of small building firms were en-

gaged through this process.
◦◦ The architect’s plans were very much principal
deliverables in the contract.54 The Roman architect
Vitruvius provided procurement guidelines in his
landmark work ‘De architectura.’
◦◦ The volume of materials that was procured for the
project was considerable. An extensive supply chain
of raw materials included:55
• Travertine limestone from the quarries in Tivoli,
32 kilometers (20 miles) from Rome. The quarried
stones were transported by ox and cart.
• Lime was produced from the limestone.
• Pozzolano was available within 3 kilometers (2
miles) of Rome.
• Water was transported 300 meters (1000 feet).
◦◦ The raw materials were combined and gave:
• Tuff which was used in the preparation of special
cements, produced within a range of 1 kilometer
(0.4 miles).
• Tiles and bricks which were produced from clay
mixed with water and often with sand, straw
and finely ground pozzolana, within a range of 1
kilometer (0.4 miles).
◦◦ Roman Cement which was produced by mixing finely
ground limestone and clay. Concrete was produced by
adding sand, small stones or pebbles. The percentage
mass by material was rubble 35%, travertine blocks
32%, mortar 21%, tufa 6%, brick 6%, pozzolano 14%,
lime 4%, and water 3%.
Educators
of understanding the properties of building materials,
like the Romans did with concrete?
168
• Discuss the influence of the Roman military on the

organization of project teams? In particular, Caesar’s
Rhine Bridges.
• Discuss which of nine PMBoK® Guide Knowledge Areas
were very significant in the Colosseum project?
• Discuss whether the overall Roman construction program
contributed to the fall of the empire?
169
The Middle Ages

This period is comprised of:
• The Early Middle Ages, lasting from about 350 to about
1050.
• The Central Middle Ages, lasting from about 1050 to
about 1300.
• The Late Middle Ages, lasting from about 1300 to about
1450.
170
Chapter 6
The Early Middle Ages

(350 - 1050)
T
he last two centuries of the Roman Empire were spent in a
losing battle, where the will for supporting the behemoth
empire was waning with the Roman citizens that were
burdened with its upkeep. From 450 to 476 the Roman Empire
gradually collapsed. By 750 the Roman world had given way to
three heirs: the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire, see
page 181), Islam, and the West. In European historiography (the
West), the period 350 to 1050 (4th to 11th Century) was known
as the Dark Ages, a period of stifled growth. From a project
management perspective, the Byzantine Empire and Islam
are where construction projects continued driven primarily by
religion, but nowhere close to the construction boom under the
Roman’s at the height of their Empire. There was an increased
in the use of natural materials like stone and wood.

a. Collapse of the Roman Empire (single largest in the
world).
a. Growth of Byzantine Empire.
171
b. Dark Ages in Europe.

• Major events
a. 455 - Vandals sack Rome.
b. 476 - Fall of the Roman Empire.
c. 481 - Clovis became King of the Franks.
d. 732 - Battle of Tours.
• New tools, techniques and breakthroughs.
a. Paper bank notes in China.
• Regions
a. Europe.
b. Byzantine Empire.
c. Islam.
a. Cathedral at Hagia Sophia.
a. Toltec Pyramid.
• Key players
a. Anthemius of Tralles (Aydin).
b. Isidorus of Miletus.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

The world population in this period modestly grew from 190 to
310 million.
Collapse of the Roman Empire

The bureaucracy of the Roman Empire had stifled progress.
When Gaul became part of the Roman Empire there was a net
positive effect. By 450, Gaul was requiring an influx of cash
from Rome. The collapse of the Roman Empire was dramatic,
172
6 - The Early Middle Ages (350 - 1050)
as it left a disparate set of rulers incapable of supporting the

Roman civic infrastructure in place. In the cities merchants
lost the security of safe conditions for manufacture, trade
and commerce. Traveling or carrying goods over distance
became unsafe and there was a collapse in exports. The loss of
educational institutions and of a unified culture saw intellectual
development suffer.
Impact of Changes
Growth of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire

Before the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476, the Eastern
Roman Empire broke away in 330. The root cause for both was
the same: the Roman Empire was too expensive and difficult
to administrate. The Emperor Constantine I transferred the
capital from Nicomedia in Anatolia to the city of Byzantium, and
renamed it New Rome or Constantinople. As a second Rome, it
was well-positioned astride the trade routes between east and
west. The Emperor Constantine recovered much of the Roman
Empire’s military strength and enjoyed a period of stability and
prosperity.
By the 7th Century the Byzantine Empire had taken on a
distinct new character, under the reign of Emperor Heraclius.
His reforms changed the Empire’s military, and recognized
Greek as the official language.
173
Figure 6.1: The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) during

its greatest territorial extent under Justinian. c. 550.1
Dark Ages in Europe

In Europe there was general demographic decline and political
fragmentation, a shift of power from kings to feudal lords, and
limited building activity and material cultural achievements.
There was little social or economic interchange and any news
relayed to villages was communicated verbally by “village
criers.” Many changes took place in Europe, like:
• Fragmentation of countries into feudal states, that were
typically run by warring tribes.
• Political fragmentation where kings had less power
because countries were divided into areas controlled by
feudal lords.
• The decline of urban life as towns were the prey of
continual violence and depredation, and towns people
were exposed to merciless extortion and plundering
at the hands of their feudal lords. As a result, trade
collapsed and municipal organizations ceased to function.
174
• The Christian Church helped unify the people of Europe

because of its centralized authority and hierarchical
nature and it was one of the only constants left. The
Church preserved ancient and biblical writings.
• Far less writing, less education, most of it was
ecclesiastical based.
• The reversion to an agricultural economy where trade
and national revenue reached its lowest point.
Major Events
Vandals sack Rome 455

High taxes, Roman prejudice, and government corruption turned
the tribes against the Roman Empire. The Visigoths sacked
Rome in 415 but spent only three days in the city. The Vandals
plundered Rome for fourteen days which marks the fall of the
Roman Empire.
Fall of the Roman Empire 476

In Europe there was a collapse of trade after the fall of the
Roman Empire which made bankers less necessary than before,
and their demise was hastened by the hostility of the Christian
church to the charging of interest.
Clovis becomes King of the Franks 481

The inhabitants of the Roman conquered territories began
to assert their independence. The Franks, in northern Gaul,
came under Clovis who expanded his rule by wiping out the
remnants of Roman control in Gaul and fought other tribes who
bordered his territory. The Frankish Kingdom included nearly
all of France, the northeastern part of Spain, and a great part
of Germany. Clovis embraced Christianity and it thrived and
flourished with the Franks throughout the Dark Ages.
175
Birth of the Prophet Muhammad 570

The central figure of the Islam religion and regarded by Muslims
as a messenger and prophet of God (Arabic: Allāh), the last and
the greatest law-bearer in a series of prophets of Islam.
Battle of Tours 732

A Muslim army crusading in search for land and the ending
of Christianity, after the conquest of Syria, Egypt, and North
Africa, and Spain crossed the Western Pyrenees and marched
towards the Loire River. They were met just outside the city
of Tours by Charles Martel, and the Frankish Army. This was
an extremely decisive battle for Christians as it stemmed the
Muslim invasion of Western Europe.

As Western Europe fell into the Dark Ages, technologies thrived
in the East. In India in the 4th Century iron production was well
advanced and exemplified when Indian foundry men built an
iron pillar 7 meters (24 feet) high at Delhi. Even today it shows
no signs of rust as it was protected from rust by a thin coat of
manganese dioxide.
Paper-making evolved in China in the 8th Century and
factories spread to Samarkand in 751, Baghdad in 793, Cairo in
900, Morocco in 1100 and to Spain in 1150.
The first paper bank notes appeared in China in 806. In
all, China experienced over 500 years of early paper money,
spanning from the 9th through the 15th Century. Over this period,
paper notes grew in production to the point that their value
rapidly depreciated and inflation soared.2
During this period there were virtually no standard
measures in Europe. As a result, pupils were taught to gauge
scales and sizes so they could estimate sizes. Reckoning
was done by eye and on the spot also known as the “rule of
proportion.”
176
Regions
• China continues to innovate and come up with new
inventions.
• The Byzantine Empire grew from the Roman Empire and
adopts its mantle.
• Islamic culture continues to thrive and evolve unlike
Western Europe that stagnates under the collapse of the
Roman Empire.
Significant projects
The collapse of the Roman Empire (single largest in the world) in
the West saw a demise in large scale projects.
Cathedral at Hagia Sophia Project (532-537)
Background
Under the stability of the Eastern Roman Empire, under
the Emperor Constantine, large scale projects continued. In
January 532, there was a revolt by partisans of the chariot
racing factions, known as the Nika riots, against Justinian
in Constantinople. He was forced to dismiss some of his
ministers, but then it turned against him. He ordered the brutal
suppression of the riots which resulted in the death of 30,000
unarmed civilians. During the riots many fires were started
which destroyed large parts of the city including a predominant
church, the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia).
Its destruction provided Justinian an opportunity to create
spectacular new buildings.
Initiating
The Emperor Justinian ordered the construction of a cathedral
at Hagia Sophia. As the principal stakeholder he set the project
charter that the cathedral was to be a showpiece and surpass in
magnificence all earlier cathedrals. It was to be a spectacle of
marvelous beauty. The building heavily drew on the Pantheon in
its design. He made full use of all his Empire could offer as his
ambition was to make the cathedral unique which spurred him
177
on to an unremitting effort. No expenses were spared as artisans

were gathered from around the world.
Justinian’s ambitions were to re-establish the Roman Empire
from the east. During his reign he conquered territories to the east,
and in North Africa. He also brought Italy under the empire.
Planning
Justinian as the patron personally took care of the project fund-
ing and supervised the construction. He became very involved di-
rectly. The project would establish himself and the empire as the
successor to the might of Rome and showcase its capability.
The time line for the project was set to complete in an
extremely aggressive five year period to gratify the Emperor
Justinian so he could realize the benefits in his reign. This could
only be achieved with experienced architects and a very large
workforce that was very well organized.
The two most famous architects of the age; Anthemius of
Tralles (Aydin) and Isidorus of Miletus, were entrusted with
the construction of the building. Anthemius was the best
military engineer that Justinian had and was not merely a
master-builder but a geometrician of the first order. They were
both academics of considerable status, equivalent of university
professors with strong theoretical backgrounds. The architects
located it on a hill it so it would adorn and dominate the City of
Constantinople like a watchtower.
Justinian wanted a very symbolic building that would
incorporate the round dome of state power on the square base
of a Christian church. The Romans had tried this before and
failed, believing only a cylinder could support a dome like the
Pantheon.
The main ground plan consisted of a rectangle, 70 meters
(230 feet) in width and 75 meters (246 feet) in length. This shape
was carefully proportioned so it was harmonious in length and
width.
This was the first structure to combine the rectangular plan of
traditional basilicas with the central dome of imperial buildings
such as the Pantheon in Rome.3
178
The architects designed an unobstructed hall of unrivalled

proportions. This was to be covered by a combination of half-
domes, increasing in span and height, as they successively led
up to the stupendous central dome, which was to rise 55 meters
(180 feet) into the air and fitly crown the whole. The design was
complex in its geometry and without a precedent. The central
dome was flanked by half domes of the same diameter which
created the illusion of a very large dome.
Figure 6.2: Hagia Sophia plan shows how the dome rests upon four
arches bounding a square, into two of which open the half-domes of
semicircular apses that are equal in diameter to the central dome.
The whole vast nave, measuring 60 x 30 meters (200 x 100 feet), is
flanked by 128 enormously wide aisles.4
The imposing effect of this low-curved but loftily-poised

central dome, resting on a crown of windows, would make its
summit visible from every point of the nave (as seen in figure 6.3
below). The interior was paneled with costly colored marbles and
ornamental stone inlays. Its interior design surpassed anything
ever created.
179
Figure 6.3: The interior of Hagia Sophia highlights how it was

designed (19th Century print). The central dome (a height of 54
meters (177 feet)), seems rendered weightless by the unbroken arcade
of arched windows under it, with no supporting walls.5
What is surprising with this design, of exceeding complexity,

is the level of geometry used was no more sophisticated to what
Archimedes had outlined several centuries earlier.
Executing
The architects had direct access to the Emperor Justinian,6
the project stakeholder, at any time. The project hierarchy was
run on the lines of the Roman guilds and included one hundred
master-builders supervised by the architects, and ten thousand
laborers. Either of the architects could have directed the project.
The large workforce also presented a challenge in that it had to
work in a relatively confined environment.
An extensive supply chain was set up as materials used in
the construction were brought in from Rome and Delphi. The
whole interior was built of brick and lined with costly marble.
The design allowed a flood of light into building which was
reflected off the marble interior to create a very well illuminated
building.
To add to its splendor columns were plundered from the
temples of the ancient gods (at Heliopolis, Ephesus, Delos,
Baalbec, Athens, and Cyzicus). This further underlined the
importance this project carried at the time for the Emperor
Justinian.
180
To render the building as light as possible, it was constructed

of pumice stone and Rhodian bricks (hollowed and porous bricks,
made from lightweight clay imported from Rhodes). This added
to the cost as these bricks had to be shipped in versus being
produced locally. The bricks were light enough that they could
float. The bricks were held by much thicker mortar, almost
as thick as the brick. The arched walls reduced the volume of
material, and were considerably lighter, and less expensive. The
floor of the main nave was covered with grey and white marble.
The workforce discovered a cement with earthquake-resis-
tant properties withstanding earthquakes of up to 7.5 on the
Richter scale. The risk of fire through the building was mitigated
in the project by not using any wood in the construction, except
for the doors
Figure 6.4: Interior of Hagia Sophia shows an unobstructed hall of

unrivalled proportions with a combination of half-domes increasing
in span and height as they lead up successively to the central vault
54 meters (177 feet) into the air.7 Two of the pendentives (concave
triangular sections) can be seen clearly above the arches. The interior
glistens with fragile golden mosaic tiles illustrating Christian
figurines and scenes.
181
The cathedral was covered by a central dome with a

diameter of 31 meters (102 feet). This was slightly smaller
than the Pantheon's. It was shaped like a scalloped shell or the
inside of an umbrella with ribs that extended from its top down
to its base. The dome sat on four arches making a square. The
pendentives were four concave triangular sections of masonry
(brick and mortar) sitting between the four arches that made
a smooth structural transitions between the curved tops of the
four arches and the bottom of the dome. These pendentives
carried the circular dome on a square base and then transitioned
its weight downward to the massive marble columns that formed
the corners of a square. The columns were buttressed by massive
piers to restrain horizontal forces in the arches. The design was
an absolute first and the geometrical complexity of this was
remarkable.
A marble sheathing was useful in camouflaging the large
pillars, as well as to give it a brighter look.
The dome was further complicated by forty arched windows
which did reduce the overall weight. The dome was made of
lighter bricks, fired at lower temperatures, making them lighter.
The domed roof was made of heavy black lead. The roof stretched
54 meters (177 feet) into the air. Even the Gothic cathedrals
of France did not reach these heights. The construction
complexities required massive scaffolding to support this. The
weight of the circular dome was too heavy for the base and it
pushed it out. The change had to be adjusted from a square to
a rectangle. The shape of the dome was changed to an elliptical
dome. The weight of the building was so great that flakes of
marble came off the columns. The architects created a huge
space in the center of the building for worship.

The project ran five years, ten months and four days, from
February 23rd 532 to December 27th 537 and cost 20,000
pounds of gold which was a fortune at the time. This equates
to $3 billion today. The speed of construction was remarkable
considering the cathedrals proportions, size and complexity of
the structure. It was a rush job and today this is visible in the
overlapping and ill fitting pieces of marble in some areas.
182
Figure 6.5: Hagia Sophia it is internally one of the most perfectly

composed and beautifully decorated halls of worship ever erected
(19th Century print).8
Figure 6.6: Hagia Sophia modern image. Source: British Museum

London.
183
Closing
The forty arched windows around the base of the dome formed
a crown of light, an effect almost as striking as the Pantheon
oculus. The dome seems rendered weightless by the unbroken
arcade of windows, with no supporting walls.
The cathedral was shook by an earthquake in 558 and ma-
jor cracks appeared in the dome and a portion of it collapsed. It
was repaired by the son of Isidorus over a four year period who
rebuilt the dome, changing its shape to an elliptical dome so its
weight was more evenly distributed down. He also strengthened
the interior walls so that they were vertical changing the shape
from a square to a rectangle.
The cathedral became a prototype for many churches, for
example, domed architecture spread throughout the Byzantine
Empire. The most famous copy was St. Mark’s, Venice (1063-
1071). The cathedral is considered today to be an embodiment
of Byzantine architecture and of great beauty. It also had the
distinction of remaining the largest cathedral in the world until
1520. The Cathedral was damaged many times by earthquakes
and fires, and had to be repaired and reinforced. In 989, workers
replaced the great dome damaged through earthquakes.
In 1453 when Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman
Turks the Sultan Mehmed II ordered the building to be changed
into the Ayasofya Mosque.

The 10th Century Grand Mosque of Cordoba was the second-
largest mosque in the world. Hagia Sophia influenced the Sultan
Ahmed Mosque or Blue Mosque of Istanbul and the Mosque of
Mohammed’ Ali, Cairo, Egypt. The “Alabaster Mosque,” whose
lofty and graceful minarets are so conspicuous from the distance
that they form one of the major landmarks of Cairo.
Toltec Pyramid at Cholula Project

The Toltec, ancient Native American polytheistic culture, were
the dominant people in the region of Mexico from 900 to 1200
CE. The city of Tula (capital Tollán) at its height housed a
population of around 40,000-60,000.
184
The Toltecs built step pyramids, with temples on top, more

akin to the ziggurats of Mesopotamia than to the pyramids of
ancient Egypt.
Between 900-1000 the Toltecs built the largest pyramid in
the world by volume, a man-made mountain of 133 million cubic
feet (4.45 million meters), a base of 450 x 450 meters (1476 x
1476 feet) and a height of 66 meters (217 feet), 300 meters (1,000
feet) on a side and 52 meters (170 feet) long covering 45 acres
at Cholula. The total volume is almost one third larger than the
Great Pyramid of Giza. The workforce created a radial pyramid
with stairs covering all four sides so that the summit could be
approached from any direction. Each group that dominated
Cholula added to the pyramid (technically called a temple, not
a pyramid). In the 12th Century, the civilization was gradually
supplanted by the Aztec.
Figure 6.7: Toltecs Pyramid at Cholula.9
Example of a Master Plan

In a well documented example from the 9th Century, a plot plan
for a large monastery was created. This was an “authorized
standard” or an “ideal plan” that was then repeatedly used as
a master, where it would be subject to modification as local
requirements dictated. The plan was created by a council of
churchmen-administrators who had to carefully think it out
because of certain constraints.
185
As part of the requirements the monks had to be isolated

from the lay workers (craftsmen, gardeners) and the
surrounding public who could use some of the facilities. The plan
is preserved in the chapter library of St. Gall in Switzerland10
(see Figure 6.8). The monastic builders, with little technical
training, but with plenty of willing hands, sought out new
architectural paths to meet their special needs. Remote from
classic and Byzantine models, and mainly dependent on their
own resources, they often failed to realize the intended results.
Figure 6.8: Ground Plan of a 9th Century Monastery (St Gall,

Switzerland) that represents the ideal Benedictine house. It shows
the detailed level of planning required to isolate the monks from lay
workers (craftsmen, gardeners) and the surrounding public.11
186
Key Players
Anthemius of Tralles (Aydin) (474 – before 558 BCE)

He was a Greek professor of Geometry in Constantinople who
described the string construction of an ellipse and wrote a book
on conic sections. This proved to be of immense value in the
construction of Hagia Sophia.
Isidorus of Miletus
Isidorus was a Greek professor of physics in Alexandria and then
Constantinople. He wrote a commentary on earlier published
building books. Furthermore, he may have been responsible for
the T-square and string construction of a parabola.12
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
Emperor Justinian was determined to see the success of the
cathedral project. It was a project of personal prestige as the
leader of the remnants of the Roman Empire. He set up the core
project team with two renowned architects of the age, and a
massive skilled workforce with a disproportionally high ratio of
master craftsmen.
The complexities of the cathedral included the floating
domes pushing the architecture and geometry to its limits. The
use of materials as light as possible, pumice stone and Rhodian
hollow bricks, indicate the architects fully understood the risks
of the design. The use of a cement with earthquake-resistant
properties and no wood to prevent fires indicate how cautious
and risk adverse the workforce was. The speed of construction,
just under six years, was remarkable when compared with the
elongated time-lines of the Gothic cathedrals to follow in the 11th
and 12th Centuries.
The project design goal of Emperor Justinian of surpassing
earlier cathedrals was reached as it certainly was a larger
structure than the Pantheon, and the interior had a greater
space, although the dome was not as large.
187
Key Lessons
◦◦ With a high-profile stakeholder like the Emperor
Justinian, taking a hands-on-approach in the project,
there was a high chance of the project scope changing.
Therefore, the project required tight change control.
However, the aggressive schedule constrained change
and the Emperor’s role may have helped to keep the
project on track.
◦◦ The project was politically motivated and under-
pinned the Emperor’s personal prestige. Even though
the project’s business justification was a minor factor
the cathedral was significant to the city. Like future
medieval cathedrals, it would attract visitors and
pilgrims.
◦◦ The project had to find a balance where the design
was focused on the esthetics, beauty, and quality,
versus the schedule and delivery (within a 6 year
period), and to a lesser extent costs.
◦◦ The direct involvement of the emperor and the
desire for the project to finish in his life time better
controlled the scope of the project.
dictated by:
• The location in the middle of an earthquake zone.
• The height, diameter and thickness of the dome
structure.
• The availability of materials, mortar and brick
production (imported from Rhodes).
with the following:
• Site preparation.
• Assembly of scaffolding, delivery of bricks.
188
• Construction of the structure in particular the

pillars (four arches) to support the dome.
• Removal of scaffolding and site clean-up.
• Time Management
◦◦ The aggressive time-line of five years required a
massive on-site workforce throughout the project.
◦◦ With such a large workforce the project scope had
to be decomposed and the sequence of activities had
to be carefully managed and scheduled because of
the limited size of the construction site, and to avoid
conflicts and collisions.
◦◦ To meet the schedule the dome had to be built within
the first three years of the five year project.
• Cost Management
◦◦ The most significant cost was the project workforce.
◦◦ Costs were controlled in several ways.
• First, by following the traditional Roman
techniques of building with a low cost core of
bricks then clad with an expensive veneer of
marble, and tiles.
• Second, like the Colosseum the project made the
use of bricks and arches to keep the costs down.
Bricks were versatile, practical, easy to handle,
and very durable.
◦◦ Like the Parthenon project quality was ingrained into
all areas of the project to ensure it would meet the
high standards of esthetics required.
◦◦ The project took into consideration that the final
deliverable was in an earthquake zone. The fact it
still stands today is a testament to the design and the
quality of the construction, and much to the team’s
foresight despite many earthquakes over the 1500
years.
◦◦ Bricks were stamped with a mark for provenance.
189
Figure 6.9: Roman brick stamps – National Museum of Rome.
• Human Resources Management

◦◦ The project selected two renowned architects when
one would have done. Anthemius died four years into
the project.
◦◦ A workforce of ten thousand laborers for a project of
this size was very significant and would have been
a challenge to manage. They were divided into two
teams of 5,000.
◦◦ The architects designed spiral ramps that allowed the
workforce to carry materials to the top most heights
of the structure, removing the need for cranes.
◦◦ A large workforce of ten thousand laborers very much
depended on communication through the hierarchy of
one hundred master-builders that were supervised by
the architects.
190
◦◦ During the European Dark Ages the Roman system

collapsed and many communities were fragmented
and lived in isolation. Without communication the
little news that would reach a village from outside
would take weeks or months, and be cried by a town
crier.
• Risk Management
◦◦ With Hagia Sophia risk was somewhat mitigated by
appointing the two most famous architects of the age
and a very large workforce.
◦◦ The design pushed the limits of geometrical
knowledge.
◦◦ The weight of the circular dome was so heavy it
pushed out and distorted the base. The repairs made
by the son of Isidorus in 558 changed it from a square
to a rectangle and the circular shape of the dome to
an elliptical dome.
◦◦ The architects understood the impact of earthquakes
on large buildings and incorporated the following into
the design to mitigate the risk13:
• They made the building light and flexible, a
modern concept. They realized that forces in a
dynamic system are proportional to mass.
• They utilized cement with earthquake-resistant
properties with calcium silicate that could reform
as cracks appeared. This is similar to that used in
today’s Portland cement.
• They used light Rhodian hollowed bricks made
from lightweight clay.
• They used crushed brick in the mortar that gave
it a high tensile strength.
• They added 40 windows into the dome to avoid
cracking.
• They used thick mortar joints thicker than
the bricks which made the material more like
reinforced concrete.
191
• They secured the building from fire as no wood

was used in its construction except for the doors.
• They created shock absorbers using lead at the
foundation of the major columns carrying the
dome.
◦◦ Certain materials that could not be secured locally
and had to be procured from far and wide. For
example, Rhodian bricks were selected for their
lightness and imported from the island of Rhodes by
boat. They were light enough to float.
◦◦ The total number of bricks used for the project kept
the Rhodian brick makers busy for years. It was
essential that the project had a priority to this supply
of bricks.
◦◦ Other material that had to be procured in quantity
include:
• Volumes of copper and iron. Recent conservation
work of the dome mosaics has found quite a
considerable number of copper and iron nails and
cramps used in the project.
• Estimates for the weight of glass used in the
tesserae (mosaics) is well over 400 tons.14
Educators
• Discuss in the context of today’s projects the impact of
the fall of the Roman Empire on the ability to continue
projects of scale?
• How well was risk managed with the Hagia Sophia
project?
• Discuss the pros and cons of having two renowned
architects.
• Discuss why the pressure of the project sponsor, Emperor
Justine, actually helped the project.
192
Chapter 7
The Central Middle Ages

(1050 - 1300)
T
his historical period was known as the Early Gothic Era
and brought to an end the Dark Ages in Europe which was
a period of stifled growth. The period saw the urbanization
of Europe, military expansion (Crusades), and intellectual
revival. China was undoubtedly the most technically advanced
region in the world, particularly with regard to the use of coke
in iron smelting, canal transportation, and farm implements.
Bridge design and textile machinery had also been developing
rapidly.1 From a project management perspective in Europe,
there was a rediscovery of lost ancient knowledge that inspired a
period of learning and growth. It also provided a new confidence
for the master-builders when examining the past, for example,
the architectural achievements of ancient Rome. The period
was dominated by the construction projects for the Gothic
cathedrals driven by the Christian church and the towns’ vision
for economic prosperity. There was also a boom in castle building
that extended through the period.

a. Most projects were controlled by the church but the
state starts to emerge from its predominance.
193
b. Climate changed with a warm up.

c. Large scale urbanization in China due in part to the
Grand Canal.
a. The population in China started to boom with large
scale urbanization.
a. Lower level of economic activity in Europe by 1250.
• Major events
a. Leif Ericsson reached Newfoundland, 1000.
b. Norman Conquest of England, 1066.
c. First Crusade to the Holy Land, 1096.
d. The Grand Canal opened in China in the 11th
Century.
e. European rediscovery of lost Greek knowledge, 1100.
f. Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, 1206 and
China fell under the Mongol Empire.
a. Viking Technology.
b. Chinese Technology.
c. The Agricultural Revolution of the Middle Ages.
d. Water driven bellows lead to hotter and larger
furnaces.
e. New building techniques developed for cathedrals.
• Regions
a. Europe.
b. China.
a. Great Gothic cathedral projects (Chartres, Durham).
a. Great castles in Europe.
194
7 - The Central Middle Ages (1050 - 1300)
b. Angkor Wat.
c. Grand Canal of China.
d. Viking voyages to Greenland and Vineland.
• Key players
a. William of Normandy.
b. Villard de Honnecourt.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

million. In 1000 there were 22 million people in Europe, 60
million people in China, and 79 million people in India, and 40
million under Islamic governance. Baghdad, the largest city in
the world, grew to a population of nearly 1 million. It was the
centre of the Islamic Empire after 750.
Church versus State

During the Dark Ages in Europe the church was the centre
of each community. Men lived in daily contact with religion.
The church was the centre piece for a population that relied
on the spoken word (99% illiteracy). The church was a conduit
of information for villages. The church provided a support
system that could influence, through parish priests and the
pulpit, people’s daily lives and intellectual horizons. In these
fragmented communities most people lived within an 11
kilometers (7 miles) radius of where they were born, for most of
their lives. The Papacy reigned supreme and Papal taxation on
land was very high. For example, by 1279, the Catholic Church
in England had amassed enormous wealth through taxes and
land.
Merchants were also a key factor in the growth of the
medieval towns. Guild merchants organized themselves to
fight for the rights of the city, and their leadership was rarely
challenged. Gradually, new forms of government evolved
in towns with a mayor and council. Merchants demanded
a communal freedom of the towns from the feudal lords. In
195
England monarchs granted town charters of limited self-

government in return for their support.
Climate Change Warming up

In Europe during the eleventh and twelfth centuries a slight
warming of the climate and improved agricultural techniques
allowed lands that had previously been marginal or even
infertile to become fully productive. Europe enjoyed an economic
and agricultural boom. Dry and warm summers prevailed in
Northern Europe in the first half of the 13th Century but in 1250
the climate cooled off again.
Large Scale Urbanization in China

In the 11th Century the population in China started to boom due
in part to the development of the Grand Canal (see page 228)
and the ability to transport quantities of rice, the population
spiked to an estimated 115-123 million. Urbanization increased
to 20% of population, and shifted south, with the growth of the
leisured middle classes.
Government Run Projects in China

In some societies a centralization of power controlled projects
and the availability of human labor. For example, in China the
population started to boom in the 11th Century with large scale
urbanization due in part to the Grand Canal.
Impact of Changes
Chinese Population Boom and

Large Scale Urbanization
In parallel, new technologies like moveable printing evolved in
China (in 1045), made from an amalgam of clay and glue by a
Chinese alchemist named Pi Sheng.
Under the Sung dynasty centralized power in the hands
of the Emperor through a huge and monolithic a governing
bureaucracy which was huge and monolithic with over 100,000
civil servants. This gave the Emperor control down to the village
196
level, and there was no authority to challenge this control.

The omnipresence of the Chinese Mandarinate (civil service)
restricted any projects outside of official channels.
Lower Level of Economic Activity

In Europe by 1250 the climate cooled off again and the decreased
agricultural output could no longer support the same level of
economic activity. As early as the middle of the 13th Century the
economy began to weaken. The 14th Century saw a declining
population, shrinking markets, a decrease in arable land, and a
general mood of pessimism as economic conditions deteriorated.
Major Events
Discovery of Vineland (1000)

Leif Ericsson reached the shores of Vineland (modern day
Newfoundland) and created a Viking settlement at L’Anse
aux Meadows which is somewhat successful. However, their
technology advantages were not significant enough for them to
hold on for more than several years (see page 205) before being
ousted by the native population.
Norman Conquest (1066)

William of Normandy (the Conqueror) conquers England. This
event was significant as it shifted power in England and was
a catalyst for change. The Domesday Book was a record of the
great survey of England completed in 1086, executed for William
the Conqueror. It was similar to a government census today.
Its purpose was to determine who held what, and what taxes
had been liable under the defeated King, Edward the Confessor.
This influx of tax revenues allowed William to initiate a building
boom of the great Gothic castles (see page 225). He built more
than 40 castles scattered throughout England and a ring of
castles around Wales (see page 228) to keep the Celtic nation
at bay. His successors continued what he started. Military
architecture developed into a new science of building and in the
11/12/13th Century, as hundreds of imposing castles were built
all around Europe often artistic as far as military priorities
would allow.
197
Figure 7.1: William of Normandy (the Conqueror) conquered

England 1066 and the event was a catalyst for a massive building
boom for more than 40 castles.2
First Crusade to the Holy Land (1096)

As Europe came out of Dark Ages there was a movement that
united European countries morally. This was driven by religious
impulse.
China Opens Grand Canal Project

(See page 220.)
Knowledge Refound in Europe

In the 12th Century the Europeans in Spain rediscovered ancient
Greek and Muslim knowledge from the Muslim civilization.
It included the major scientific disciplines (Logic, Philosophy,
Engineering, Architecture, Maths, Geometry, Astronomy,
Medicine, Pharmacology, Botany, Anatomy, Zoology, Physics,
Chemistry, Optics, and Meteorology) and the experimental
sciences. This acted as a catalyst and the first European
university offering a degree (6 years of study) was set up in
Bolognia in 1088. Paris University was set up in 1160 under a
new rationalism where logic and free thinking were accepted.
Paper was first manufactured in Europe (Spain) in 1200, using
techniques from the Islam world, and the cost of parchments
plummeted. In 1220-1244 Vincent of Beauvais created the
Speculum Majus, the most comprehensive general encyclopedia
of knowledge until the 18th Century.
198
Through the 12th Century the universities revived Roman

law which in turn, became the foundation of law in all civil law
jurisdictions.
Genghis Khan Conquers China

In 1206 Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire and started
the Mongol invasions and raids, to eventually occupy a greater
part of Central Asia and China.
Viking Technology (900-1000)

The Viking’s developed seaworthy ships and reliable
navigational techniques that allowed them to take extensive sea
journeys. The use of a broad ax over a saw enabled an oak tree
trunk to be split into long, thin planks. These were then fastened
with iron nails to a single keel and each other where each plank
overlapped the next. This differed from the more conventional
method of building an inner skeleton for the hull. Evenly spaced
floor timbers were affixed to the keel and not the hull to provide
flexibility. They then added crossbeams to provide a deck and
rowing benches, and secured a massive beam along the keel to
support the mast.
This technique contributed to a very unique construction
where the longships were light, and achieved speeds of up to 14
knots. They were highly maneuverable and could easily navigate
shallow river estuaries. They could reef square sails in strong
winds and adjust these for rapid tacking. The larger of the
longships measured up to 28 meters (95 feet) in length.3
Indian Technologies
In the 12th Century Indian blacksmiths created iron girders and
beams of a scale not seen anywhere else in the world at the time.
The temple of Puri contained 239 iron beams and the temple
of Konarak had one beam that was 14 meters (35 feet) long.
Similar to the Delhi iron pillar, the beams were 99.64% iron.
199
Chinese Technologies
In about 1040 a Chinese manual on warfare was issued under
the title Compendium of Military Technology. It was the first
document to describe gunpowder. The earliest reference to the
compass is in a Chinese manuscript of the late 11th Century;
within the next 150 years it was referenced in Arabic and
European texts. Around the 10th Century paper money (a
promise to pay gold or silver or bronze in exchange for this piece
of paper) was first used in China during the Sung Dynasty.
Moveable printing using wooden and ceramic moveable type was
developed in China in 1045. Another remarkable technology was
Su Song’s astronomical clock tower completed in 1088. It had
a clepsydra tank (measured time by marking regulated flow of
water), waterwheel, escapement mechanism, and a chain driven
armillary sphere with 113 striking clock hammers for sound and
displaying plaques.
The centre of technological innovation was China where
iron production became a state enterprise under the guidance
of metallurgists. Production rose from 13,500 tons in 806 to
125,000 in 1078 because of limited resources of copper and
tin for bronze. In contrast England produced 68,000 in 1788.
Chinese iron industry used a water powered bellows to provide a
blast and smelted the ore with coke.4
Figure 7.2: This medieval printed illustration from China depicts

waterwheels powering the bellows of a blast furnace in creating cast
iron.5
200
The abacus arrived in Europe in 1200 and provided a tool

for making rapid and accurate financial (mathematical) calcula-
tions, useful in managing and controlling project budgets.
The Agricultural Revolution of the Middle Ages

In Europe the introduction of the horse shoe, modern harness
and collar (making specially bred farm horses more effective in
ploughing and pulling loads than oxen), the three year fallow
system, the heavy wheeled plough and other innovations
contributed to a large increase in food production. The effects
of this on the diet and living standards of the people were
considerable, when subjected to modern nutritional analysis.6
By 1300 the population of Europe trebled from 26 million to 79
million. The introduction of the farm horse greatly reduced the
manual labor involved, and freed it up for other labors.
Figure 7.3: The heavy plough created a more cooperative peasant

society and caused small hamlets to combine into larger villages in
order to share ox teams.7
Water and Wind Technology

In this period waterwheels arrived in Europe and by 1086
William the Conqueror recorded some 5,624 water mills
in England. Over a third of manor houses owned one.8 The
201
technology spread rapidly across Europe and by the 13th Century

there were some tens of thousands in France. As the technology
evolved with the use of uniform machine parts and gears, the
first clock towers appeared (First Public Striking Clock is in
Milan in 1335). The technology increased the need for more
precise measurements.
In 1200, windmills arrived in Europe from Islam. Consider
the assessment provided by the historian Jean Gimpel:
“There were so many windmills, bringing in such high profits,
that Pope Celestine HI (1191-1198) imposed a tax on them.
(Gimpel 1976, 25).” 9
Keeping Time
During the Early Medieval Era or the Dark Ages in Europe had
virtually no calendars, clocks, or written records. The world
moved at the pace of nature. Units of less than one hour were
rarely used. In some towns, where sundials were available,
watchmen called the time on the hour. It was the monasteries
that drove the mechanization of time in the 10th Century, using
water clocks to support the routine of daily monastic life. The
monks adhered to a rigorous schedule of prayer and work. Time
was divided into hours and minutes10 for the first time in 1345.
New Building Techniques for Cathedrals

A number of innovative building techniques were a contributing
factor behind a building boom in Cathedrals across Western
Europe.
Pointed Arch
An improvement over the Roman arch was the Pointed Arch
which was introduced into Europe from Moorish Spain. The
Islamic pointed arch was made by forming each side of the arch
from a different centre point, the greater the distance between
the two points the sharper the point. The center line was more
closely aligned to the forces of compression and much stronger.11
202
Figure 7.4: Early Gothic Pointed Arch.12
Flying Buttress
Many of the medieval cathedrals did not have solid stone walls.
Even though the walls appeared to be 2 meters (6-8 feet) thick
of solid stone, they were actually constructed in 3 parts. The
inner and outer surfaces were of stone blocks, while the centre
cavity, using wood and chain as reinforcement, was filled with a
mixture of mortar and small stones. The Romans had used arch
buttresses, at the Baths of Diocletian13, to control the outward
thrust of a wall of a building. These evolved into Flying Buttress
which supported thinner walls and allowed for more stained
glass in the walls.
Figure 7.5: Early Gothic Flying Buttress.14
203
Status Quo in Construction Techniques

For 250 years (from the end of the 13th Century to the beginning
of the 16th) there was little technical progress made in the
construction techniques of Gothic cathedrals.15
Regions
China was the predominant world power in terms of technology.
Islam’s empire stretched from China across India and the Middle
East, into Africa and Europe. Europe comes out of the Dark
Ages.
This medieval period in Europe was dominated by Gothic cathe-
dral projects. From 1050 to 1350 in France alone, 80 cathedrals
and 500 churches were built.
Gothic Cathedral Projects
Background
Through a period of several hundred years cities in Western
Europe strived to out do each other in creating the ultimate
cathedral in splendor and height. In these years more stone was
excavated than at any time in ancient Egypt.16
Initiating
The cathedral boom was spurred by the competition for
pilgrims between cities. The cathedrals had a major impact
on the prosperity and importance of the city as they attracted
thousands of pilgrims. The merchants in a city recognized the
value a cathedral could bring. In this period world record fever
gripped the cities as they poured in resources for their own
cathedral projects. It was broken five times within 62 years.
204
Start Finish Height Cathedral

1152 1240 32.8m Notre-Dame Paris
1145 1220 36.55m Chartres
1209 1290 37.95m Rheims
1219 1269 42.3m Amiens
1247 Not completed 48m Beauvais (collapsed in 1284)
Table 7.1: World Record Fever Led to a Race Between Cities.
The cathedrals were a showcase for the church, reaffirm-

ing its power and authority. The towering walls of stained glass
windows poured colored light in, an amazing spectacle in the
medieval world, and used to inspire the congregation. These win-
dows narrated stories and transmitted information to all inside.
Chartres had over 3,000 meters2 (32,292 feet2) of stained glass.
The Gothic cathedral projects elapsed long time spans,
over generations, (some over a hundred years, very few were
completely finished), and required long-range planning as the
output had to be built with painstaking precision and incredibly
complex detail. Cutting corners carried great risk and could lead
to calamitous consequences, in lives and having to redo years of
work. A cautious and safe approach was required daily.
Governance and Project Team

The project came under the direction of a Bishop and a group
of clergymen known as a Chapter who controlled the finances.
The chapter included a number of dignitaries a chancellor, who
acted as secretary, a treasurer, and a cantor who organized
religious services. Because of the time scales the costs had to be
tightly controlled, and the project budget was closely managed.
The chapter’s role was also similar to a director of urban
redevelopment and responsible for compulsory purchasing, and
adjudication. In addition, the chapter appointed a director of the
site, or an overseer who would be a works accountant. Chosen
for his business acumen and knowledge of architecture he was
responsible for the accounts the income and expenses (see table
7.2). The chapter searched for and appointed a master-builder
(an architect) to design and supervise the project. Sometimes the
205
search would take years. The master-builder hired the master

craftsmen including master quarry men, master stone cutter,
master sculptor, master mortar maker, master mason (free
masons), master carpenter, master blacksmith, master roofer,
and master glass maker. Each master-craftsmen ran a workshop
for their trade and had many assistants and apprentices. The
on-site workshops were known as lodges and were used as the
living quarters of the masons, where they would “lodge.”
# Description – Income Sum

1 Taxies levied on the chapter at Autun
Income from vacant benefices in the city and diocese of Autun
2 which, by the authority of the Holy See, has been assigned to
the cathedral works
3 Income from indulgences granted to benefactors to the fabric
Income from the collection and from the Saint-Lazare
4
brotherhood at the Pentecostal Synod
5 Casual offering not accounted for by the works fund 34 pds 19 sous
6 Income from collection boxes designated for the fabric 10 pds 17 sous
Additional item deducted from the collections at Autun
7 42 pds 13 sous
Cathedral
Total = 400 pds 9 sous
# Description – Expenses Sum

1 To the quarries for the excavation of stone 8 pds 10 sous
2 To the same for a year’s supply of lime 9 pds 8 sous

For the cutting and transportation of cask wood for vaulting in
3 17 pds 2 sous
the church (carpenters and laborers)
4 To the forge at Autun for the year 42 pds 10 sous
5 To the quarry forge
6 To the laborers for opening the said quarry 4 pds 15 sous

For investigations into the situation at the quarry
7 1 pds 10 sous
atMarmountain
8 To the laborers who laid the tiles of the roof of the church 9 pds 11 sous
9 For the poles for the rafters 5 sous
10 For the making of 12 carts including the ironwork 1 pds 15 sous
206
11 To the carpenters for the cask wood cut in the chapter’s forest 8 pds 16 sous
12 For repairing the roof of the church 9 pds 11 sous
13 To the carpenters for lathing at the church 10 pds 8 sous
Table 7.2: Robert Clavel’s statement of accounts for the cathedral

at Autun, gives a very good indication of the scale of the project
budget and the on-going project procurements. As an overseer he
was responsible for providing the working site with raw materials,
manufactured goods, and the transporting of goods, and the
organization of workmen.
Guilds
A very important feature of medieval society were the trade-
guilds which embraced both the guilds-merchant and the craft-
guilds. The latter were associations of workmen, for maintaining
the customs of their craft, each with a master, or alderman,
and other officers. The trade-guilds had their provisions for
mutual help for themselves and for their widows and orphans,
and they had their religious observances. Each had its patron
saint, its festivals, and its treasury. They kept in their hands
the monopoly of the branch of industry which belonged to them.
They had their rules in respect to apprenticeship, etc. Almost all
professions and occupations were fenced in by guilds.17
Each craft was a separate guild where the skills were secret
and closely guarded, a "closed shop", which you could marry
into or entered through an apprenticeship under a Guild Master
(Craftsman). The apprentice would learn the craft in one place
and then later spend time as a "Journeyman" gaining experience
from job to job. They were highly mobile traveling from town
to town. Eventually, they became a guild master member
when their work was considered to be the equal of a master
craftsman and they could train their own craft apprentices.
Master craftsmen had no technical education but were of wide
experience. Knowledge that was gained was not written down
but passed aurally. Each workshop had specific tools. All metal
tools were made by the blacksmith and wooden pieces by the
carpenter.
207
Figure 7.6: Medieval Projects were wholly dependent on the

organization of guilds - the companions here (carpenters) belonged to
a community of their own special craft.18
Figure 7.7: Wood engravers in Germany during the latter half of the
16th Century.19
208
The heavy work was carried out by laborers with no

particular trade or skill. They were at the bottom of the
medieval ladder, but had the opportunity to better themselves.
They could become a specialized craftsman or save money and
set themselves up as a contractor. Often, they were recruited
from the rootless like serfs fleeing their feudal lords. If they
were not found within a year and a day, they became freemen
and citizens of the town. Records show the work given to the
laborers varied: they transported cask wood for carpenters, dug
the quarries or the foundations, carried a variety of materials in
baskets (panniers) on their backs and took the tiles to the roofs.
Stonecutters and masons (specialized workers) usually had a
number of laborers to help them called servants or assistants, for
example, making of mortar and plaster.20
Planning
The master-builder would draw out the design on a parchment
or two pieces of plaster that would then be approved by the
bishop and chapter. One would have the floor plan and the other
the wall elevation. The master worked in the tracing house set
up with trestle tables and a slab of plaster of Paris on the floor
on which the large drawings would be scratched out.
At the core of the design the master-builder would use three
shapes namely, a circle, square, and equilateral triangle. Every
element of the design incorporated these shapes. Starting with
a base line a small scale design would be set up. Using the
methods of rule of proportions and counting units the rest of the
plan would follow.21
One of the main challenges in planning the Gothic cathedral
was to consider how the slender walls with their massive stained
glass windows, would support the weight of the massive roof
structure.
Executing
Trenches were dug for the wall lines and pits for the columns
by the laborers. Rough stone would be tipped in and flooded with
lime mortar to make a concrete foundation. A ceremony marked
the laying of the “foundation stone” usually by the bishop or
notable person, or major contributor to the project. Hewn stone
209
was supplied from local quarries (within an 8 kilometer (5 mile)

radius) after it had been inspected by the master. Sometimes
it would be procured overseas (Caen) if unavailable locally.
Quarry men worked in groups of eight under the direction of a
master quarry man. Typically, a cart of stone would leave the
quarry every 15 minutes, and weigh about 1 ton.22 The high
cost of transport made it more cost effective to send the stone
cutters to the quarry to square off stones according to certain
measurements. Working masons would shape these stones
cutting a true flat face on the front and beds on both ends - top
and bottom. The front face was tooled with a regular pattern on
the surface of small pits or grooves from side to side.
Figure 7.8a: Chartres floor plan built over a 75 year period.23
Gothic cathedral projects were planned and executed in

logical segments, that defined an overall scope. These consisted
of numerous phases that built the cathedral in sections to
an order in the erection procedures (see figure 7.8b). In any
of the intermediate phases, the sequence of the construction
operations, like the dispositions of scaffoldings, and materials,
had to assure a safe state of equilibrium. So, for example the
lateral naves had to be built before the main (central) nave.24 As
sections of the cathedral were completed, they could be put into
use for church services.
210
Figure 7.8b: Phases of construction delivery of Segovia Cathedral

that show sections with the various completion dates (1525-1607).25
These became functional as they were built.
As the walls rose to five feet much scaffolding had to be built

by the carpenters, made of poles lashed together with rope,
and then hoists were attached. The scaffolds also held work
platforms for the masons made of mats of woven twigs called
"Hurdles," which could be easily moved. Small stones were car-
ried by basket. Larger ones were hoisted using rope and pulley.
The carpenters also built wooden centers for the arches based
on the masters drawings. Sometimes, where wood was more
predominant than stone as a building material, the master car-
penter was required and took a more prominent role than the
master mason in the construction project.
211
Other significant contributors to the project were the

blacksmiths who made the iron bars to strengthen pinnacles,
and to tie together the sides of arches. Also plumbers laid lead
gutters and roofs of case lead sheets.
Figure 7.9: Chartres, South elevation.26
Skills of a Master-builder
One of the most important traits of the master-builders was
that they had to have a comprehensive grasp of the totality of
building operations, and all their ramifying complexities, so that
they could sequence the activities most efficiently. They needed
a thorough knowledge of all related building trades.27 They
carried the simplest of tools a measuring stick or rod, a straight-
edge and ruler, a pair of calipers, compass, square, angles,
proportional divider and string. What they lacked in technology
they made up in ingenuity and personal skill. Overall they had
to read and write, understand building operations and geometry,
and manage the project workforce on site. At Amiens there were
over 50 sculptors working at one time.28
The breaks in construction due to a lack of funds meant that
the master-builder had no option but to move to another project
and then be replaced when construction resumed. Without one
single master-builder responsible for a project, from beginning to
end, new masters would have to adapt their plans to what was
212
already constructed. On the Chartres project, up to nine differ-

ent master-builders29 have been identified. These nine did not all
exert the same influence on the final project and this change of
leadership affected the project. These masters did not all use the
same standard of measurement and had the added complication
of continually making adjustments in their calculations based on
what was done before. The process was done over a thirty year
period and the final result stands as a magnificently constructed
building that is unified through a variety of themes and plans.
Figure 7.10: Carvings around choir ambulatory, Chartres (there are

eighteen hundred statues, and almost as many delivered with the
projects at Amiens and at Rheims and Paris).30
One reason for the superiority of French figure sculpture in

the 13th Century is that the French used models, as preserved
in the sketch book of mediæval architect Villard de Honnecourt
with studies from life.
Sophisticated Technologies
The master-builder of Chartres outlined new principles, through
sophisticated technologies like flying buttresses that supported
the slender walls and allowed more stained glass to be incorpo-
rated. The walls appeared to be made of glass and were the star
213
attraction, magnificent in the brilliance of the holy light. The

massive stained glass windows (up to 10 meter (32 feet) in di-
ameter) were very labor intensive from the creation of the stone
tracery to the manufacture of colored glass, which was cut to a
pattern and then set into a lead frame.
Figure 7.11: Medieval Glass Makers of 31 Chartres produced over

3,000 meters2 (32,292 feet2) of stained glass.
The Pointed arch also evolved from the Roman arch. The
point on the arch further helped distribute the weight through
the sides of the arch making it stronger and better able to take
more weight. The cathedral at Chartres would inspire all the
great architects of the 13th Century.
The workforce also used sophisticated technologies for a wide
range of equipment like a human powered (treadmill) crane as
a hoisting device that could raise loads of considerable weight of
stone masonry to heights of 60 meters (200 feet).
The use of beasts of burden was common were the medieval
workforce would have used an ox and cart to transport stone
to the cathedral site. In Laon (in the Picardy region of France)
oxen were considered so important they were immortalized as
sculptures in the towers.
214
Total
326
295
338
364
384
384
390
391
391
Labourers
131
150
176
200
213
213
213
220
220
Roofers
4
makers
Glass-
15
14
14
14
13
13
13
14
14
Smiths
20
19
19
17
17
17
18
17
17
Sanders
13
13
13
15
15
15
15
15
15
Carpenters
32
32
32
32
32
33
33
33
4
Masons
24
20
26
26
31
31
35
28
28
Monumental
Masons
45
14
15
15
16
16
16
18
18
cutters
Stone-
74
29
39
39
41
41
41
42
42
May 26 – June 1
April 28 – May 4
Feb 1 – April 18
June 16 - 22
June 16 - 22
May 12 – 18
May 19 – 25
Weeks
June 9 - 15
May 5 – 12
June 2 – 8
Table 7.332: Men Employed at Westminster Abbey Resource Calendar

shows how the project was affected by the seasons.
Similarly, in the same era Chinese author Li Jie (1065-1110),

for the Directorate of Buildings and Construction, created The
Yingzao Fashi33 a Treatise on Architectural Methods or State
Building Standards. He estimated the monetary costs of hiring
laborers of different skill levels and types of expertise in crafts.
215
His estimates are on the basis of a day’s work and include the
materials needed, taking into account the season in which the
work is done.
Closing
The end results of the project were stunning. The spire at
Strasbourg Cathedral reached 142 meters (almost 500 feet). The
nave at Beauvais Cathedral reached 48 meters (150 feet) and
could hold a fourteen floor building. When a Gothic cathedral
was completed it was by far the largest indoor space in the town.
The buildings were vast caverns of space, through pointed arches
and vaulting for a high roof. At Amiens the cathedral floor space
of 7,700 meters2 (8,500 yards2) could hold the entire population
of the city some 10,000 people. The buildings were used for
numerous purposes not just religious, for example, public or civic
meetings, magistrates or heads of guilds meetings, or fairs with
stalls. The Gothic cathedral allowed men from all social classes
to meet from kings, to noblemen, to peasants.
Figure 7.12: Interior of Notre Dame highlights the ratio of glass to

stone over the height and length of the building.34
216
Figure 7.13: Cologne Cathedral, Germany is probably the most

magnificent Gothic edifice in the world. The foundation-stone was
laid 1248. It was finally completed in 1880.35
Great Castle Projects (in Europe 12th/13th Century)

William of Normandy conquered England in 1066, and this event
was the catalyst for a massive building boom of castles across
England including in a ring of castles around Wales. Hundreds
were built across Europe and the Middle East. The most notable
were Conway Castle in Wales, Castillo de Loarre, Aragon, Spain,
and Krak des Chevaliers, Homs, Syria.
A construction project for a castle was not that different to
a Gothic cathedral in terms of approach, although it required
fewer skilled men but a larger workforce because the time
span was much shorter. When Beaumaris Castle was built in
Wales between 1278 and 1280, 1,630 workmen were employed
including: 400 masons, 30 smiths and carpenters, 1,000 laborers
and 200 carters. The number of specialized workmen on this site
was comparatively low (25%) whereas on a church site, such as
Westminster Abbey, this would be as high as 50% among the
workforce. These projects provided much needed employment.
217
However, conscription was used, particularly in England, where

the King had the power to recruit 25 to 40 men for the site of a
fortified castle which might be several hundred miles away.36
Obviously there was a lot of resentment and it didn’t do much for
project morale, but these projects were deemed as high priority
to national security.
Figure 7.14: Layout of a Gothic castle Harlech, Wales.37
In 1270 concentric castles appeared that were more effective

against well-elaborated sieges and could resist a besiegement
for more than a month. Concentric castles were built with a well
for water and carried a large amount of provisions. They had up
to four lines of defense which incorporated farmland, fruit trees
and wells. A breach in the wall could be held off by archers firing
from the top of a keep. They were also located near the sea or
lakes so provisions could be brought in even when under siege.
218
Angkor Wat Project (1113-1145)

A temple at Angkor, Cambodia, was built for King Suryavarman
II in the early 12th Century as his state temple and capital city.
It was completed in 1145 in only 32 years by a project workforce
of up to 50,000. The world’s largest religious site has a moat
and an outer wall of 3.6 kilometers (2.2 miles) in length. It was
built from sandstone (over 5 million tons) that was transported
from a quarry approximately 40 kilometers (25 miles) away
by raft along the Siem Reap River. The project time scale was
significantly shorter than that of the French Gothic cathedral
projects. It was at the center to one of the largest cities in the
pre-industrialized world that was approximately 700 kilometers2
(400 miles2). It carried a complex network of canals, 1,000 man-
made ponds, and roughly 70 long-lost temples. Even though the
rainfall was ample to support agriculture for part of the year the
water engineering works were required as there was a long dry
season. By building reservoirs to retain floodwater, irrigation
of an extra rice crop became possible by utilizing a complex
network of canals.38
Figure 7.15: Angkor Wat, the highest tower (in shape of the Lotus
flower) is taller 43 meters (141 feet) or 65 meters (213 feet) above the
ground) than the tallest Gothic cathedral in Europe.39
219
Grand Canal of China Project

In China, paper money was first issued in the 10th Century to
become the dominant currency in the 12th Century which fueled
economic growth and a rise of major projects. Boats on the canals
were used for transporting grain to the South. Canal traffic
increased with grain and iron barges.
The Grand Canal was a building project of ancient Emperors
similar in scope to the Great Wall. It’s the world’s longest man-
made waterway which spans over 1,800 kilometers (1,150 miles)
long connecting the cities of Beijing in the North and Hangzhou
in the South. The Canal connects the Yangtze and the Yellow
River valleys that flow from west to east, containing 24 locks and
60 bridges.
Figure 7.16: Shows the world’s longest man-made waterway, over

1,800 kilometers long, connecting the cities of Beijing in the North
and Hangzhou in the South. The Canal connects the Yangtze and
the Yellow River valleys.
The waterways of eastern China went through three building

periods which began in 486 BCE during the Zhou Dynasty,
220
extended during the Qi Dynasty (dates unknown), and later by

Emperor Yangdi of the Sui Dynasty during six years of furious
construction from 605-610. The final period was prompted
when China’s “breadbasket” shifted from the wheat and millet
producing regions of the north to the rice fields of the south. This
final canal section was designed to supply the armies protecting
the northern frontiers, improve the administration, and increase
the economic interdependence of the north and south.
With primitive building techniques (digging with simple
tools), conditions were harsh for the workforce. It is estimated
that half of the 6 million men (peasants) died building the Canal.
However, the Canal accomplished for China what the real Nile
had done for Egypt thousands of years ago. It integrated the
economies of the north and south, and China emerged as the
most powerful state in the world.
Figure 7.17: Grand Canal of China (19th Century photo).40
221
In 1327 the Grand Canal stretching 1800 kilometers (1,150

miles) was completed.41 The canal’s main purpose was moving
rice to the empire’s wheat-growing north.
Viking Voyages to Greenland and Vineland (circa 1000)

The Viking’s relied on the sea for their raiding, attack and es-
cape. This was a motivation for them to develop seaworthy ships.
The Knar was an ocean-going cargo vessel, higher and wider in
relation to its length, with a limited numbers of oars, and cargo
decks installed fore and aft. With experience and more reliable
navigational techniques they were able to travel increasingly
longer distances over open sea and ocean up to 800 kilometers
(500 miles). Through a string of settlements and outposts in
Iceland and Greenland they were eventually able to reach the
shores of North America almost 500 years before Columbus.
Eric the Red, having been banished from Iceland for a
series murders, was the first to venture and sail west in 986
to Greenland. Eric’s son, Leif Ericsson, continued exploring
and in 1000 sailed southwest from Greenland to the islands off
northern Canada and the shores of Newfoundland.
Figure 7.18: L’Anse aux Meadows the site of a Viking settlement in

Vineland (Newfoundland).42
222
The Vikings' visits to Vinland (“wine land” for its wild

grapes) are recorded in the Norse sagas. They found the land
inviting, so they stayed through the winter before returning
to Greenland. Leif Eriksson’s brother Thorvald led a second
expedition in 1003, and the following year a colonizing
expedition of 130 Vikings was abandoned after warfare with the
native Indians. The final expedition was led 1013 by Erik the
Red's daughter Freydis.
The Vikings didn’t stay longer because their technology
advantage was not significant enough against a hostile local
population for them to hold on more than a few years. These
expeditions (projects), were well planned and executed and not
just meandering. The Vikings could support their far-flung trade
networks and the colonization of Iceland, Greenland, and North
America.
Key Players
William of Normandy (1027-1087)

His invasion of England sparked off a building boom in
castles and churches. He built more than 40 castles scattered
throughout England and a ring of castles around Wales. His
successors continued what he started which led to hundreds of
imposing castles built all around Europe.
Villard de Honnecourt (1200s)

His notebook/model-book43 provided insights on a wide range
of topics that were part of a tool kit of a cathedral master-
builder. These included architectural plans, elevations and
details, ecclesiastical objects and mechanical devices like a mill-
driven saw, a number of automata, and lifting devices. Villard’s
detailed sketchbook of construction work was based on his
travels through many cathedral building-sites. He likely visited
in France the cathedrals of Cambrai, Chartres, Laon, Meaux,
Rheims, the abbey of Vaucelles, and the cathedral of Lausanne
in Switzerland. He lived in Picardy in northern France.
223
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
The most striking thing about the Gothic cathedral project was
the commitment to keep the project going and finishing it off,
even if it ran into decades, and centuries. Many projects were
built in parallel competitively across cities and towns in specific
regions. The projects did not have the resources of a nation, or
a city-state but those of a small town and community, for which
they were incredibly important. The scale of the building at 13
stories dwarfed the surrounding 2 story town. The engineering
complexities of the cathedrals were in several areas like for
example in the ratio of glass to stone over the height and length
of the building, for the painstaking precision required, and the
incredibly complex detail. The construction sites were dangerous
places and the workforce had to be very adept in such an
environment.
This period also saw a boom in building projects as Great
castles were built across Europe, similar projects to the Gothic
cathedrals but more labor intensive. They did not have the same
constraints of man power availability as the master-builders,
under the king’s authority particularly in England, had the
power to recruit or conscript up to 40 men within a radius of
several hundred miles.
In Asia the Grand Canal of China was very significant to
economic development but, tragically it was built at a huge cost
in human lives. Angkor Wat was a stunning construction but
little is known about the project itself.
The Viking Voyages to Vineland were incredible
achievements, yet they were unsustainable, and didn’t have
the lasting impact they should have had. As projects they were
somewhat opportunistic in their approach, land hoping, and
their technology advantage was not significant enough against a
hostile local population.
224
Key Lessons
Lessons Learned
Many of the Gothic cathedral projects took up to one hundred
years to complete:
• They depended on a governance framework to carry
them through this period. The project funding was levied
through taxes, collections and indulgences.
• Typically, each time a master-builder took over they
would use different standards of measurement, and
therefore had to continually adjust calculations, based
on what was done before. For the chapter a sequence of
different master-builders was inevitable and acceptable.
• The chapter (project team) depended on “true blinding
faith” to carry the project through.
◦◦ In medieval construction projects the master-builder
needed the most complete knowledge and grasp
of every phase of the project, and a structural and
constructional understanding from the planning to
the execution of the project. A great number of trade
guilds and master craftsmen had to be integrated into
the project. At Chartres there were over 43 trades
represented.
◦◦ The projects had chapters who oversaw the project,
and an overseer of works who monitored the project
on a daily basis and managed change control tightly.
Significant changes had to be submitted to the chap-
ter for approval. The chapter controlled the finances.
◦◦ With Gothic cathedral projects the issue of losing key
staff due to breaks in construction was real (most
often owing to a lack of funds). It almost certainly
meant the master-builder had no option but to move
to another project. When construction resumed he
had to be replaced. This risk was very real but there
is not much evidence that contingencies were put in
225
place when this happened. There was an expectation

that this would happen and that no one single
master-builder could finish the project off.
◦◦ The Church monopolistically initiated the finance
of the projects from its own revenues derived from
church owned land and also from the community.
Collectors would be sent out to raise money and
appeals went out. The church could also send its
holy relics on tour, which would raise donations. The
challenge was to financially sustain the project over
several generations where the original participants
would never see it to completion.
◦◦ Very few of these projects were achieved in one
continuous campaign of building.44 The business
justification was remarkable as the full benefits often
only materialized beyond-the-life of many of the
patrons. This required tremendous assurances in the
ability to continue the project to completion, through
a “Transition Plan.”
◦◦ A strong motivation for completion was the fact that
each cathedral was the largest and most important
building in its town, and dominating it in size (40m
or 130 feet). Most of the surrounding buildings were
a mere couple of stories high. So, the cathedral
had to be completed otherwise it could end up as a
redundant structure.
◦◦ Most cathedral projects were influenced by the
merchants of the town or city. The economic benefits
of having a landmark cathedral, to attract pilgrims,
motivated the merchant classes into sponsoring the
project. Typically, prime spot stained glass windows,
for advertising, were reserved for them.
◦◦ The projects had significant impact on the employ-
ment of a town.
• Scope management
◦◦ A couple of driving requirements for the project were
related to:
226
• The esthetics of the building, and creating “the

most radiant windows.” These stained glass win-
dows were central and communicated messages,
stories, and advertising for local business, trad-
ers, and guilds.
• The competition between the cathedrals projects
led to a race to beat the world height record.
◦◦ With the Gothic cathedral projects the unparalleled
commitment and time frames required a very well
defined scope of what was being built as it was passed
along through the ever changing project team.
◦◦ Cathedrals were built in sections so they could be put
to use right away (see figure 6.9).
dictated by:
• The location within the center of a town.
• The height of the towers, transepts, and nave.
• The size of the windows and the ratio of glass to
stone in the walls.
• The availability of materials, mortar and stone
(quarried locally if possible).
with the following:
• Site preparation.
• Assembly of scaffolding, delivery of bricks.
• Construction of the structure in logical segments.
• Time Management
◦◦ The order and sequence of activities in a substantial
building like the Gothic cathedrals were significant.
The erection sequence had to be worked out and
adhered to. Constraints like access to materials and
work-in-hand inventories had to be carefully thought
through. For example, the close distance between
227
pillars made it possible for only handcarts to be

moved along prepared roadways into the interior of
the building.
◦◦ Labor schedules were created for the project to
manage over seasonal variations.
◦◦ Gothic cathedral projects are a very good example of
long-range planning and scheduling. The final project
output was built with painstaking precision and
incredibly complex detail. In some cases the project
took over a hundred years to complete, Notre Dame
in Paris took 88 years.
• Cost management
◦◦ Gothic cathedral projects predominantly used cost
management throughout the project and kept a
projection of costs. The church authorities used a
system of accounts for managing the project budgets
in a very similar way to what the Romans used (see
page 213), tracking income versus spending.
◦◦ The costs were enormous and the project required
the whole town to get behind it, so the idea had to be
heavily promoted and sold. One approach was to raise
funds through marketing.
• The stained glass windows incorporated and
promoted in their layout local merchants and
professional groups (stonecutter, carpenter,
clothier, cartwright, etc) to advertise their trades.
This was an early example of self-advertising.
These windows were located closest to the public
in the side aisles, and low in the window frame.
Similar to selling advertising-space today.
◦◦ The project was rarely one continuous process
and was often halted for one reason or another.
There were periods when the funds to pay for the
project workforce, or supplies, or materials, became
exhausted. Work ceased until the funds became
available. At this point canvassing began, for example
the sale of indulgences like the Butter Tower of
Rouen Cathedral.45
228
◦◦ The building materials (stone, lime, sand, and wood)

were sourced from local quarries, where possible,
which significantly reduced costs.
◦◦ Cost control was practiced as techniques evolved. For
example, Chartres (completed 1220) was one of the
first cathedrals that had massive buttresses. These
weighed 2,000 tons and supported flying buttresses.
At Bourges (completed 1324), the flying buttresses
were longer and more slender, blocking less light, a
third of the weight and most importantly a lower cost.
• Economy of design was essential but it was
possible to take it too far as with Beauvais
cathedral which collapsed in 1284. The nave was
taken to a height of 150 feet (48 meters). The
transept (crossing the nave at right angles), and
choir are all that remain today.
◦◦ Labor was sourced locally where possible although
certain skills were traveling like the master-builder
and craftsmen.
◦◦ The general laborers mostly lived near the site of the
cathedral and received cash in hand at the end of
each working day.
• Read more at Building a Medieval Cathedral:
Construction of Places of Worship in the Middle
Ages. http://www.suite101.com/content/building-a-
medieval-cathedral-a44972#ixzz10nHLP457
◦◦ The projects were seasonally driven and had a
seasonal workforce. As the project teams shrank in
the winter, only the skilled workforce was kept busy.
◦◦ At Chartres, the sculptures were only 3% of the
building expense and the windows were a similar cost
(James, “What Price the Cathedrals?” 1972: 53). The
structure was the bulk of the cost and this utilized
local unskilled labor for quarrying, cutting, hauling,
and lifting, etc. (James 1972: 63).
229
• Quality management
◦◦ The mason’s marks were used in the Gothic cathedral
projects, with requirements for accurately cut and
closely fitting blocks. These marks helped the stone
setters more accurately set individually “hewn to
shape” blocks into place without errors. The marks
also introduced “traceability” so if a block didn’t pass
an inspection these would identify the stonecutter so
he could be held accountable for its craftsmanship.46
◦◦ The guilds brought their own organizational
standards for work completed and templates.
◦◦ The responsibility of the master-builder was to
ensure the designed structure would work and
not collapse of its own weight or from inadequate
bracing.47 The master-builder was aware of jerry
building and shoddy practices.
◦◦ Even though a few projects failed, notably the
collapse of Beauvais in 1284, most cathedrals have
lasted until today. This is a testament to how the
approach to quality was built right into the project
plan and quality control was used continually in
the project. The quality assignments were part of
the schedule so as these cathedrals were built in
sections the choir, transept, and nave were rigorously
inspected by the master-builder.
◦◦ As the ratio of glass to stone increased in the walls
and the choir rose to stunning heights (48 meters
(160 feet)), the threat of building collapse was a
continuous and real risk. To transfer the weight off
the walls support was provided by flying buttresses.
Quality control became a priority as these supports
had to be built with great accuracy.
◦◦ There was an expectation that the project would
have several generations of architect/master-builders
(PMs).
◦◦ There was a constant acquisition of apprentices
into the medieval trade-guilds to be developed and
230
maintained into a skilled and qualified workforce.

The training and development of apprentices followed
an oral and not written tradition. Skills were learned
by visual example and by demonstration at the site.
There is a virtual absence of written records that
explain comprehensively and in detail the methods
followed in the building project. This knowledge, the
secrets of the craftsmen, was jealously guarded and
never committed to writing. Even the design was not
disclosed until the end of the medieval period.48
◦◦ The detailed records of Walter of Hereford, the
master builder of the Cistercian Abbey of Vale Royal
in Cheshire, England from the years 1278-1281
suggest that 85% of the quarry men for the project
were drawn from the local population, while only
5-10% of the highly skilled masons and stone-cutters
were hired locally.49
◦◦ For the medieval castle projects conscription was
widely used, particularly in England, where the King
had the power to recruit 25 to 40 men for the site of a
fortified castle which might be several hundred miles
away. This caused a lot of resentment and it didn’t
do much for project morale but, these projects were
deemed as high priority of national security.
◦◦ The workforce was well looked after. The on-site
workshops were more than a workplace. They
provided living quarters in lodges for the workmen.
This helped keep the team together for an extended
period, a job for life.
◦◦ The project workforce worked for a salary, and there
are extensive tax records, that exist today from the
municipality of Paris in the 13th Century tax register,
that reveal the tax by profession.50
◦◦ To better support the workforce there was a
substantial effort to acquire and manage essential
equipment. Even today there is evidence that the
great wheel device for lifting heavy loads was left
in place in the vaults so that, it could be used for
repairs.
231
◦◦ The size of the team was seasonally driven. During

the winter the team shrank to 30 from a summer
peak of 230 as men returned home. All masonry
work proceeded inside workshops as all external
work stopped. Because of the seasonal break the
project workforce would work a 14 hour day in the
summer, versus a 9 hour day in the winter. The ratio
of skilled men to laborers was about 2:1 at peak and
3:1 off-peak periods. Typically, the masons (skilled)
would have working for them the quarry men, mortar
mixers and carriers.
◦◦ The medieval project workforce on average worked
a 4 to 5 day week when the 30 feast days are
included. The medieval working population was not
overburdened and the project workforce was certainly
not to be pitied.51
◦◦ The laborers were paid very little but the projects
gave laborers an opportunity to better themselves.
◦◦ An early example of a reward system is with the
Gothic cathedral projects where the architect (mas-
ter-builder) would have his portrait inlaid in white
marble with that of the bishop. The honor of having
your name engraved was an encouragement and in-
spiration. Similarly, the stained glass windows clos-
est to the side aisles incorporated and promoted in
their layout professional groups and local merchants
(carpenter, stonecutter, cartwright, clothier).52
◦◦ The Gothic cathedral project was driven by a
governance framework that included a Bishop and
Chapter. The initial communications to establish
buy-in could be done within the existing hierarchy
of the church using the local diocese to communicate
and organize from the pulpit. This was an obvious
advantage to the project.
◦◦ There are many aspects of modern communications
management in the approach used in the Gothic
cathedral projects. For example, the chapter (at the
232
centre of the project) had to determine stakeholders,

plan communications, set expectations, distribute
information, report performance, and manage
stakeholders.
◦◦ On site communications management within the
Gothic cathedral project would have relied on the
master-builder and trade guilds, who had very clear
lines of responsibility. For example, if the structure
was built more in wood than stone then the master
carpenter had more influence than the master
mason. Each master-craftsman ran a workshop for
their trade guild with assistants and apprentices, so
communications was very tight within this hierarchy.
Communication on construction sites today is not
much different with the foreman and supervisors
for a work team. The Gothic trade guild also readily
provided a level of technical expertise, guidance, and
information, to solve the problems with materials,
equipment, and also to make sure that good practices
were followed.
◦◦ The Gothic cathedral projects are a good example of
the importance of communication management in
long scale projects. They were wholly dependent on
communication management. There were two aspects
to this the first was to get buy in to the project. The
idea had to be sold to the town and the inhabitants
had to get behind it. The structure was going to be a
major imposition on the town in terms of scale. With
a long-range vision and plan established the second
aspect was to continuously communicate through
the life time of an incredibly long project that could
easily take up to a hundred years to complete. New
generations had to be introduced and be groomed
ready to take over.
◦◦ The town of Chartres had a population of 9,000 which
seems miniscule in today’s terms for a cathedral
project of such as size. Rallying the town behind the
project was essential.
233
◦◦ Another common form of written communication

was through the mason’s marks. These ciphers
communicated a record of the work done, the identity
of the stonecutter so he could be credited for the
work, and held accountable for its craftsmanship. The
stone-setters could then take the individually “hewn
to shape” blocks and place these without delays,
ambiguities or errors of placement. Cyphers were also
widely used in timber frame construction projects.53
• Risk Management
◦◦ There was a financial risk where insufficient
funding was available to carry the project through to
completion.
◦◦ The construction sites were very dangerous places
carrying many risks. Not surprising when considering
the heights of the structure and the small spaces
available for maneuverability.
◦◦ A cautious and safe approach was required daily.
As the ratio of glass to stone increased the project
workforce had to be sensitive to the degrees of stress
within these walls as they worked within stringent
structural tolerances.
◦◦ To mitigate the risk of collapse new support
techniques were developed like flying buttresses
that transferred the weight off the walls. Pressures
were directed and channeled to areas where they
could most effectively and securely be received and
grounded.
◦◦ The guilds took a responsibility in safeguarding
their members in such an environment, similar to an
insurance.
◦◦ The competition that grew between the various
cathedral projects to be the tallest, and the increase
in window to stone ratios, both greatly increased the
risks. This was further complicated by the trial and
error approach, rather than empirically based, which
increased the risk by the time Beauvais Cathedral
project was underway. The experience of structural
234
failures was no longer within living memory, so

assumptions made went untested.
◦◦ To keep costs down materials were procured locally
when the quality of the stone met the master-
builder’s standards.
◦◦ The immense scope of the projects kept the local
guilds fully employed for several generations, and the
local economy stimulated.
◦◦ The Gothic cathedral projects are a good example
of the importance of procurement management in
long scale projects. The schedule was affected by the
seasons where the project slowed down in the winter.
The project workforce shrank from a high of 230 to
30. The services of the workers were procured. In
France they came from all over Paris and had to bid
for the work.
◦◦ The Gothic cathedral projects in Southern England
were built largely with a fine grained Oolitic
limestone, desirable as an unstratified stone that was
quarried near Caan in Normandy and shipped across
the channel.54
◦◦ Another critical aspect to these projects was
compulsory purchasing, and adjudication. Handled
by the chapter, and similar to urban redevelopment
today, the chapter dealt with both public and private
conflict. For example, in 1240 the obstinate monks of
the Hotel-Dieu in Amiens had to be given a hundred
pounds a year for five years and their hospital had to
be rebuilt near a large waterway.55
◦◦ Further evidence of procurement in the medieval era
exists in the Fabric Rolls, early public records that
give accounts of expenditure on buildings like English
Cathedrals. These list the nature and quantities
of materials purchased, who supplied them, what
was paid for them, as well as the names and wages
assigned to each category and grade of the labor
force. The long Fabric Roll of 1253 shows that in
235
that year a large quantity of iron was brought from

Gloucester for the works, and in this year there were
no less than nineteen smiths at one time engaged on
the building.56
Educators
of the role of the Gothic cathedral project chapter?
• Discuss the continuum of the Gothic cathedral project
over decades and the challenges involved?
• Discuss the voyages to Vineland and whether the North
American settlements had a chance of success?
236
Chapter 8
The Late Middle Ages

(1300 - 1450)
T
he historical period was dominated by the cataclysmic
epidemic of the Black Death which had a massive impact
on China, Europe in terms of the population, economy, and
trade. The latter part was dominated by the start of Renaissance
period which changed many aspects of medieval life. From a
project management perspective the cathedral boom continued
because of its economic impact on towns. The Black Death had
an enormous negative impact by stopping and closing projects.
However, at the start of Renaissance, there was a resurgence in
construction.

a. Changes in climate Little Ice Age, 1300-1460.
b. Black Death (plague) in China 1331 and in Europe
1347-1351.
c. Projects controlled by the church and state but
commercially sponsored projects start to become more
predominant.
237
a. The first half of the 14th Century saw European

overpopulation.
b. Financial Revolution and the emergence of the money
economy and banks.
c. Change in economy after the Black Death.
d. Growing influence of the architect/engineer.
• Major events
a. 1356 Ming dynasty coalesced a coherent campaign
that expelled the Mongol Emperor in 1368 and
unified China.
b. Start of Renaissance period, 1420, in Europe.
c. Portuguese sail beyond equator, 1434.
a. Industrial revolution (water power).
b. First European canon cast, 1330.
c. The Mechanical Clock.
d. Medicine.
e. Perspective Drawings.
f. Cartography.
g. Finance.
• Regions
a. Europe.
b. China.
a. Florence Cathedral Duomo.
a. Voyage of the Chinese Fleet.
• Key players
a. Filippo Brunelleschi.
• Chapter Wrap-up
238
8 - The Late Middle Ages (1300 - 1450)
Trends and Changes

The world population in this period dropped from 360 to 350
million.
Climate Change Little Ice Age (1300-1460)

The climate in medieval Europe began to cool and agricultural
innovations could not maintain the productivity of frontier lands
that became marginal again. This lasted until 1460 when the
climate warmed for the next century until 1560.
Black Death or Plague (1331-1351)

It struck China in 1331 and then again in 1353. A census in
China in 1200 recorded a population of 120 million, which
by 1393 had dropped to 65 million through a combination of
predominantly plague and war.1 The plague struck Europe in
1347 - 1351 and had a significant effect on labor pools. It killed
an estimated 75–200 million people in the 14th Century.2 In
less than 20 years half of Europe’s population had been killed.3
Livestock died, and land went uncultivated (up to 60% in
Germany). The cost of projects got more expensive as there was
a dramatic increase in the cost of labor, and money was the only
form of payment accepted. It took three centuries for the towns
to recover populations prior to the plague.
Projects
In Europe major projects were still controlled by the church
and state. The state (kings) could second key master-builders
and architects to their projects.
Impact of Changes
Northern European over Population

With the Little Ice Age the first half of the 14th Century saw
Europe burdened by overpopulation as the agricultural output
of northern Europe fell. This resulted in lower living standards
for the peasantry as their land holdings were subdivided or
they were forced into unproductive areas. In some areas, poor
239
weather created meager harvests which led to mass starvation

reducing the population by 15%.
Financial Revolution
The period saw the emergence of the money economy and
banks in parts of Italy. The first income taxes were levied in
Europe since Roman times. In Florence, the revival of guilds
and extensive commerce and trade gave rise to institutions for
commercial credit and banking. Over 80 banks were created in
1338 and by 1400 there were over a hundred. These banks kept
detailed records of the debts owed as their business depended
on the accuracy of records. The publication of Pacioli’s 5th book
in 1494, Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proporioni et
Proportinalita covers the topics of algebra and arithmetic, their
application in business, bookkeeping, money, and exchange,
and pure and applied geometry, and proportion. The Italians
became the leading merchants of the Middle Ages and nearly
monopolized international banking. They sent agents to other
countries to trade but carried letters of credit instead of cash
which allowed parties to transfer large amounts of money across
Europe without carrying cash. Of course there was a charge fee
for this service.
Change in Economy after the Black Death

In Europe after the Black Death (1351) there was a significant
employment boom and a feeling of reckless joy of being alive. The
survivors inherited what the dead had left behind so there was a
massive spending spree and economic boom. In the Renaissance
armies of Europe the ranks were now filled with mercenaries
who fought until the king’s money ran out.
Influence of Architect/Engineer
The growth in projects (commercial and military) saw the whole
period come under the influence of the architect/engineer. They
built cathedrals and other large buildings, whilst the military
engineer built castles and other fortifications.
240
Commercially Sponsored Projects

In this period wealth was generated through increased
commerce. Commercial projects were becoming more
predominant with the growth of commerce and towns. Private
capitalists promoted industry and technological innovation.
Major Events
Ming Dynasty 1356-1644

The dynasty united a coherent campaign that expelled the
Mongol Emperor in China and ushered in a new period of
peace and prosperity for China. The emperors of the dynasty
tried to subdue the nomads and partially restored the Great
Wall. Beijing was built into a magnificent city with 12 meter
(40 feet) high walls around a perimeter of 23 kilometers (14
miles). Within the centre was the emperor’s palace complex - the
Forbidden City.
Renaissance Period 1420

The term means “rebirth” and was a major cultural movement
that spanned the 14th to 17th Century encompassing a revival
of classical knowledge in art, literature, philosophy, linear
perspectives in painting, and widespread educational reform.
Portuguese Sail beyond Equator 1434

The European explorers lead the way in global exploration.
At first timidly hugging the coasts they quickly reach the
limitations of this travel.
One superstition related to the equator, and Cape Bojador,
which many thought was the Gates of Hell. The North Star,
the main navigational guide, disappeared south of the Equator.
Sailors were reluctant to cross that line and for 15 voyages
turned back before one expedition in 1434 finally braved its
passage without being swallowed up.
241
Industrial Revolution4 of the Middle Ages

After the Black Death the shortage of human labor in Europe led
to the search for alternative sources of power. One source was
waterpower and many workshops and factories were relocated
into the hills were fast running water could be used to drive
machinery for many purposes, including the fulling of cloth and
the pressing of olives. This is contrary to the stereotypical view
of the Middle Ages as a backward, superstition-ridden, and
technologically primitive time. Organizations could achieve more
far ambitious projects as water and wind power was harnessed.
First Canon Casts 1330 in Europe

The first recordings in Europe are in Florence in a document
that shows the city acquiring ‘metal canon’ and iron shot.5
Although canon had evolved in China some two hundred years
earlier, the Europeans fully exploited and rapidly evolved this
into a very potent technology that was central rather than
peripheral to their arms and ensuing conflicts.
The Mechanical Clock

The European monasteries drove the concept of mechanization
of time to support the routine of daily monastic life. The monks
adhered to a rigorous schedule of prayer, and work. Between
1280 and 1320, there is an increase in the number of references
to clocks and horologes in church records, and this probably
indicates that a new type of clock mechanism had been devised.
Existing clock mechanisms that used water power were being
adapted to take their driving power from falling weights. This
power was controlled by some form of oscillating mechanism,
probably derived from existing bell-ringing or alarm devices.
This controlled release of power - the escapement - marks the
beginning of the true mechanical clock. In 1365 came the first
sub division of hours into sixty minutes.
242
Perspective Drawing Lines

The appearance of the cannon led to the drawing of trajectories
of fired shot, which in turn saw the development of grids. Around
1410 Brunelleschi used grids to create perspective drawings, and
view 3 dimensional objects in 2 dimensions.
…He had (Brunelleschi) made a hole in the panel...which
was as small as a lentil on the painting side...and on the back it
opened pyramidally, like a woman’s straw hat, to the size of a
ducat or a little more.6
Brunelleschi held a picture of the Baptistery painted on a
panel, with its back to an observer, and had the observer squint
through a small hole in the painting. Through the hole the
observer saw a mirror reflecting the painting so the observer
saw the front of the painting in the mirror. When the mirror was
removed the real Baptistery was visible through the peephole,
yet both views were so similar. But this was no ordinary
painting it was the first accurate perspective picture. This
breakthrough increased Brunelleschi’s ability to measure the
world around him.
Regions
China
At the beginning of this period China still led the world in
technology but, by 1450 Europe had caught up. The Mongol
invaders had been invading parts of China and subjugating it.
It was not until 1356 under the Ming dynasty that a coherent
campaign coalesced that succeeded expelling the Mongol
Emperor in 1368.
Florence Cathedral Duomo Project (1417-1436)

Like many medieval cathedrals the overall project spanned 140
years. The project begun in 1296 and the major construction was
completed by 1407 without the dome or cupola.
243
Background
The project was driven by a rapid population expansion, and a
financial revolution which drove the emergence of the money
economy and banks. The prosperous city of Florence wanted to
match or exceed in size the much larger cathedrals that were
being built. For Florence this project was all about prestige. The
Consuls of the Guild of Wool made up the project sponsors who
sat on the executive board.
Initiating (1417-1420)
In 1348 the project was halted for a number of years because
of the Black Plague. By 1407 only the dome was uncompleted,
although this was the most complex part of the project. A brick
model of the planned octagonal dome had existed from 1367. The
design was unprecedented for the time as it called for a massive
dome, up to 30 meters (100 feet) in height, to be built above
the 40 meters (133 feet) wide space above the church’s chancel.
It was the height of the Pantheon (43.30 meters (142 feet),
matching the diameter) built 1,000 years earlier. It would weigh
over 35,000 tons.
In 1407 the project sponsors and the Wardens of Works of
the cathedral, summoned a congress of architects and engineers
from around the country to discuss methods for constructing the
dome and to find a candidate to lead it. The use of buttresses to
support the dome, as in northern Gothic cathedrals, was ruled
out by the building’s design. Among the congress was Filippo
Brunelleschi, a renowned master-builder. He advised not to
build directly from the roof, according to the original design of
the architect Arnolfo, but to build from the roof a frieze (drum)
fifteen braccia7 (9 meters or 30 feet) high (see figure 8.1). The
drum would not only take the weight off the supports of the
tribunes, but it would be easier to build the dome. Surprisingly,
the congress did not end up appointing a project manager.
Brunelleschi who was looking for this appointment made a
number of models and machines in secret, and stayed on in
Florence for many months to continue this work.
244
Figure 8.1: Filippo Brunelleschi’s suggested incorporating a drum 9

meters (30 feet) in height with a large round window in the middle of
each of its sides raising the dome 32 meters (108 feet) in height).8
On hearing talk that the project sponsors were looking at

engineers to the raise the dome, Brunelleschi returned to Rome,
believing that he would be sought out and be in greater demand
than if he stayed in Florence. He had delivered his presentation
with a confidence unique to the other master-builders. The project
sponsors together with the master-builders thought the project
unfeasible, and that there was no way to technically deliver the
dome. They could not envisage a structure strong enough to sus-
tain a framework and the weight of the dome. The diameter of the
done was too broad for beams to cross it or to make a bridge.
Brunelleschi instinct was proved correct. The Wardens and
project sponsors wrote to him in Rome, pleading for him to come
back to Florence. He desired nothing more and readily returned
to meet with them and the master-builders to walk through all
the raised issues. Brunelleschi spelled out the challenges:
“My Lords the Wardens, there is no doubt that great projects
always present difficulties in their execution, and if any ever did
so, this of yours presents them, and even greater than perchance
you are aware of, for the reason that I do not know whether even
the ancients ever raised a vault so tremendous as this will be; I
have often pondered over the framework necessary both within
245
and without, and how it may be possible to work at it safely. I

have never been able to come to any resolution, and I am aghast
no less at the breadth than at the height of the construction, so
if the cupola could be made round, we might use the method
used by the Romans in raising the dome over the Pantheon in
Rome, whereas here we must follow the eight sides, and bind
the stones together with ties and by dove-tailing them, which will
be something very difficult…”
Brunelleschi laid down his terms. He would show the method

if he was made the project manager:
“But how can I help you since this project is not mine? If the work
fell to me, I would have resolution and courage enough to find
the method whereby the vault might be raised without so many
difficulties; but as yet I have given no thought to it, and you want
me to tell you the method!”
Brunelleschi suggested the project manager should be of

proven ability and suggested a congress of architects to advise on
the project:
“And when at last you determine to have it raised, you will be
forced not only to make trial of me, for I do not think myself able
to be the sole adviser, but also to spend money and bring within
a year many architects to Florence, not merely Tuscans and
Italians, but Germans, French, and of every other nation; and
explain this project to them, to the end so that, after discussing
and deciding among so many masters, a start is made, and the
commission given to him who has concrete proof of his ability or
demonstrated the best method and judgment. Nor could I give
you a better plan or advice than this.”
The Wardens and project sponsors pleaded with him to stay

but he returned to Rome.
Planning (1417-1420)
On May 26, 1417 the Wardens decreed Brunelleschi a financial
retainer, entered in the books of the Office of Works, and made
drawings for the dome. In 1420, as Brunelleschi suggested, the
most prominent architects and masters, from all over Europe
were finally assembled in Florence for a competition. They all
246
met, in the Office of Works, in the presence of project sponsors

and Wardens, together with selected citizens, to hear each
architect in turn present their method and plan. This varied,
some suggested that piers be built from the ground up with
arches upon them to hold up the wooden bridges used to prop
the weight of the dome. Others suggested building the dome
from pumice-stone so it would weigh less. Another opinion was
to fill the centre with earth mingled with small coins so that it
would encourage groups to find the coins, removing the expense
of clearing these from the project. The consensus was for a
pier built in the center, and the dome raised in the shape of a
groined joint or vault (see Figure 5.3), like that of S. Giovanni in
Florence.
Brunelleschi alone said that it could be raised very easily
without so much wood-work, piers and expensive arches,
framework, and earth. Everyone thought he spoke nonsense,
something that was unfeasible. The masters asked Brunelleschi
to provide details, and show his model, as they had shown theirs.
But he refused and proposed instead that whoever could make
an egg stand upright on a flat piece of marble should undertake
the project. Taking an egg everyone tried to make it stand
upright, but no one could find a way. When Brunelleschi was
asked he gave one end a blow and made it stand upright. The
craftsmen protested that they could have done the same but
Brunelleschi answered, laughing, that they could also raise the
dome, if they saw the model or the design.
Brunelleschi’s persistence convinced many that he did in fact
know what he was talking about. He laid out the design on paper
and convinced the project sponsors to give him the commission,
making him principal superintendent (or project manager).
But they did not contract with him for more than twelve
braccia (24 feet, 8 m) of the whole height, saying to him that they
wished to see how the work succeeded, and that if it succeeded
as well as he promised they would not fail to commission him to
do the rest. It appeared a strange thing to Brunelleschi to see so
great obstinacy and distrust in the project sponsors and Wardens,
and, if it had not been that he knew himself to be the only man
capable of executing the work, he would not have put his hand to
it.
247
Figure 8.2: Florence Cathedral Duomo9 section of the dome shows the
distinctive octagonal design of the double-walled dome. It followed
a rigorously geometrical design. The total height of the dome and
lantern is 114.5 meters (375 feet) from the pavement. This was the
first large, self-supporting dome ever to be built without centering.10
Executing (Construction and Techniques) (1420-1436)

Brunelleschi was given the job on a trial basis, but the matter
did not end there. The craftsmen and the citizens heard
about the commission and there were mixed reactions. As
preparations for the construction were made, a faction appeared
before the project sponsors and Wardens, complaining that the
appointment was made to quickly, and that the project should
not be carried out by one man alone. There was an abundance
of excellent masters and that it didn’t do the city any credit,
because, if the project failed they might be blamed for giving
too much control to one man, without considering the impact
on the City of Florence. They suggested giving Brunelleschi an
assistant Lorenzo Ghiberti to restrain his impulsiveness.
The problems did not end there as the assistant was given
the same salary. Brunelleschi was dissuaded by his friends from
leaving the project which he pursued with little enthusiasm
as he had to divide the potential honor and fame equally
248
with Ghiberti. He decided that he would have to find a way of

removing Ghiberti from the project. Brunelleschi made a scale
model with all the exact proportions, and complex parts of its
design, such as the lighted and dark stairways, windows, doors,
ties, and buttresses, together with a part of the gallery. Ghiberti,
hearing of this model, wished to see it, but Brunelleschi refused.
Ghiberti flew into a rage and ordered another model to be made
for himself, so that he would not appear to be drawing his salary
for nothing and not peripheral to the project. The chapter paid
Brunelleschi 50 lire for his model, but Ghiberti was paid 300 lire
for the labor and expense of his, more because of the friendship
and favor that he enjoyed.11 Brunelleschi’s attempt had failed.
The situation continued for Brunelleschi for several years
until 1426, when the friends of Ghiberti called him a master
equal in stature to Brunelleschi. This infuriated Brunelleschi
so much that he decided to try again and get rid of Ghiberti,
recognizing that he was of little value to the project.
The project had completed the dome right round, at a height
of twelve braccia (24 feet, 8 meters) or 2 vaults. The vaults (a few
meters apart) had to be fixed with ties of both stone and wood.
As this was a complex design, he discussed it with Ghiberti, to
see if he had considered this. He found Ghiberti had not and
referred it but to Brunelleschi the inventor. Ghiberti’s answer
pleased Brunelleschi, as it gave him another opportunity to
remove Ghiberti from the project by exposing his limited value
to the project and show that he did not possess the right skills to
be in the position. Brunelleschi feigned an illness and removed
himself from the project. The masons and master-builders
engaged in the project were at a standstill, waiting to be shown
how to start the next section, and how to continue the vaults up
and bind them with ties. As they waited they became suspicious
that neither Ghiberti nor Brunelleschi had enough conviction to
carry on the work.
249
Figure 8.3: Cut away of the large dome of Florence Cathedral

created by Brunelleschi.12 “The dome itself consists of two octagonal
vaults, one inside the other. Its shape was dictated by its structure.
Brunelleschi made a design feature of the necessary eight ribs of
the vault, carrying them over to the exterior of the dome, where they
provide the framework for the dome’s decorative elements, which also
include architectural reliefs, circular windows, and a beautifully
proportioned cupola.”
Brunelleschi returned to the project, but, seeing that

Ghiberti was still strongly favored, even though the project
stopped, he made the following speech to the Wardens in the
presence of Ghiberti:
250
“My Lords the Wardens of Works, if the time that is lent to us

to live were as surely ours as the certainty of dying, there is no
doubt whatsoever that many things which are begun would be
completed instead of remaining unfinished. The illness which
I have suffered might have cut short my life and put a stop to
the work; therefore I have thought of a plan whereby, if I should
ever fall sick again, or Lorenzo, which God forbid, one or the
other may be able to pursue his part of the work. Even as your
Lordships have divided the salary between us, let the work also
be divided, to the end that each of us, being spurred to show his
knowledge, may be confident of acquiring honour and profit from
our Republic. Now there are two most difficult things which have
to be put into execution at the present time: one is the making
of the scaffoldings to enable the masons to do their work, which
have to be used both within and without the building, where they
must support men, stones, and lime, and sustain the crane for
lifting weights, with other instruments of that kind; the other is the
chain of ties which has to be placed above the twelve braccia,
surrounding and binding together the eight sides of the cupola,
and clamping the fabric together, so that it may bind and secure
all the weight that is laid above, in such a manner that the weight
may not force it out or stretch it, and that the whole structure
may rest firmly on its own basis. Let Lorenzo take one of these
two works, whichever he may think himself best able to execute;
and I will take the other without difficulty, to the end that no more
time may be lost.”
Ghiberti was forced unwillingly for the sake of his honor

to accept one of these tasks. He took the chain of ties, being
the easier option. He relied on the advice of the masons and on
remembering that in the vaulting of S. Giovanni in Florence
there was a chain of stone ties, from where he might borrow
the design. Brunelleschi took the other task and built the
scaffoldings with great ingenuity, where the workforce stood
on them, as securely as if they had been on the ground. The
workforce was able to work safely and draw up heavy weights
without any problem. This design swayed them and they threw
their weight behind Brunelleschi.
Ghiberti completed the chain of ties on one of the eight
sides with the greatest of difficulty. When it was finished, the
Wardens had Brunelleschi look at it. He said nothing to them.
He remarked to some of his friends that another kind of fasten-
251
ing was needed, and had to be placed differently because it was

not strong enough to withstand the weight laid above it, and it
did not bind the masonry firmly enough together. He added that
the chain he had made had been discarded. When the Wardens
heard about this he was asked to show the best way of making
such a chain. At this, he immediately showed them the designs
and models he had already made. They recognized the great mis-
take they had made in favoring Ghiberti. Wishing to atone for
this they made Brunelleschi overseer and superintendent of the
whole project for life, where nothing could be done without his
command and gave him 100 florins. They also voted him an al-
lowance of 100 florins a year for life.

Brunelleschi, ordered the project to continue, and he pursued
it with such scrupulous care and so great attention, that
not a stone could be put into place without his blessing. For
example, the curvature of the rising walls had to be very closely
monitored. Ghiberti found himself defeated, and put to shame,
but assisted by his powerful friends he went on drawing his
salary, claiming that he could not be dismissed for 3 years.
There were many technical problems in building the dome.
So, Brunelleschi was forever making designs and models of the
stages for the workforce, and the lifting machines for heavy
weights. He invented special hoisting machines and lewissons
for large stones.
Brunelleschi built the dome out of bricks, as the Roman
experience of building with concrete had been lost for over a
1,000 years, although he drew inspiration from the great dome
of the Pantheon in Rome. Great quantities of brick had to be
procured, in the region of 400,000 every year.
The diameter of the dome at 42 meters (130 feet) prevented
the traditional use of wooden structuring (a framework) from
the ground up through the center to support the construction of
the two vaults. A circular platform was built around the drum
to permit the movement of machinery and workers, and the
temporary storage of materials. As the octagonal design of the
double-walled dome rested on a drum and not on the roof itself,
it allowed for the entire dome to be built without a framework.
252
The bricks were laid on sloping beds. Before closing each ring of
bricks, the workmen placed a row of bricks whose longer sides
protruded with respect to the bricks resting on the conic surface.
This arrangement, known as a herring-bone, displayed a spiral
profile. This also helped shift the weight through the bricks
outwards to the dome’s support. The inward slope increased
continually from the base to the dome’s closing stone ring,
called the oculus or the eye. This ensured better stability of the
brickwork courses. These two parallel shells were connected by
brick spurs.
The ties were now finished right around the eight sides.
The masons were laboring vigorously but were harried more
than usual by Brunelleschi and were getting aggrieved by his
daily reprimands with regard to the project to the point that
they conceived a grievance against him. Moved by this and
by envy, the foremen banded together and declared that the
work was laborious and dangerous, and that they would not
complete the dome without an increase in pay, even though
their pay was higher than normal. This angered the Wardens
and Brunelleschi, and they decided to dismiss them all. On the
following Monday Brunelleschi set ten Lombards (apprentices)
to work, and by standing over and directing them, he taught
them so much in one day that they were able to work forward for
many weeks. The masons could not find as well paid work and
sent mediators to Brunelleschi, saying that they would willingly
return. Brunelleschi kept them guessing for many days and then
reinstated them at lower wages.
The execution of the project went so smoothly Brunelleschi
was fully recognized and the project critics were silenced. Those
not biased before maintained he had shown such boldness and
daring in his design that it was unmatched by no other architect
ancient or modern. When he brought out his model everyone
could see how much thought he had put into the planning of
the staircases and of the lights both inside and out so that no
one would be injured, and how many iron railing he had placed
for the stairways. He had even thought of the irons for fixing
scaffoldings within.
253
Figure 8.4: The view from inside the dome provides a sense of the
height and why the project workforce was worried about constructing
the dome. Workers were paid according to the height they worked
at.13
Figure 8.5: The stairs between the two vaults of the dome are 1 meter
(3 feet) wide, highlighting the complexity of the structure. The walls
slightly curve to the right. The internal wall is two meters (6 feet)
thick and the external one just 80 centimeters (2.5 feet) thick.14
254
Everything was very carefully arranged. He also placed dif-

ferent kinds of water-gutters, some were covered and some were
open, in the least dangerous positions, and along with these
various holes and apertures, to break the force of the winds and
to prevent movements of the earth from causing damage. He
demonstrated how he had learned from his studies during the
many years in Rome. He was widely recognized for his ingenuity
in dove-tailing, joining, fixing, and binding together the stones.
There was nothing, however difficult, that he could not person-
ally tackle. For example, he showed this in the lifting of weights,
by means of counterweights and wheels, that one ox could raise
what required six pairs of oxen to have been done before.
The building was now at such a height that it was greatly
inconvenient for anyone who had climbed to the top to descend
to the ground. The workforce was losing much time in the
day going for food and drink, as well as suffering a degree of
discomfort in the heat of the day. Brunelleschi arranged for
canteens with fully equipped kitchens to be opened on the dome,
and for wine to be sold there, so that no one had to leave work
until the evening. This was convenient for the men and very
advantageous for the project.
Figure 8.6: The Cathedral, Florence, Italy.15 This enormous dome

weighs 37,000 tons and contains over 4 million bricks. The drum sits
over a 42 meter (139 feet) wide space above the church's chancel. The
total height of the dome and lantern is 114.5 meters (375 feet) from
the pavement. The drum starts at 50 meters (165 feet) above ground
level and is 9 meters (30 feet) high. The dome atop of the drum is 30
meters (100 feet) in height. The height of the lantern atop the dome is
22 meters (71 feet).
255
Closing
The project was completed in 1436 and the cathedral was
consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, 1436. It was the
first ‘octagonal’ dome in history to be built without a wooden
supporting frame and was the largest dome built at the time.
The Roman Pantheon, a circular dome, was built in 117–128
with support structures. Brunelleschi’s solutions were ingenious
and unprecedented. His ability to transcribe a circle on a cone
face within the innermost double-vaulted wall makes the
self-sustaining “horizontal” arch construction possible, since
geometrically, a circular plan is needed for such an erection.
The work was completed in 16 years. It is still the largest
masonry dome in the world and has been one of the most
impressive projects of the Renaissance. For Brunelleschi this
was very difficult because not only had he to keep proving
himself but he had to also drive the project to completion.
He was hampered by his project sponsors, the stakeholders
(citizens) and his appointed assistant Ghiberti, which he
skillfully got rid of. In the end Brunelleschi proved to be a great
success. His ingenuity and skill resulted in the construction of
the first dome since the time of the Romans, but much must be
attributed to the way he managed the project overall, managing
his stakeholders, and his communication management.
Journey of Marco Polo (1271 to 1295)

Marco Polo is probably the most famous Westerner to have
traveled on the Silk Road. The Polo brothers, Niccolò and his
Maffeo, were prosperous merchants who traded with the East.
They left Constantinople for the East, in 1259. They were
convinced by the Mongol ambassador that the Great Kublai
Khan wanted to receive them which he did very hospitably. He
had set up his court at Beijing, built by Kublai as his new capital
after the Mongols took over China in 1264.
Marco was 15 years old when his father and his uncle
returned to Venice. Two years later the three of them embarked
again on a journey to Cathay for the second time. They passed
through Armenia, Persia, and Afghanistan, over the Pamirs,
256
and all along the Silk Road to China. They traveled overland for
3.5 years and covered 9,000 kilometers (5,600 miles). The Polos
spent the next 17 years in China and the Kublai Khan liked
Marco that he sent him on many diplomatic missions throughout
his empire. He also entertained the Khan with his stories and
about the lands traveled.
The Travels of Marco Polo, written in 1298, were very
important as they influenced both future explorers Columbus
and Magellan in finding these same places but by sailing west
rather than traveling east by foot.
Voyages of Chinese Fleet (1405 - 1433)

Admiral Zheng He (1371 - 1434) was given the project charter
to fulfill a series of seven extensive expeditions into the Indian
Ocean. The project objective was to establish diplomatic
relations with other nations to encourage trade, and to collect
information on navigation, geography, and natural history.
The business justification lay in establishing profitable trade
certainly through fine porcelain.
The planning and preparation was significant to the success
of these voyages. A great shipbuilding effort took place between
1403 and 1419 with some exceptionally large vessels constructed
of up to 100 meters (330 feet). These were designed for extended
voyages and at a time where the largest European caravels were
30 meters (100 feet) in length. Between 1405 and 1433 up to
2,100 technically advanced vessels were constructed with com-
passes, bulkheads and water tight compartments, desalination.
The ships had four decks with massive space for cargo, six masts
and were up to 100 meters (330 feet) in length and 1500 ton dis-
placement, carrying up to 1,000 sailors. The 1405 expedition con-
sisted of a fleet of 62 treasure ships supported by approximately
19016 smaller ships. Some ships were purported to have reached
a length of 180 meters (600 feet). The fleet was manned by over
27,000 crew members, including navigators, explorers, sailors,
doctors, workers, and soldiers.
The project succeeded in visiting practically every Asian
country with a coastline. The large fleet reached the coast
of East Africa between 1431 and 1433 a distance of 4,800
kilometers (3,000 miles). This proved that voyages of great
257
distance could be completed. The project was shutdown for

vague reasons. One was that the Chinese Government officials
(mandarins) were resentful of the profits made by the middle
class merchants running these expeditions, so they put pressure
on the emperor to end them.
Figure 8.7: Early 17th Century Chinese woodblock print, thought to

represent Zheng He’s ships.17
Key Players
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)

He was a learned person and the son of a very famous physician,
named Maestro Ventura Bacherini. His father placed him in
the gild of goldsmiths, after observing his talent for all making
sorts of mechanism. He quickly became a skilled workman, and
perfected his knowledge of sculpture, perspective and geometry.
258
He designed some portions of houses in Florence, and in 1401

he was one of the competitors for the design of the gates of
the baptistery of San Giovanni. Although he did not win the
work he obtained praise and soon afterwards set out for Rome.
He studied hard, and resolved to do what he could to revive
the older classical style of Rome, which had died out in Italy.
Moreover, he was one of the first to apply the scientific laws of
perspective to his work. In 1407 he returned to Florence, just at
the time when it was decided to complete Florence cathedral and
the dome. When he died in Florence on the 16th of April 1446 he
was buried in the cathedral church of his native city.
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
Cathedral projects in this period continued in the style of the
Gothic period as towns pushed for the world height record. With
experience the designs became more elaborate and ambitious. As
trade and commerce grew so did the banking system and more
loans were available so it became easier to fund large projects.
The approach to construction projects changed little only in that
the designs got more ambition. Styles changed as Gothic became
the Tudor style of architecture around 1485.
The most ambitious project of the time was the completion of
the dome of Florence cathedral. The scale of the project was the
largest since Roman times, a 42 meters diameter, close to the
Pantheon 43.3 meters (143 feet). For the architect Brunelleschi
this was a very difficult project were he had to keep proving him-
self to his project sponsors, and the stakeholders (citizens) who
hampered him by their meddling. In the end Brunelleschi proved
to be successful where his ingenuity and skill carried through
the construction, but much must be attributed to the way he
managed the project overall, managing his stakeholders, and his
communication management. He was able to deliver a project
against the limitations of the technology of his time. As an exam-
ple, he was able to build a 29,000 ton structure without no cen-
tering, initially thought impossible and to radical an idea to base
his appointment on. The solution was to create a self-supporting
structure which gradually got acceptance with the sponsors.
259
This period also saw the voyages of Chinese Fleet which

were a precursor to the European voyages of exploration and
discovery, that started 70 years later.
Key Lessons
◦◦ The design of the Florence Cathedral Duomo was
unique, innovative, extremely ambitious, and pushing
what was feasible in this era with the available
materials and technologies.
◦◦ The project had a very protective chapter over its
interests. Brunelleschi ran into numerous conflicts
with it as they were concerned over how the work was
to be sequenced and delivered, so they could tightly
manage it and any changes.
◦◦ The project governance was very influenced by
commercial interests (Consuls of the Guild of Wool)
even though this project created a religious structure.
◦◦ Brunelleschi had a very clear vision of how to
complete the project. The complexity of the design
required an almost total control over the delivery.
◦◦ Brunelleschi assumed that without total control of
the project he would not be able to supply such a
complex final deliverable.
◦◦ The business justification was driven by prestige. The
cathedral, with a spectacular dome, would reinforce
Florence as the main financial center in Europe.
◦◦ Change control existed within the project and
was used. For example, in March 1422 the project
committee met and reduced the weight of the dome
by replacing stonework by brick at a height of 12
braccia instead of 24.
260
◦◦ A driving requirement for the project was to match

the scale (height and diameter) of the Pantheon built
1000 years earlier.
dictated by:
• The height and diameter of the structure.
• The quarrying of stone and the production of
bricks, and their transportation to site.
with the following:
• Creation of a solid foundation through the drum.
• Construction of scaffolding, and delivery of
materials to where needed.
• Construction of the dome (internal and external)
◦◦ Through the Duomo project the scope was carefully
managed. For example, scope increased with the
double vault of the dome, but this had a positive
impact on time and cost because it reduced the
amount of scaffolding required, and the enormous
challenges with that approach.
◦◦ Brunelleschi constructed wooden and brick models
to guide the craftsmen. This allowed discussions
around the more abstract elements. The models were
intentionally incomplete, as to ensure his control over
the construction.
• Time Management
◦◦ Brunelleschi had to get the sequence of activities
right because of the risks in building at such a great
height.
◦◦ Scheduling of activities was important as the supply
chain of brick had to continuously feed the brick
laying teams. The rate of brick and mortar production
had to work in lockstep with the project construction
schedule.
261
◦◦ The pay clerk was appointed to check the daily

production of each workman, to record overtime
and the periods of leave which were granted only by
special permission. Workers taking unauthorized
leave were dismissed.
◦◦ An hour glass was kept on the wall to measure the
breaks in the working day, and this was monitored by
the pay clerk.
◦◦ The schedule was carefully adhered so as to ensure a
perfect setting.18
◦◦ The pace of construction has been calculated at
approximately 2,000 tons a year, based on a 29,000
ton structure. About 20 bricks per hour.
• Cost Management
◦◦ As brick was an extremely common, tried and tested
material, estimating the overall cost was relatively
straight forward once the designs and models were
completed.
◦◦ Brunelleschi closely managed cost by taking a
hands-on approach and working very closely with
his laborers. When the project was slowing down he
responded quickly to keep the momentum going.
◦◦ The project expenses incurred were much lower that
they would have been if the organization had been so
efficient and tightly controlled by Brunelleschi.19
◦◦ The project workforce wages varied accord to the
number of working hours completed. This was
unusual but on this project the skilled workforce
enjoyed a rare degree of job security.
◦◦ Brunelleschi was compassionate towards his
workforce. When the dome reached a height where
it was very inconvenient to descend to the ground
he took action. Brunelleschi arranged for canteens
with equipped kitchens to be opened on the dome,
so that no one had to leave work until the evening,
which was much more convenient for the workforce.
It was very advantageous for the project from a cost
262
perspective as morale improved (so did productivity),

and time was not lost.
◦◦ The special pay clerk kept a register and at the
end of each working day payments were made and
transcribed into the ledger.
◦◦ The pay of the project workforce was adjusted on the
basis of the quality of the work they had turned up in
the previous semester.
◦◦ Brunelleschi was widely recognized for his ability to
use grids to create perspective drawings, and view
3 dimensional objects in 2 dimensions. He created
very detailed and accurate scale models of how a
particular construction should look to help prevent
mistakes.
◦◦ Brunelleschi took a very hands-on-approach related
to the inspections of materials for quality, and
guiding his workforce who were often irritated by his
presence.
• …he was continually labouring, going in person
to the furnaces where the bricks were being
shaped and demanding to see the clay and to feel
its consistency, and insisting on selecting them
with his own hand when baked, with the greatest
diligence. When the stonecutters were working
at the stones, he would look at them to see if
they showed flaws and if they were hard, and he
would give the men models in wood or wax, or
made simply out of turnips; and he would also
make iron tools for the smiths. He invented hinges
with heads, and hinge-hooks, and he did much
to facilitate architecture, which was certainly
brought by him to a perfection such as it probably
had never enjoyed among the Tuscans.20
◦◦ He checked the mixing of the lime He also inspected
the construction itself of the walls and ties.
• The curvature of the rising walls had to be very
closely monitored.
263
◦◦ Timber varied in quality and was carefully selected

based on its use. For example, white fir was selected
for its length, oak for its strength, beech and chestnut
for carvings. Timber was inspected, cut, and graded
with great care.
◦◦ Contracts with local quarry men stipulated that
white marble had to be unblemished
◦◦ Bricks were carefully checked to see they were good,
well baked and clean.
◦◦ The curvature of the rising brick walls had to be very
carefully monitored and controlled.
• Human Resource management
◦◦ The experience gained in organizing the project
workforce for the cathedral project greatly helped
Brunelleschi in the organization of the complex and
vast Duomo project.
◦◦ The project ground to a halt as labor pools were
affected by the Black Death.
◦◦ The skilled workforce enjoyed a rare degree of
job security. Through the ruoli or a special list of
workers, there was a great deal of continuity with
experienced workers on the project. Workers were
selected and paid according to performance.21
◦◦ He was continuously present on site.
◦◦ He appointed eight master masons, one for each side
of the octagon, to carry out the actual building work.
◦◦ He used models to guide the craftsmen so they had a
much better understanding.
◦◦ He had to change the standard work day because of
the difficulties in getting to the site with the heights.
◦◦ Brunelleschi also had to manage a group of renegade
foremen who were demanding increased pay.
• As the project progressed Brunelleschi pressed the
workforce more than usual. They resented certain
reprimands received with regard to the building
264
and other things, they had conceived a grievance

against him. Wherefore, moved by this and by
envy, the foremen leagued themselves together
into a faction and declared that the work was
laborious and dangerous, and that they would not
build the cupola without great payment—although
their pay had been raised higher than usual—
thinking in this way to take vengeance on Filippo
and to gain profit for themselves.
◦◦ He understood the game they were playing and
cleverly side stepped them by dismissing them and
hiring his own workforce.
• This affair displeased the Wardens and also
Filippo, who, having pondered over it, made up
his mind one Saturday evening to dismiss them
all. They, seeing themselves dismissed and not
knowing how the matter would end, were very
evilly disposed; but on the following Monday
Filippo set ten Lombards to work, and by standing
ever over them and saying, “Do this here,” and,
“Do that there,” he taught them so much in one
day that they worked there for many weeks. The
masons, on the other hand, seeing themselves
dismissed, deprived of their work, and thus
disgraced, and having no work as profitable
as this, sent mediators to Filippo, saying that
they would willingly return, and recommending
themselves to him as much as they were able.
Filippo kept them for many days in suspense
as to his willingness to take them back; then he
reinstated them at lower wages than they had
before; and thus where they thought to gain they
lost, and in taking vengeance on Filippo they
brought harm and disgrace on themselves.22
◦◦ The project provided much employment for locals.
◦◦ The project workforce was organized into teams each
directed by a master mason.
265
◦◦ The project workforce was bound by the rules of

conduct and not adhering to these would exclude
them for the list (ruoli).23
◦◦ The non-skilled project workforce was not kept on the
list (ruoli).24 They were recruited through a different
process.
• Communications Management
◦◦ Brunelleschi had a very challenging time managing
his stakeholders, the Wardens and project sponsors,
who lacked the confidence that the project would be
completed. This was even after he had presented
his design. He initiated a conference that brought
the most prominent architects and masters of
design from all over Europe in Florence, to discuss
the project and put forward ideas. Through the
dialogue and communication of the conference the
stakeholders were convinced that he had the best
plan and method. It also initiated the project with
Brunelleschi as the principal architect.
◦◦ Brunelleschi was constantly managing the project
sponsors and the Wardens of Works for the cathedral,
through the life cycle of the project. Even though he
was the only architect who articulated a solution
for raising a dome they were constantly questioning
his approach, pulling away commitment, and
undermining him.
◦◦ He was constantly managing and communicating
with his workforce, his stakeholders (Public citizens),
and his sponsors. He removed hurdles and built
confidence that the project could be completed.
◦◦ Even though he was the only architect who could
consistently articulate a solution for raising the
dome they were constantly questioning his approach,
pulling away commitment, and undermining him.
He refused to show his model of the work until they
committed to a commission. When they finally agreed
to a contract it was not for the complete work as they
wished to see how the work succeeded, and that if it
266
succeeded as well as he promised they would not fail

to commission him to do the rest. They also assigned
him an assistant who they gave the same salary to.
◦◦ In accordance with ancient custom the completion of
each important stage was celebrated with the project
workforce to boost morale. For example, an inaugural
banquet, or the offering of wine. On the closing of the
project there was great celebration.25
• Risk Management
◦◦ Brunelleschi’s Duomo was pushing the limits of
known architecture, materials and technology. None
of Brunelleschi’s counterparts believed it could be
readily built and the building risks were too great.
◦◦ Brunelleschi had to work very hard to win the
right to lead the project, and he very much put his
reputation was on the line that he could successfully
complete the project. As a result, he more readily
accepted various project risks.
◦◦ With the curving walls if the bricks were laid too
quickly before the mortar set there was risk that the
walls could distort.
◦◦ The risks of constructing at the dome heights
required Brunelleschi to pay great attention to the
safety and protection of the project workforce, for
example, through the use of stable scaffolding.
◦◦ As the project proceeded the risks increased as did
the safety measures. For example, as the platform
was elevated more protective parapets were added
and as well as screening boards to block the view. The
consumption of wine was restricted when working at
these heights.
◦◦ Each worker could choose tasks of lower or greater
risks which determined their pay. For example, they
could work at lower elevations, with lesser risk and
pay.26
267
◦◦ The project had secured advantageous arrangements
for obtaining materials, especially timber and marble.
It even supplied these materials to other builders in
public or private sectors as they had been granted
rights to forests of the Casentino, and the quarries of
Campilgia.27
◦◦ The mainstay and core material was brick (over four
million). Although bricks were supplied with a local
brick maker the vast quantities required supplies
from non local producers. Eventually, in 1418 a
contract was signed with the local brick maker for
the supply of 200,000 bricks over a two year period.
The order was placed well in advance because of the
limited capacity of this sector in the local economy.
This kind of volume would have kept factories busy
for years.28
◦◦ Iron was needed in large quantities for the chains,
bars, nails, brackets, etc. It was sourced from
deposits around the Elba but had to be transferred
to foundries in the Tuscan Appenines were there was
plenty of wood fuel. So critical was iron to the project
numerous contracts were set up with Appenine
blacksmiths.29
◦◦ The scale of the supply chain and the materials
pouring into the site required a number of subsidiary
building sites to be set up around the Cathedral.
These had roofs to protect the materials from the
elements, and were also used to house the tools and
machinery.
Educators
• Discuss the impact of the Black Death on projects at the
time?
• Discuss Brunelleschi’s strategy with his project sponsors
and stakeholders?
• Discuss whether Brunelleschi’s desire to lead the project
compromised his approach to risk management?
268
Chapter 9
The 15th Century and

Renaissance (1450 - 1500)
T
he period was dominated by the Renaissance. The closure
of the trade routes east by the fall of Constantinople
spurred the age of exploration driven by Spain and
Portugal. From a project management perspective the
development of new tools and technologies facilitated these
journeys of exploration. Large projects were sponsored by the
crown and church.

a. Printing.
b. Age of exploration driven by Spain, Portugal.
a. European rediscovery of the Americas.
• Major events
a. Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in
1453.
b. Columbus lands in the West Indies in 1492.
269
a. Vasco da Gama (1460-1524): Round Africa to India,

1497-1498.
b. John Cabot (1450-1499): Voyage to North America,
1497.
a. Gridlines and cartography.
b. Caravel.
c. Longitude.
d. Moveable Typeface Print (Guttenberg) in 1440.
e. Donatello’s bronze statue of David 1469.
• Regions
a. Europe.
a. 1492 Columbus voyage of discovery.
• Key players
a. Christopher Columbus.
b. Leonardo da Vinci.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

million. The Renaissance brought a different view about the
world. One that was more humanistic and naturalistic as
opposed to a supernatural one.
In Europe the growth of the nation-state lessened the impor-
tance of feudalism and stabilized the monarchical authority.
Printing
Printing was a catalyst for projects as it spread information
about new technology and ideas. The Koreans had metal type
printing since 1234, and printing was available in the Islamic
countries as early as 1294 when Chinese printers were employed
270
9 - The 15th Century and Renaissance (1450 - 1500)
in Iran to produce notes for an experimental issue of paper

money.1 But it was not widely adopted probably because the
demand for books was still by copying by hand.
Exploration
The age of exploration was driven by principally the Portuguese
who were sailing further south down the coast of Africa. They
were soon followed by the Spanish when they saw the riches
coming back.
Impact of Changes
Columbus’s discovery of the Americas spurred the Europeans
into an age of exploration.
Major Events
Fall of Constantinople
For Europe the most significant event was the fall of the city
of Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) to the Muslim
Ottoman Empire in 1453. Constantinople was the capital of
the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire for centuries. It was
the most important center for trade between Europe and Asia.
Its capture closed an important trade route off for European
merchants although they could still buy Asian goods in
Alexandria, Egypt. But there was no longer a direct route to Asia
to purchase Asian products directly.
Columbus Lands in the West Indies (1492)

See significant projects below and voyages of exploration and
discovery.
Vasco da Gama Voyage to India (1497)

From the early 1400s, the nautical school of Henry the Navigator
had been following the African coastline and extending
Portuguese knowledge of it. The goal in the 1460s was to round
Africa to gain easier access to India for its spices through a
271
reliable sea route. In 1497 a fleet left Lisbon consisting of four

ships and a crew of 170 men to complete the voyage.
John Cabot Voyage to North America (1497)

This voyage was significant as it highlighted the extent of the
continent of Americas to the North. It also brought the English
into the race for new lands as national imperialism and economic
competition between nation states took root.

The European push to find a sea route to Asia was enabled by
the availability of certain technologies namely, the Astrolabe,
the Caravel, and advances in cartography.
Astrolabe
The first astrolabes were invented by the Greeks in the first/
second centuries BCE (often attributed to Hipparchus). An
early astrolabe was a rudimentary analog calculator capable
of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical
astronomy. Brass astrolabes were developed in the medieval
Islamic world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and for finding the
direction of Mecca.
In the 15th Century metal astrolabes improved on the
accuracy of their wooden precursors and the first known
European metal astrolabe was developed by Rabbi Abraham
Zacuto in Lisbon. Along with portable sundials these became
popular scientific gadgets of the day.
The metal astrolabe had a map of the major celestial bodies
inscribed on it. This allowed a mariner to tell the location by
positioning the stars on the astrolabe to match the stars in the
sky. But the astrolabe worked only when the skies were clear
and the positions of the stars were known. On cloudy days or
when the stars in the sky were unfamiliar, celestial navigation
and the astrolabe were ineffective.
272
Figure 9.1: Example of a 15th Century Astrolabe.
Advances in Cartography
Although cartography had evolved overtime in the 15th Century
the discovery of Ptolemy’s Geographica, a copy of the greatest
cartographical text, by Florentine business men, sparked a
renewed interest in maps. Coupled with the new perspective
drawing which used gridlines, the new grids were applied to
maps for the first time. This important breakthrough improved
the ability to predict distances. Maps influenced Columbus who
concluded that if he sailed west from Spain he would reach
Japan in approximately 2000 miles.
Other Navigational Aids

These included assorted time pieces like an hour glass and
sundial, compasses, cross-staffs, nocturnal, and traverse boards.
Caravel
Developed in the Mediterranean the caravel was the preferred
vessel for Portuguese explorers. The small caravel (50 to 200
tons) was very fast, well balanced, agile, and economic. It could
sail upriver in shallow coastal waters for inshore surveying of
unknown waters, a clear advantage over the larger, full-rigged
square-sailed ships which could not always be sailed with such
precision. It was also easy to repair without a dockyard. The
exploration done with caravels opened up the Spice Trade for
273
the Portuguese and Spanish. Eventually, the caravel was later

replaced by the larger carrack or nau which was much more
profitable for trading.
The caravel generally carried two or three masts and had a
large number of small lateen and square sails. The number of
and positions of the sails could be varied to different weather
conditions. Early caravels had a weight of 50 tons, a length of 20
to 30 meters, a high length-to-beam ratio of around 3.5:1, and
narrow ellipsoidal frame (unlike the circular frame of the nau),
making them very fast and maneuverable but with somewhat
low capacity. Towards the end of the 15th Century, the caravel
was occasionally modified by giving it the same rig as a nau with
a foresail, square mainsail and lateen mizzen, but not the high
forecastle or sterncastle, which would make it unweatherly.
In this form it was sometimes known as caravela redonda (a
bulging square sail is said to be round, redonda, in the Iberian
tradition). It was in such ships that Christopher Columbus set
out on his expedition in 1492.
Figure 9.2: Examples of 15th Century Caravels.2
274
Longitude
The problem of determining longitude was not adequately mas-
tered until the 18th Century by John Harrison with the inven-
tion of the marine chronometer. Up to then sailors relied on
dead reckoning were the pilot estimated the ship’s speed with
a log-line, a knotted line with a weighted wooden float, thrown
from the stern where the number of knots pulled off the reel de-
termined the ship’s speed. Time was measured with one-minute
glasses and combined with the known direction of the compass
determined progress along longitudinal lines. Each time the ship
changed tack the time, distance, and direction were measured.
Moveable Typeface Print

Written communications forever changed when the movable type
printing press arrived. In 1440 it arrived in Europe (originally
established in Korea in 1234, page 274) when Guttenberg
developed a printing press near Mainz, Germany. It used
standardized, movable type and could print 300-500 sheets
per day. In 1455 Guttenberg published his first Bible. By 1490
Guttenberg’s moveable typeface printing was common in major
cities across Europe.
Broadsheets and Newspapers

Printing with the availability of low cost paper was a catalyst
for a communication’s revolution. In 1450 newspapers appeared
in Europe in the form of Broadsheets3 which radically changed
the ability to communicate stimulating a renewed demand for
literacy and education. Around 13,000 books were in circulation
in Europe by 1500 and this started to breakdown the monopoly
of learning in universities. Books were printed on every subject
available, and this replaced the reliance on experts which was
useful for projects. The modern contract also evolved at this time
with the overall increase in literacy.
Donatello’s Bronze Statue of David 1469

This was the first significant statue since the Roman era. It
was important as it marked Europe’s awakening through the
Renaissance.
275
Regions
Europe
Columbus Voyage of Exploration

and Discovery (1492-1493)
With the fall of Constantinople a race developed to find a sea
route to Asia as the European nations quickly realized the
wealth in monopolizing the highly profitable Asian trade.
Portugal was the first nation to begin actively seeking a sea
route by going around the southern tip of Africa. The experience
in exploring the coast line of Africa in the early 1400s gave the
Portuguese access to the lucrative African trade which had been
dominated by the Muslims.
Background
Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy in 1451. He
began his seagoing career at the age of 14 when he enrolled in
Prince Henry’s school of Navigation in Sagres, Portugal. He
served on various ships as a messenger, common sailor, and
privateer. This experience led him to the idea that with enough
supplies and water on board, it was possible to reach Asia and
the East by sailing west. For the Europeans sailing long voyages
in open water was not practiced, as ships tended to hug coast
lines.
Initiating
The project charter was clear. Columbus’s principal objective
was to reach the east by going west, or the “Enterprise of the
Indies.” Christopher Columbus planned his exploration for
many years but had to wait for the right time to find the support
(people), the funding, and the required advances in marine
technology.
276
Planning
Columbus’s plan to sail west was not original and he never
claimed that it was. Columbus drew knowledge from the Greek
and Roman geographers who theorized that there was only one
body of water that connected Europe and Asia. Only the distance
was disputed based on the size of the earth through descriptions
contained in works including the 2nd Century manuscript
Geography by Ptolemy; Imago Mundi (Image of the World) by
Pierre d’Ailly, published in the early 1480s; and The Travels of
Marco Polo, written in 1298.
Figure 9.3: The map of the known world dates back to 1492.4
Several facts strengthened Columbus’s faith in the feasibility

of completing the project. The Azores and the Cape de Verde
islands were the most westerly lands off the European continent
at a distance of 1500 kilometers (800 miles). Westerly winds had
washed up onto these shores curiously carved pieces of wood,
seeds of unknown species, and the bodies of two men of strange
color and facial features.
277
Columbus founded his theory on two mistaken propositions,

that Asia stretched further eastward, and that Japan lay about
2,400 kilometers (about 1,500 miles) east of the Asian mainland.
Columbus also underestimated the circumference of the earth.
Columbus calculated that the Canary Islands lay only about
4,440 kilometers (about 2,760 miles) from Japan; the actual
distance is about 19,000 kilometers (about 12,000 miles). Similar
errors were made by other learned men of the time, including
the Florentine geographer Paulo de Pozzo Toscanelli. No one else
in Europe suspected that two vast continents lay in the way of a
westward passage to Asia. No ship that was available in the 15th
Century could carry enough food and fresh water on such a long
journey.
Columbus’s plan was based on his association with the
Genoese community in Portugal and his expeditions to Africa.
Both furthered his knowledge of Atlantic waters, and his trips
to Africa brought him close to the Canary Islands, giving him
knowledge of the Canaries currents. Also, while in ports in
England, Ireland, Iceland, and other northern regions, Columbus
may have heard stories of lands to the west of Iceland. Although
the histories of the Vikings, who settled Iceland and Greenland
in the 9th and 10th centuries, never became part of the knowledge
base of Medieval Europeans. It is believed that stories of their
encounters with the unknown islands in the northern Atlantic
were widespread. He also read the accounts of Marco Polo, and
the Geography of Ptolemy, the Greek geographer. Columbus’s
genius was his remarkable ability to gather information from
around the Mediterranean and the Atlantic and combine his own
experiences with the ancient theories from these books.
The technological challenges in planning the voyage of
Columbus were numerous. The trip would not have been
successful. Without developments such as the astrolabe and
caravel, as well as advances in cartography. Columbus now had
to wait for the opportunity to take advantage of this technology.
Finance and Support

The expense of such a voyage was substantial primarily in
the funding of a small fleet of ships, the crew, provisions and
equipment. The voyage needed a major sponsor and funding,
and typically this was only available from the ruling monarchies
278
and wealthy royal families. These projects demanded a

return and required finding a commodity that could provide a
significant payback for the high project cost. Columbus married
a Portuguese noblewoman and was in Portugal for seven years.
He waited for the right political timing and in 1485 he presented
his plans to John II, the King of Portugal, a strong supporter of
geographical explorations. Columbus proposed to sail out into
the Atlantic, and search for a western route to the Orient, and
then return. The King would equip three ships and grant one
year’s time. He also requested the title “Great Admiral of the
Ocean”, and governor of all the lands he discovered. In addition,
he wanted one-tenth of all revenues of the discovered lands. The
King submitted the proposal to his experts, the geographers of
his court who pronounced it was a visionary scheme but, rejected
it believing the route of 3,860 kilometers (2,400 miles) was far
too short.
The King secretly dispatched a vessel to test the theory and
a ship with Columbus’s charts, sailed westward from Cape de
Verde islands for a few days. Seeing nothing but a wide ocean
the captain returned ridiculing the idea. Columbus learned of
this and was disheartened by the deceit of the King. He decided
he would not trust the King any further and so moved to Spain
with his young son with the intent to present his plan to King
Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I. Spain lagged the Portuguese
exploration of the Atlantic and open hostilities existed between
the two countries.
At the time Spain was embroiled in a costly war to dislodge
the Moors from Spain so at that point there was not much
appetite for a costly project. With no luck he tried to generate
interest with the rulers of other countries, but with little
success. He had tried to get help from a number of sources like
his old home-town of Genoa, Portugal, the Republic of Venice,
some of the richest and most powerful of the nobles of Spain,
and the King of England (whom he got his brother, Bartholomew
Columbus, to go and see). The King of France was still left and
was looking like his last option.
Columbus did generate interest with certain individuals.
One of the leading sea captains of the City of Palos was Martin
Alonso Pinzon. He became so interested in the project that he
offered to lend Columbus money, enough to make an appeal to
279
the Spanish monarchy. If Columbus was successful then Captain

Pinzon would go into partnership with Columbus and help him
prepare and sail.
After seven long years of continual lobbying and of
negotiations, the opportunity opened up in 1492. Granada had
just fallen and the Moors were expelled from Spain. Luis de
Santangel, the court treasurer, convinced Columbus that he
should make one last attempt to convince the King and Queen
of Spain. Santangel realized that after the war Spain would be
overflowing with hidalgos, young nobles who expected payment
in land for military service. With not enough land to go around
Columbus could provide an alternate solution.
Santangel intervened on the behalf of Columbus and set up
the meeting with the King and Queen of Spain where Queen
Isabella was finally won over. This was a time of national
imperialism and economic competition between nation states
seeking wealth from trade routes and colonies. Spain having
undergone an expensive war was desperate for an edge over its
European rivals. The King remained indifferent and pleaded
the lack of funds. The Queen in her earnestness exclaimed, “I
pledge my jewels to raise the money.” But her sacrifice was
not required. Santangel advanced most of the money, from
the ecclesiastical revenues under his control. The remainder
was made up of a syndicate of seven noble Genovese bankers,
resident in Seville, linked to Américo Vespucci and funds
belonging to Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de Medici and the friends
of Columbus. The total cost of the project was three thousand
crowns. Two vessels were all that Columbus asked for, and the
pay for the crews.
Columbus had succeeded at last. It had taken him 17 years
to bring the project to the point of execution.5 The contract was
signed on the seventeenth of April, 1492 between Columbus
and the Spanish monarchy who granted Columbus the rank
of Admiral of the Ocean Sea (Atlantic Ocean), and Viceroy
and Governor of all the new lands discovered. Columbus had
the option of buying one-eighth interest in the venture and
get back one-eighth of the profits. The terms were unusually
generous, but as his own son later wrote, the monarchs did not
really expect him to return. The sovereigns also issued an order
authorizing Columbus to press men into service, and pardon any
280
prisoners from jails, giving them their freedom, if they went on

the voyage.
Figure 9.4: First Voyage, Departure for the New World, August 3,
1492. LC-USZC4-1727.6
Executing (Journey)
Columbus called together the leaders of Palos so he could read
the royal order to supply him with two of their ships. The
leaders agreed to provide the ships, but refused to provide him
a crew. Columbus had great difficulty in recruiting a crew as
the experienced seamen of Palos objected to his plan and held
back, unwilling to risk their lives in what seemed a crazy project.
Nobody was willing to go. In the end the King’s officers went
to work and begged, threatened, and even seized some sailors
forcing them to go. Even with an advanced payment they could
not recruit a full crew for the two ships.
The friends of Columbus, Juan Perez and the friars of La
Rábida, helped by actively persuading men to embark. Then
Captain Pinzón who had promised Columbus help, tried his
hand, and as an experienced and respected sea captain from
Palos, he made the most progress with big promises to the
sailors. He worked for weeks until at last he was able to do
what even the royal order could not do, persuade enough local
281
sailors to join the expedition. He even added a third ship to

the Admiral’s fleet. A crew of ninety sailors was assembled to
man the three vessels. Only four convicts accepted the offer of a
pardon.
Captain Pinzón even persuaded his two brothers of to join
the voyage and were given officer positions. The names of the
three vessels were the Capitana (changed to the Santa Maria),
the Pinta and the Nina (Baby). The larger Santa Maria was
selected as the flag-ship of the fleet, under the commander of
the expedition, the now promoted Admiral Don Christopher
Columbus.
The Santa Maria was a small carrack around 30 meters (100
feet) long and weighing about 100 tons, and with a crew of 40.
The Pinta and Niña were caravels of around 20 meters (70 feet),
weighing about 50 tons and crews of 25 on each. Most of the crew
were Spanish and from Palos made up of largely experienced
seamen and about 16 government officials. But there were no
priests, soldiers, or settlers as this was a voyage of exploration
and discovery, and not settlement. Columbus was so sure he was
going to find a rich and civilized country, such as India, that he
took with him a lawyer to complete all the forms, proclamations,
papers for the kings and princes he expected to visit. He brought
a secretary and historian to write out the story. He also brought
a linguist who could speak almost a dozen languages, a jeweler
and silversmith for trading, a doctor and surgeon, cooks and
pilots.
On the 3rd of August, 1492, they took mass, and then set
sailed from the Bar of Saltes, making for the Canary Islands.
Life aboard the ships was not comfortable, there were no crew’s
quarters and no mess halls. Only the captains and pilots had
very small cabins. At night the crew slept wherever they could
find a vacant spot, tying themselves down to prevent being
tossed into the sea. Prayers, songs, stories, chores, eating, and
waiting filled the sailors’ days, and stargazing under a new,
unknown sky filled their restless nights.
The ships carried enough water and provisions for several
months, at a time when two weeks at sea was a long voyage.
Supplies on board included pigs and hens (to be killed aboard),
water, vinegar, wine, olive oil, molasses, honey, raisins, rice,
282
cheese, garlic, almonds, sea biscuits (hardtack), dry legumes

such as chickpeas, lentils, beans, salted and barreled sardines,
anchovies, dry salt cod and pickled or salted meats (beef and
pork), salted flour.
Equipment included navigational instruments, nautical
almanacs, charts, compasses, magnets, hourglasses, and rulers.
Also trade items were taken like glass beads, brass rings,
knitted caps, gold, silver, pearls, and spices.
Columbus was aware of the circular wind patterns across the
Atlantic, a closely held fact. The trade winds, both the easterly,
a brisk wind from the Canaries, and the prevailing westerly to
the coastlines of Western Europe, blew from the middle latitudes
of the North Atlantic, curving southward towards the Iberian
Peninsula.
Navigation in the 15th Century was far from an exact science,
although several navigational tools and aids were available the
most important were compasses, astrolabes, hourglasses, maps,
and charts. Although celestial navigation (finding direction by
the positions of stars) was the favored method while sailing
under familiar skies, a technique known as dead reckoning was
more dependable on voyages in unknown seas.
Figure 9.5: The three Ships of Columbus had to stay in close contact
in the vast Atlantic.7
In dead reckoning the position of the ship was determined

by starting from its last known location. Then, by calculating
283
the ship’s direction, how fast it was going, and how much time
had passed, the pilot came up with a new position. Pilots could
calculate the distance traveled in an hour or a day by dropping
a floating object in the water at the front of the ship and timing
how long it took to get to the back of the ship. Knowing how long
the ship was, the pilot could calculate how fast the ship was
moving and, thus, how far they had traveled.
Columbus preferred dead reckoning over celestial navigation
which he was never comfortable with. Above all, he learned to
interpret the signs of nature, such as the behavior of birds, the
smell of the air, the color of the sky, the condition of the sea, the
pressure he felt in his joints, the appearance of floating debris,
and more. Successful navigators survived by “reading” nature
in this way. Columbus was expert at this and could even predict
hurricanes accurately.
When the sailors saw the last trace of land fade from their
sight, many were wracked by superstitious fears. To their
dismay, the compass no longer pointed directly north, and they
believed that the very laws of nature were changing. The trade-
wind took them steadily westward but this worried them further
as how they could ever return against it. Eventually, signs of
land appeared, birds, and floating green plants were seen. The
clouds near the horizon assumed the look of land, but they
disappeared with only the broad ocean in front of them. The
sailors, lost heart, and started to insist they turn back home.
Columbus, with wonderful tact and patience, explained
all these appearances. But the more he argued, the louder the
murmurs of discontent became as the crew secretly plotted to
throw him overboard.
Columbus had a hard time keeping his crew in order and
from mutinying. He had to win the crew over, day by day.8 He
employed several communication strategies. First, he used soft
words and distracted them from the present danger. Second,
he focused on their large hopes and aspirations, of riches and
fame. Finally, he reminded them of what their princes would do
if they attempted to come against him or didn’t obey his orders.
The most important part of his communication strategy was
that although he knew their feelings he did not waver. He was
284
absolutely resolute to the cause of completing the voyage which

instilled confidence in the crew.
After 29 days of sailing without sight of any land, on October
7, 1492, the crew spotted shore birds flying west and then
changed direction as if making for landfall. Soon, signs of land
silenced the crews’ murmurs of discontent. An artificially carved
staff, and a branch of thorns and berries were seen floating by.
From the Pinta they let out a joyful cry, “Land!”
In the morning a shore line lay before them. Columbus, with
a small detachment of officers and men, landed bearing banners
on Friday, October 12, 1492. Dressed in a splendid military suit
of scarlet embroidered with gold, fit for such a historic occasion,
he threw himself upon his knees and kissed the earth. With
tears of joy he thanked God and then formally planted the cross,
thus taking possession of the country in the name of Ferdinand
and Isabella.
The islanders stood along the shore in numerous lines look-
ing on with innocent amazement. Columbus found the land to
be an island, which he named St. Salvador believing the island
to be off the eastern coast of India. He therefore called the dark-
hued natives, Indians. Careful inquiries were also made concern-
ing the rich products of the East, such as spices, precious stones,
and especially gold. The islander had a few golden ornaments
which they readily bartered for hawks' bells. The islanders also
introduced Columbus to "tobacco," herbs wrapped in a dry leaf.
When questioned about it they said that it took away fatigue.
In the quest for oriental treasures he split up his ships and
searched and discovered other islands (Cuba, and Haiti).
The situation changed on Christmas morning in 1492
when the Santa Maria ran aground on the northern coast
of Hispaniola whilst under the watch of a junior deck hand
who failed to alert the sleeping crew. Badly damaged she was
abandoned and some of her crew returned in the remaining 2
ships. Columbus was received by the native leader Guacanagari,
who gave him permission to leave 40 of his men behind.
Columbus founded the settlement of La Navidad using the
salvaged materials from the Santa Maria.
285

On January 15, 1493 Columbus, urged by his crew, relinquished
the search for oriental treasures, and turned his vessels
homeward by way of the Azores. Columbus may not have
found the oriental treasures yet there can be no doubt of the
importance, financially and commercially speaking, of the
discovery of tobacco. In the end it proved more productive to the
Spanish Crown than all the gold mines of the Indies.
Figure 9.6: Columbus 16th Century engraving.9
286
Figure 9.7: Columbus triumphs in 1492.10

On his return to Spain the reception was flattering in the
extreme, where the whole nation took a holiday, and he was
hailed with the ringing of bells. The King and Queen of Spain
were enamored by their new and unexpected acquisition. As
Columbus described the beautiful land he had discovered, the
brilliant birds, the tropical forests, the climate, and the natives
waiting to be converted to the Christianity.
287
Figure 9.8: Columbus’s four voyages of exploration.11
Closing
Columbus explored the world in search of new trade routes for
their goods and contacts with India and China, and a shortened
journey to traditional overland routes. His exploration across
the Atlantic Ocean had a profound impact. It led to general
European awareness of the American continents in the Western
Hemisphere and directly opened it up to European colonization,
288
large-scale exchanges of plants, animals12, cultures, and ideas

between the two worlds. On the darker side it also led to the
deaths of millions of indigenous peoples from war, forced labor,
and disease such as diphtheria, measles, smallpox, and malaria
which they had not been exposed to.
After several attempts to establish a settlement on the
island of Hispaniola, Columbus initiated the process of Spanish
colonization which foreshadowed general European colonization
of the "New World."
Key Players
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

Columbus completed two further voyages of exploration.
Columbus left Cádiz, Spain, on September 24, 1493 to find new
territories, with 17 ships carrying supplies, and about 1,200
men to colonize the region. He learned that the settlers from
the settlement of La Navidad had mistreated the natives, who
retaliated by killing all 40 of them. He spent a year and half in
an ill fated effort to start another colony returning back for more
men and supplies.
On May 30, 1498, Columbus left with six ships for his third
trip, and arrived on Hispaniola on August 19th to find that
many of the Spanish “settlers” were discontented and thought
misled by his promises of bountiful riches. In reality many were
adventurers only after the gold. Columbus repeatedly had to
deal with these rebellious settlers, some even tried to kill him, so
he had some of the ringleaders hanged.
In October 1499, Columbus sent two ships back to Spain. A
number of returning settlers and sailors to Spain lobbied against
Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers
of gross mismanagement. The royal patronage started to waver.
Columbus had asked the Court of Spain to appoint a royal
commissioner to help him govern. The Court appointed Francisco
de Bobadilla and he was given total control as governor. His
authority went far beyond what Columbus had requested, and it
disregarded the grant of governor-generalship to Columbus over
all the lands discovered.
289
The new governor sent Columbus home in chains which

shocked the Spanish nation at the indignity to such a man. He
was arrested for a period and accused of governing tyrannically.
“Even those who loved him [Columbus] had to admit the
atrocities that had taken place.”
Columbus was put into jail for six weeks before being
released by King Ferdinand who summoned the Columbus
brothers to hear their case. Satisfied by this he restored their
freedom and wealth, and agreed to fund Columbus’s fourth
voyage. However, his position as governor was denied.
On May 11, 1502 Columbus left with four ships, for his
fourth trip. He was denied port on Hispaniola by the new
governor and proceeded to explore Central America and the
Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras. Following storms 1503
he ended up beached in Jamaica. He sent for help but was
ostracized by the new governor. Eventually, he was rescued and
returned to Spain in ignominy in 1504.
In 1506 Columbus died a grieved and disappointed old man.
At his request, his chains were buried with him, a touching
memorial of Spanish ingratitude.
“It is now seventeen years since I came to serve these princes
with the Enterprise of the Indies. They made me pass eight of
them in discussion, and at the end rejected it as a thing of jest.
Nevertheless I persisted therein... Over there I have placed
under their sovereignty more land than there is in Africa and
Europe, and more than 1,700 islands... In seven years I, by the
divine will, made that conquest. At a time when I was entitled to
expect rewards and retirement, I was incontinently arrested and
sent home loaded with chains... The accusation was brought
out of malice on the basis of charges made by civilians who
had revolted and wished to take possession on the land.... I
beg your graces, with the zeal of faithful Christians in whom
their Highnesses have confidence, to read all my papers, and to
consider how I, who came from so far to serve these princes...
now at the end of my days have been despoiled of my honor
and my property without cause, wherein is neither justice nor
mercy.”
290
Renaissance Engineers
This period saw the emergence of Renaissance Engineers or
Pseudo Project Managers through men like Leonardo da Vinci,
Francesco di Giorgio, Fillipo Brunelleschi, and Mariano di
Iacopo, (called Taccola).
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 –1519)

He was the Renaissance man, a truly multi talented and skilled
scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter,
sculptor, architect, botanist, musician, poet and writer. Leonardo
the engineer developed concepts ahead of their time a helicopter,
a tank, a calculator, and the double hull, and outlining a
rudimentary theory of plate tectonics. As a scientist, he greatly
advanced the fields of anatomy, civil engineering, optics, and
hydrodynamics.
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
Columbus was a man of patience and commitment. He had to
overcome numerous obstacles just to launch the project. The
most notable was the difficulty in getting the necessary backing
for his project. He had to bide his time and wait for the right
opportunity, a total of 17 years. He had to be very persistent,
and resourceful, and to change allegiances to find the right
sponsor/backer. He also had to wait for the right technology to
come along, in the form of the caravel, and the astrolabe which
he mastered. From a project perspective Columbus had to very
much initiate the project, and drive it forward. The biggest
challenges were in managing the crew who were very fearful of
the voyage. They were motivated by riches and glory. The voyage
proved the viability of Trans-Atlantic travel, and the trade
winds, it took 29 days to reach the West Indies, and 224 days
to complete a round-trip. It was inspirational and a catalyst to
other European explorers, and spawned the voyages by Cabot,
and Magellan. The lasting legacy from Columbus’s voyage was
overcoming the fears of crossing the Atlantic, and establishing
viable routes using the trade winds.
291
Key Lessons
◦◦ For Columbus’s voyage the business case seemed
very lucrative with potential land for resettlement,
possible riches and spices. The go ahead decision from
the sponsors was held back because of the perceived
risks. When they finally agreed the monarchs still did
not really expect him to return.
◦◦ The project charter had to be approved by the
monarchs who not only provided the financial
backing, but permission in claiming new lands in
their name through a Royal Charter.
◦◦ The principal requirements were to complete the
return journey safely without loss of life, and return
profit by bringing back goods.
◦◦ The scope in terms of number of ships, men,
provisions, and equipment was dictated by:
• The likely daily progress which was constrained
by the weather and conditions of the Atlantic.
• The risks of the unknown mitigated by a fleet of
three ships.
• The availability of ships and finding a willing and
committed crew.
• The volume of provisions (food and water) that
could be carried without spoiling for the 2000 mile
journey.
◦◦ Columbus was aware of the circular trade-winds and
knew this clockwise wind pattern would reduce the
project scope by weeks or months by not having to
beat against the winds. This significantly reduced the
amount of food and water to be carried.
◦◦ Although the scope seemed straightforward in sailing
for 3,000 kilometers (2,000 miles) and then returning,
292
the inaccuracies in the estimates could have been

catastrophic had the Americas not been the same
distance away as what he thought Japan to be.
◦◦ Columbus could verify the scope by closely measuring
distances and keeping a daily log.
◦◦ The scope of the project changed dramatically when
one of the ships was lost. The return voyage was
made much more difficult and dangerous. Around 40
men were forced into making a settlement which they
were not prepared for at the outset of the project.
This ultimately failed dismally when the settlement
was wiped out.
• Time Management
◦◦ The project was time dependent as the ships could
only carry several months of adequate supplies, of
food and water. Therefore, time overrode both project
cost and scope. Columbus had to accurately measure
distance so he could calculate the time and the ability
to survive the return leg on the remaining supplies.
If necessary he would have to turn back before the
objective was reached.
◦◦ Columbus estimated about 20 days of sailing which
turned out to be 29 days.
◦◦ The ships were maneuverable, and with flexible
rigging traveled a respectable 160 kilometers (100
miles) per day under favorable conditions. They
could sail in shallow water, a major advantage for
exploration.
• Cost Management
◦◦ Columbus’s voyage required a significant budget
but at great risk to the investors, and he did secure
a number of private investors. Columbus struggled
for a long time to get royal patronage, in the name of
finding new lands and riches. It was the only way to
get enough ships, sailors and secure resources, and
cooperation from various organizations.
293
◦◦ The Guttenberg’s moveable typeface printing made

books widely available in Europe by the 15th Century.
This provided subject expertise at the finger tips of
the project manager. It was now a lot easier and less
expensive to have a book over an expert.
◦◦ In the planning phase the project areas where quality
was paramount included:
• The accuracy of charts and maps.
• The seaworthiness of ships, for example, the hull
against leak, or the rigging against storms.
• The securing of provisions (food and water) to last
the journey. For example, olive oil and olives were
stored in earthenware jugs. The rest of the food
was stored in wooden casks like meat preserved
in brine, or dry goods. All were stored in the hold,
the driest section of which was reserved for casks
carrying dry provisions.
◦◦ Daily inspections were made by a cooper (barrel
maker), responsible for inspecting and keeping the
casks tight.
◦◦ In executing the project, one of the most critical
areas was navigation and before the invention of
accurate clocks it was very difficult to find longitude
at sea. This was one of the most significant problems
continually faced by the project. The crude techniques
of celestial navigation could readily put the ships off
course. The pilots had to constantly re-check their
findings using dead reckoning.
◦◦ The ability to accurately measure became life
critical for the ocean explorers of the 15th Century,
as counting the knots was the only practical way
to measure distance and therefore longitude.
Columbus figured it was a 3,200 kilometers (2,000
miles) journey to Japan from Europe and used this
technique accurately in getting across the Atlantic.
• Human Resources Management
294
◦◦ Columbus had great difficulty in acquiring a crew,

as there was a genuine fear for their lives and
reluctance to go. A few decades earlier it took the
Portuguese 16 attempts to cross the equator south
because sighting’s of the North Star disappeared
which petrified the seamen.
◦◦ The crew was made up of mainly local boys from
Andalusia, and nearly all experienced seamen. On
the first voyage, the crew was reasonably well paid as
follows:
• Masters and pilots, 2,000 maravedis per month;
able seamen, 1,000 maravedis per month;
ordinary seamen and ship’s boys, 666 maravedis
per month. Total payroll was 250,180 per month.
At the time gold was worth 3,000 maravedis per
ounce.
• Only four convicts took up the Spanish Sovereigns
offered of amnesty if they signed up for the
voyage.
◦◦ The crew was reasonably well looked after with
adequate provisions for the project. The ships were
general purpose cargo vessels, uncomfortable, and
not designed for exploration. The crew slept in
cramped and damp conditions on deck or below on the
ballast pile where cargo, the main anchor, and heavy
armaments were stowed.
◦◦ Columbus carefully planned the trip to East Asia
right down to determining the right kind crew and
skills that he needed on board based on his objectives
and the scope of what he was doing.
◦◦ Developing the acquired men into an effective
team proved a challenge because of their fears and
expectations of the unknown.
• Communications Management
◦◦ The project had a wide variety of stakeholders from
the monarchy to Santangel (court treasurer), the
leaders of Palos, personal backers, Captain Pinzón,
and the crew itself.
295
◦◦ Columbus had to sell the idea and get a broad

interest from key stakeholders, and have the project
adopted by a crew. He had to promise glory and paint
a vision.
◦◦ Columbus relied on Captain Pinzón to help with the
adoption plan. As an experienced and well respected
sea captain from Palos, he had influence and sway
with local sailors. He worked for weeks to convince
them that the voyage was feasible and could be
completed safely. He was able to make inroads with
big promises. Eventually, he was able to persuade
enough local sailors to join the expedition. He even
added a third ship which proved to be critical in the
end.
◦◦ Columbus had a hard time in keeping his crew in
any order and from mutinying. He had to contrive
how to win the crew over, day to day, and employed
several communication strategies. First, he used soft
words and distracted them from the present danger.
He showed empathy to the crew to gain their respect.
Second, he focused on the large hopes and aspira-
tions in front of them, of riches and fame. Finally, he
reminded them of what their princes would do if they
attempted something against him or not obey his or-
ders. The most important element of his communica-
tion strategy was that although he knew of their feel-
ings of feel he did not waver from his objectives.
◦◦ Columbus was consistent in his communication about
reaching his objective. In fact, he was absolutely
resolute to the cause that he would complete the
voyage. He did not waver, and built up the crew’s
confidence as the voyage progressed.
◦◦ The three ships had to stay in constant
communication as any separation increased the risk
substantially.
◦◦ On the westward return Columbus kept two sets of
distance figures in the log. One set was to allay the
fears of the crew that they had sailed too far from
Spain.
296
• Risk Management
◦◦ Columbus faced the real risk of not finding a sponsor;
it took him 17 years to find one. All of the potential
sponsors, monarchs around Europe (Portugal,
England, and France) felt the risk was too high and
they would lose their investments.
◦◦ Not having an accurate maps or knowing the distance
to the Indies (based on an inaccurate estimate of
the Earth’s diameter) were major risks. Columbus
accepted these risks because he was aware of the
trade winds (Northeast and the Westerlies for a
return journey). He was confident of steady winds in
both directions if he traveled at the right time of year
and at the right latitudes.
◦◦ A fleet of three ships reduced the overall risk of
failure. When a ship was lost, Columbus was still
able to complete the journey. Had a further ship been
lost the project would have failed.
◦◦ Columbus accepted the risk of making an unexpected
settlement after he lost one of the ships ran when
it aground. Although they were able to create a
settlement from the salvage it failed to survive its
first year.
◦◦ Columbus kept accepting increasing amounts of risk
because he didn’t want the voyage to fail.
◦◦ Columbus had to procure enough ships to make the
voyage feasible. The ships had to be well supplied and
provisioned for at least two months.
◦◦ Columbus entered into a contract with the Spanish
Royals with very high personal demands including
titles (Governor, Admiral, and a Knighthood) and
10% of the profits. At the time a single spice ship
was worth a fortune. The Spanish Royals entered the
contract because they did not think Columbus would
return.
297
◦◦ Columbus commissioned a “Book of Privileges” spell-

ing out the exact agreements he had made. It also in-
corporated the Papal Bull inter caetera in which Pope
Alexander VI extended Spain’s rights to the New
World.
Educators
• Discuss all the risks in Columbus’s project and his
approach in mitigating these?
of finding the right sponsor?
• Discuss Columbus’s approach to managing his
stakeholders and crew.
298
Chapter 10
The 16th Century
T
he period was dominated by the age of settlements and
colonies spurred by exploration driven by the European
powers. From a project management perspective European
Colonization brings in vast wealth that is reinvested into further
exploration. Large projects are sponsored by the crown and state
more than through the church. The book industry expands and
puts a vast array of subjects into the hands of a project manager
New technologies improve the manufacture of glass and brass
materials, and new equipment is manufactured from these
materials.

a. Widespread printing of books leads to a
communications revolution.
b. European race to acquire colonies (Spain, Portugal,
England, France, Holland) colonization of Africa,
Asia, and Americas.
a. Destruction of native cultures in South and Central
America.
299
b. Dissemination of knowledge through books (do-it-

yourself) and Propagation of ideas like Protestantism
when Luther publishes in 1517.
c. Development of Mercantilism (International Trade).
• Major events
a. 1514 Copernicus established a scientifically based
heliocentric cosmology that displaced the Earth from
the center of the universe.
b. 1519-1522 Ferdinand Magellan the first navigator to
sail around the world.
c. Communications revolution helps the Protestant
Reformation of the 16th and 17th centuries.
a. New crops introduced from the new world.
b. Paper money in Europe.
c. Canon and firepower.
d. Cartography.
e. Pencil 1565.
f. Miniaturization of clocks.
g. New furnace for dirty coal spurs glass and brass
making.
• Regions
a. Europe and exploration of South America and Pacific
Ocean.
a. Ferdinand Magellan’s Voyage Round the World.
a. Hardwick Hall (1591-1597).
b. St Peter’s, Rome.
c. St Basil’s Cathedral, Moscow.
• Key players
300
10 - The 16th Century
a. Ferdinand Magellan.
b. Michelangelo.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

million. The nation-state continues to evolve in Europe.
Communications Revolution
The development of printing coincided with the availability of
low cost paper. This combination was revolutionary and replaced
the high cost of writing on animal skins or parchment. Printing
with engraved copper plates also evolved and continued to be
the standard until photographic techniques were developed.
This Communications Revolution saw the widespread printing
of books. The book industry expanded and made a vast array of
subjects available, which spread knowledge and expertise. In
Europe the Protestant Reformation of the 16th and 17th centuries
was helped by the Communications Revolution.
European Colonization
For the next 300 years a race develops by European powers to
acquire empires and become superpowers. It is a matter of time
before Europeans make inroads into civilizations in Asia and
Africa. This dominates the agendas of European Governments.
Impact of Changes
Destruction of Native Cultures

Indigenous cultures in South and Central America suffer
destruction with wide spread colonization and this continues for
the next few hundred years. The Spanish New World population
in 1500 was about 50 million and by 1650 it had shrunk to 4
million despite Spanish immigration.1
301
Dissemination of Knowledge
New ways were developed to present, arrange and illustrate
books. The transmission of technical information was more accu-
rate as experts wrote books. Cheap and fast printing facilitated
the spreading of ideas. For example, Luther’s ideas spread like
wildfire in 1517 (300,000 copies of his works were printed).
Development of Mercantilism
For the European powers the establishment of colonial
trade (International) became an arm of governmental policy.
Mercantilism, with its emphasis on foreign exports, was
established and with it the acquisition and development of
colonies as exclusive markets and sources of raw materials.
Major Events
Increase in Scientific Interest

The Renaissance sparked off renewed interest in science.
Copernicus established a scientifically based heliocentric cosmol-
ogy that displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. The
Christian Church felt threatened and tries to suppress this.
Magellan Circumnavigates World

When Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese arrived in India in
1498. It became urgent for Spain to find a new commercial route
to Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas reserved for the Portuguese
the routes that went around Africa. The Spanish Crown then
decided to send out exploration voyages in order to find a way to
Asia by travelling westwards.
Agricultural
The introduction of new crops from the new world had a
significant impact on the population in Europe, Africa and Asia.2
Maize and potatoes are about twice as productive as wheat and
barley.
302
Paper Money
Although available in China for over 500 years from the 9th
through the 15th Century, paper money was not established
in Europe until the 16th Century. Like in China, paper money
facilitated economic growth, investments in exploration, and
colonies.
Canon and Firepower

When gunpowder arrived in Europe from China, it evolved
very quickly for its military uses. It was possible to attack from
considerable distance. With this evolved ballistics a new science
that used physics and geometry in calculating the trajectory
of a projective. This led to the development of measurement
devices, the quadrant3 and the vernier which were also useful in
surveying.
Cartography
The same devices quadrant and vernier were also employed in
map making which became more accurate. With maps compass
lines and other navigation aids were now included. New map
projections were devised, and globes were constructed. New
metal printing presses allowed for the mass production of
accurate maps. Mercator issued a world atlas in 1585.
Miniaturization of Clocks
A significance development was in the form of a spring-driven
mechanism to replace clocks powered by hanging weights. This
made possible small clocks which could be taken from room to
room, or in a carriage, eventually making possible the pocket
watch.
It was not practical for the general public to consider
minutes until the first mechanical clocks that displayed minutes
appeared near the end of the 16th Century. Even though watches
had appeared earlier they did not come into practical use for
many centuries (17th/18th).
303
New Furnace
The development of a new underfed furnace for dirty coal kept
glass free from soot and smuts. This spurred glass and brass
making and the coal-mining industry increased its production.
This led to lower cost glass used within building construction
projects.
Risk
From the 16th Century onwards, the term risk further evolved
and attained a beneficial meaning, for example in middle-
high-German “Rysigo” was a technical term for business, with
the meaning “to dare, to undertake a business and aspire for
economic success”.
Regions
The predominant region is Europe which is preoccupied with the
exploration of North and South America, and the Pacific Ocean.
Ferdinand Magellan’s Voyage Round

the World (1519-1522)
Background
Ferdinand Magellan was born in Portugal in 1480. As a boy,
he worked in the Queen’s household and heard about all the
discoveries that were being made in the new world and may
have been present when Columbus visited the Portuguese court
in 1493. In 1505, Magellan finally went to sea on a military
expedition. Magellan came up with the idea of finding a new sea
route to the Spice Islands but to realize this he needed to get
support, financial backing, and patronage.
Initiating
The project objective was purely commercial, to find a Western
Sea Route to the Spice Islands. The plan was to sail west around
South America, cross the Pacific Ocean, reach the Spice Islands,
304
and return to Spain thus circumnavigating the world. The Pope

had divided the world into spheres of influence and he would
stay in Spanish waters to the west. If he was unable to find the
strait, he would sail around Africa. The business case was based
on bringing back ship loads of spices that were worth more than
gold by weight.
Magellan needed the full support from the Portuguese King.
Unfortunately King Manuel would not fund this voyage because
he saw no need for such a frivolous expenditure. He did not like
Magellan’s idea and rejected it.
Planning
Magellan’s only other option was to approach the Court of
Spain but in such a way where his Portuguese would not be
held against him. He moved to Spain, married Diego Barbosa’s
daughter, renounced his nationality and became a Spanish
citizen. Eventually, Magellan presented a plan to King Charles
V that would give the ships of the Crown of Castile full access
to the Spice Islands. He claimed that he knew of a secret strait
through the new continent of South America.
Magellan, had a well painted globe in which the whole world
was depicted, and on it he indicated the route he proposed to
take, saving that the strait was left purposely blank so that no
one should anticipate him.
Las Casas, the historian of the Indies, present in Valladolid
when Magellan presented his plan to the King.4
The plan was to sail west, go through the strait, cross the
Pacific Ocean, reach the Spice Islands, and then return to Spain.
King Charles listened to the proposal favorably and agreed
with the plan which Magellan felt could not fail. Magellan was
furnished by the King’s orders with five ships, manned by two
hundred and thirty-four men, and enough provisions for two
years. The adventurers were granted a twentieth of the clear
profit and the governorship of any islands they might discover to
be vested to them and their heirs.
305
Executing (Journey)
Magellan’s principal objective was to find the strait through the
newly discovered and uncharted continent of South America
to the Pacific an estimated 60 day sail. He could then just sail
across the new sea all the way to the Spice Islands. This was a
grossly under estimated three day sail.
On August 10, 1519 Ferdinand Magellan set sail from Seville
with five ships under his command – Trinidad, San Antonio,
Concepción, Victoria, and Santiago. The schedule had been
delayed by 5 weeks, as the Spanish authorities had not trusted
the Portuguese Magellan and held him back as they switched his
Portuguese to a Spanish crew of 270 men.
Figure 10.1: Map of Ortelius: Magellan’s ship Victoria.5
They sailed off the Cape de Verde Islands but got into a calm
sea where they remained for seventy days without much prog-
ress. At last the wind picked up and they reached South America
in early December, but since Brazil was Portuguese territory,
Magellan had to avoid it. On December 13 he anchored south of
the colony near present-day Rio de Janeiro and there the crew
resupplied with an abundant supply of fruits, sugar-canes, and
animals of various kinds. From there the journey was excruciat-
ingly slow as he looked for a strait along the uncharted coast
306
line. He had to explore every inlet, river, and bay. On January

10, 1520 they came across a huge bay and spent two weeks ex-
ploring the basin of the huge river Plate, 200 hundred miles
across. Another explorer Juan Díaz de Solís, had previously
sailed there in 1516 with 3 ships and a crew of 70 men. They
had all died exploring the southern part of the new continent of
South America. This was fresh in the minds of Magellan’s crew.
As Magellan sailed farther south, the weather became colder
with freezing nights and cool days which left the crew in serious
danger of frostbite. The drop in temperatures saw a drop in the
spirits of the crew.
Figure 10.2: The Strait of Magellan at the southern part of South

America.6
On April 2nd, a mutiny broke out involving two of the five

ship captains. It became obvious to the crew that Magellan had
no idea where the strait was. He met the mutiny with force and
quelled it quite brutally. The mutiny was unsuccessful because
307
most of the crew remained loyal to Magellan. Reportedly those

killed were drawn and quartered and impaled on the coast.
Years later, their bones were found by Sir Francis Drake. The
journey resumed and The Santiago was sent to scout the coast
and was wrecked in a storm. The crew survived and made it
safely to shore, where they were picked up and returned to
Magellan.
On October 21st, the fleet reached Cape Virgenes and found
deep inland, brine waters, concluding they had reached the
passage. The four ships started through the 600 kilometers (373
miles) long passage that Magellan called the Estrecho (Canal)
de Todos los Santos. On November 20th Captain Gómez deserted
and returned with his ship to Spain.
On November 28th, the three remaining ships entered the
South Pacific. These were the first Europeans to reach Tierra del
Fuego. The journey had taken took 15 months much longer than
the expected 2 months. The three ships waited at the entrance
of the straits for the missing ship until the rendezvous time
appointed had passed. With the severe cold weather Magellan
steered towards the equator and a north-westerly course and
with this morale improved.
Figure 10.3: A 1507 map showing the limits of the known world.7
308
Both the winds and the sea were calm, and as a result
because of the calmness Magellan named it the Pacific Ocean.
On the 24th of January, 1521, two coral atolls were sighted
but they did not land on these barren rocks. As they sailed
further the crew finished all their provisions. The fresh water
became so bad that it only could be swallowed with difficulty.
Nothing was left to eat but pieces of skin and bits of feather.
Scurvy set in where nineteen men died, and thirty were too weak
to do duty. They anxiously searched for islands where they could
obtain fresh provisions. Magellan continued to deal with the
crew very harshly.
Figure 10.4: This 1581 map shows a more complete view of the
continents.8
They continued to sail with a smooth and fair wind at a good

rate, heading northwest they reached the equator on February
13th. After crossing the equator they arrived on the 6th of March
at a cluster of three fertile inhabited islands the Marianas and
Guam - 3 months and 20 days from the time of leaving the
Straits.
On March 16th, Magellan reached the island of Homonhon in
the Philippines with a crew of 173 left out of the original crew of
270 men. Here they resupplied. The needles of their compasses
309
varied so much, and moved so irregularly, that they were often

compelled to quicken them with a touch of the loadstone. Getting
across the Pacific was an astonishing piece of navigation.
Magellan did not stop anywhere for long until he reached
the central island of Cebu in April 1521. There he baptized the
local chief, Humabon and 2,000 of his followers. The price of
Humabon's conversion was aid in fighting an enemy chief, Lapu-
Lapu of Mactan Island, which was, one mile away. Magellan was
so confident of victory that he only took 60 men to Mactan.
Lapu-Lapu heard they were coming and assembled 1,500
warriors. Humabon brought 600 warriors to help, but Magellan
told him to stay on the sidelines. His crew could do the job by
themselves. The resulting battle was one-sided; the Spaniards
never even got to Mactan's shore, and only 8 of the 60 men
survived. Magellan was not among the survivors and was killed.
Magellan's death gave Humabon second thoughts about
the alliance. He invited 24 officers to a banquet, plied them
with palm wine and women, and then attacked them - killing
all but 3. Now only 100 of the original 270 crewmen were left
to complete the expedition. This was not enough to man all 3
ships, so they burned the one in worst shape, the Concepcion,
and divided her crew and provisions between the other 2, the
Trinidad and the Victoria.
It normally takes a week to sail from the Philippines to the
Moluccas, but the crew had little idea where they were going,
and they wandered aimlessly around Borneo and the Sulu Sea
for 3 months. Finally they reached the Spice Islands and loaded
a cargo of cloves, in fact, overloaded, for the Trinidad sprung a
leak and could go no farther.

Juan Sebastian del Cano (Elcano), the expedition’s new
commander, chose not to wait for repairs and took the Victoria
alone, a wise move since Trinidad was captured by the
Portuguese not long after that. On the return leg a further 65
men were lost to primarily scurvy. Ironically the precious cargo
of cloves had vitamin C.
310
On September 6, 1522, 10 months and 11,000 miles later,

Victoria, the one surviving ship, made it back to Spain with only
18 men out of the original 270 crew. Add to that the 17 men cap-
tured and later released by the Portuguese, and there were 35
survivors. The project took over 3 years and 235 lives were lost.
Closing
Magellan’s expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe
and the first to navigate the strait in South America connecting
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Magellan finally proved what all
the great discoverers were really assuming, the roundness of the
world.
The one ship that returned to Cadiz was loaded with
spices from the Moluccas and these were sold by the Spanish
Government for so large a sum of money that the king was
remunerated for the whole cost of the expedition with a very
large profit.
Hardwick Hall Project (1591-1597)

This Tudor building project was unique for its substantial use of
glass - “Hardwick Hall more glass than wall” the saying went,
where the glass is nearly 50% of the façade. Robert Smythson
the architect created a distinct landmark. The windows were
exceptionally large and numerous for the 16th Century and
were a powerful statement of wealth at a time when glass was
a luxury. The massive windows stretched almost from floor to
ceiling in every room on every floor. Glass in the Tudor period
was an expensive material but its usage in the building of
Hardwick Hall produced a spectacular effect on its vast array
of windows. Some of the windows appear to illuminate just one
room but they are cleverly constructed to light two rooms on
two storeys. There are also some false windows which conceal
chimneys. The use of so much glass made the interior of
Hardwick Hall lighter and airier.
“Clear glass was used by the Romans. Its production was
rediscovered by the Venetians in the 15th Century and came
over to England in the 16th Century”.9
311
To make a pane of glass was a very time consuming and

painstaking process. A blob of glass was blown into a cylinder
shaped bubble which was placed on a cooling table and cut in
half. A small piece of glass was thus produced. The small pieces
of glass for the windows were joined together with lead.10
Figure 10.5: Hardwick Hall seemed to have more glass than wall.
Glass made up 50% of the frontage.11
The building inspired a new architecture (glass in buildings)

and changes in the manufacture of sheet glass in the 17th
Century.
St Peter’s Basilica Project (1506-1626)

The period witnessed an extraordinary series of projects that
constructed palaces, villas, and churches. This completely
transformed the city of Rome. It all started with St. Peter’s
Basilica Project when the ambitious Renaissance Pope Julius II
tore down the most sacred shrine in Europe, the millennium old
St Peter’s Basilica built by the Emperor Constantine over the
apostle’s grave. Julius II’s intent was to erect on the same site a
stupendous mausoleum over the monument. The project began
in 1506 and followed the design of Bramante. It followed a too
312
hasty execution which led to the collapse of two of the arches

under the dome. Over the next 40 years work progressed only a
little further as four architects and one pope were replaced.
Figure 10.6: Plan of St Peter’s Basilica, Rome. The portion below the
line A, B, and the side chapels C, D, were added by Maderna. The
remainder represents Michael Angelo’s plan.12
In 1546, Michelangelo was appointed chief architect for the

reconstruction. Though aging and in poor health, he accepted
the appointment. He gave final form to the general design in
a simplified version of Bramante’s plan with more massive
supports, and an unrivalled dome equal to that built by
Brunelleschi a century earlier. It measured 43 meters (140 feet)
in internal diameter, and with its two shells rises from a drum,
to a height of 123 meters (405 feet) to the top of the lantern. It
actually dwarfed the nearby Pantheon, smaller in diameter, but
stood higher, it was made almost entirely of heavy masonry. The
workforce placed three iron rings within the masonry to support
the dome.
In 1606 C. Maderna was employed by Paul V. to lengthen the
nave by two bays, and the atrium or portico were added (1629–
67), by Bernini.
313
St. Peter’s was widely copied throughout Italy with churches

that have a Greek or Latin cross and a high dome rising from a
drum. In 1590 the dome of St. Peter’s was finished, after nearly
a century of construction, and was the greatest achievement of
the Basilica.
Figure 10.7: Interior of St Peter’s Rome13 the largest church in

existence. The central aisle is nearly 183 meters (600 feet) long, with
a stupendous paneled and gilded vault 25 meters (83 feet) in span.
The vast central area is capped by a majestic dome.
314
Figure 10.8: St Peter's Basilica.
Figure 10.9: St Peter's Basilica is fronted by an elliptical piazza 240

meters across, enclosed by imposing colonnades (248 columns and 88
pilasters), and is the largest Catholic Cathedral in the world. There
are over 140 life size saints crowning the cornice. The Vatican (the
Pope's residence) is on the right.14
315
The project constructed the largest church in Europe, which

was excessively massive. The project had all the hallmarks
of a Gothic cathedral project in terms of longevity. It was
an audacious project, lavish and opulent, and the cost was
enormous. In a period of 176 years (1450-1626) the construction
and improvement costs were over $63 million. It spanned 2
centuries, embroiled 27 popes, and the genius of the greatest
artists of the time including Michelangelo, Bramante, Raphael,
and Bernini. It provoked the Protestant Reformation, dividing
the Christian world for all time. Gothic cathedrals reached up to
heaven, but the basilica brought heaven to earth, and was the
defining event of the high Renaissance.
St Basil’s Cathedral Project (1555-1561)

The cathedral was built in the Red Square by the Ivan the
Terrible (Tsar Ivan IV), to commemorate the capture of the
Tartar stronghold of Kazan, in 1552. The design was based on
strictly geometrical principles where the ground plan was in the
form of an eight-pointed star, consisting of two superimposed
squares, which represent the stability of faith, and the four
corners of the earth. It was symbolic of the Christian Church,
as a guiding light to mankind. It comprised of nine individual
chapels, each had a unique onion dome, reflecting a victorious
assault on the city of Kazan. Each onion domes is instantly
recognizable and unique. The cathedral was built of stone and
brick covered with stucco.
The cathedral was built by Postnik and Barma. Legend has
it that Ivan had had the 2 architects blinded so that they could
not recreate this masterpiece. However, the name Postnik,
mentioned in the chronicles, was the author of many monuments
after St. Basil’s construction.
316
Figure 10.10: Old postcard - Cathedral of St Basil in Moscow.15
Key Players
Ferdinand Magellan (1480 – 1521)

He had the vision of finding a new sea route to the Spice Islands.
He faced major challenges to realize this and had to bide his
time to get the support, financial backing, and patronage. In
austere circumstance the project was completed but with heavy
loss of life including his.
Michelangelo (1475 – 1564)

Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni was an Italian
Renaissance painter, sculptor, architect, poet and engineer. He
was a predominant architect with the St Peter’s Basilica project
in Rome.
317
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
Like Columbus, Magellan needed to get project sponsorship from
the crown and state. Not only did he switch allegiances from
Portugal to Spain but, he also renounced his nationality and
become a Spanish citizen. Once he got the monarchs support
they downloaded all the project risks to him because they did
not trust him. They even swapped his Portuguese crew out for
Spaniards.
Magellan’s voyage around the world fell into trouble partly
because he mishandled his communications. Magellan had
incomplete maps of the Americas, and an inaccurate estimate
of the circumference of the earth. He claimed he knew where
the passage to the Spice Islands was. He didn’t and lied to his
sponsor (the King of Spain) and crew. Magellan’s voyage around
the world was fraught with risk. During the voyage Magellan
didn’t communicate constantly or effectively, which was vital
in heading off mutinies. Soon he had a full scale mutiny on his
hands which he overcame with a brute force.
Was Magellan a great Project Manager? The pro argument is
the voyage was probably undertaken well ahead of its time with
the levels of knowledge and technology that were available. At
this time the church was still claiming the world was flat. So, he
did reach the project objective, but at what cost? He misled the
stakeholders and crew on vital information, the location of strait,
and he used brute force to quell his crew which caused the loss
of life, resentment and desertion. He also took a huge gamble
and lost his own life and those of many of the crew. In reality
Magellan was constantly taking risks through the project.
He was poorly prepared not knowing the location of strait or
passageway, or distances across the Pacific.
The cathedral projects (of St. Basil and St. Peter)
delivered two structures that are world recognized symbols,
and landmarks in architecture. Unwittingly, the huge
costs associated with the St Peter’s project may have likely
contributed to the coming of the Project Reformation as Julius
II bailed the project out by increasing taxes and authorizing the
sale of indulgences (remissions of temporal punishments due to
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sin). Papal endeavors to create St. Peter’s may well have played
an indirect role in the Reformation movement.
Key Lessons
◦◦ The voyages of exploration (for Columbus and
Magellan) were significant projects that required
integration of many disciplines. Both were pushing
people and technologies to their limit.
◦◦ The projects were driven by a financial payback
that required substantial sponsorship and funding,
only available through the ruling monarchies and
wealthy royal families. The high cost demanded
a high return and the emphasis was on finding a
single commodity that could provide a payback. For
example, Magellan’s circumnavigation of the globe
was a disaster in terms of lives lost but, the one ship
that returned to Cadiz with a full cargo of spices
remunerated the whole expedition cost and left a very
large profit when sold by the Spanish Government.
Both Magellan and Columbus had challenges getting
the initial funding in place. They presented and
pleaded their projects, and the returns these would
bring to their royal sponsors. But a level of skepticism
and lack of belief that the projects would succeed
dogged them. When the final approval, was given the
monarchs still did not expect them to return.
◦◦ For Magellan the business case was very lucrative.
The voyage really opened up a European scramble for
more ambitious exploration, trade, and conquest.
◦◦ Preparations for these voyages of exploration took
more than a year.
◦◦ Having royal monarchs as project sponsors increased
the pressure on the project as Magellan was worried
about failing them and the consequences of this.
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◦◦ The St. Peter’s Basilica project is an example of

a project that disregarded change control, as this
project went on for two centuries with extensive
changes and modification that drove up costs.
◦◦ The principal requirements were to return to Spain
with a spice load of cargo and proof of a Western Sea
Route to the Spice Islands.
◦◦ Seeking a passage along the lengthy coast of South
America (estimated at 3,900 kilometers (2,400 miles))
was very difficult and time consuming. Magellan
lost two weeks just exploring the basin of the huge
river Plate. He seriously misjudged the impact of this
search, it radically changed the scope of the project,
and he was unprepared for it in terms of number of
ships, men, provisions, and equipment.
◦◦ Magellan set off with five ships but the scope of the
project was shifted several times, quite dramatically,
when ships deserted or were lost. The return leg to
Spain was completed with only a single ship.
◦◦ Magellan had completely under-estimated the
scope of the Pacific, estimating it only several
hundred miles or three days to cross. This put the
project into such serious trouble that it was almost
unrecoverable.
• Time Management
◦◦ Because the scope changed the time estimates were
grossly inaccurate. The journey just to the Pacific
Ocean had taken took 15 months, much longer than
the expected 2 months.
◦◦ Magellan’s voyage was time dependent and
dependent on adequate supplies of food and water.
Therefore, time overrode both project cost and scope.
The challenge for Magellan was the only flexibility
he had was turning back before the objective was
reached.
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◦◦ With the St. Peter’s Basilica project, time was

secondary to scope and very much in line with other
cathedral projects.
• Cost Management
◦◦ To complete the project Magellan required a
significant budget to pay for five ships with crew,
supplies, and equipment.
◦◦ Based on transatlantic travel Magellan had
analogous estimates for the first part of the voyage
across the South Atlantic.
◦◦ Even though Magellan’s ships hugged the South
American coast line and could pull in shore to
replenish provisions (food and water), he sapped the
crew’s morale. It took 15 months to complete this leg,
and he had a full scale mutiny on his hands.
◦◦ When Magellan cleared the straight he was anxious
to complete the journey. He failed to stop and ad-
equately replenish food and water, creating a bigger
set of problems when crossing the vast Pacific Ocean.
◦◦ So important was the St. Peter’s Basilica project
in Rome to the principal stakeholders that control
of the project budget fell indirectly to the pope.
Meeting the objectives and completing the structure
far outweighed the project budget which ran out of
control. The project sponsor believed he could fall
back on the resources of the Catholic Church and in
fact did.
◦◦ Magellan’s crew of 251 men was double what
Columbus had, and therefore he had greater
challenges. He was very reliant on his captains to
maintain morale and keep order.
◦◦ The Columbus/Magellan voyages of exploration show
a contrast in styles of management.
◦◦ Acquiring and holding onto a project team was
very difficult because of the perceived dangers. In
Magellan’s case one of the four ships deserted. He
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took a more heavy handed approach with his crew

than Columbus. By not managing his crew properly,
and admitting not to what he knew, he quickly lost
their confidence and had a full scale mutiny that
almost ended in disaster.
◦◦ Prior to departure the project sponsors had ordered a
swap out of the whole Portuguese crew for a Spanish
one. The original crew would likely have been more
sympathetic to Magellan and better tolerate his
mistakes.
◦◦ Crossing the Pacific was done under extreme
circumstances due to the shortage of provisions. The
crew was forced to eat rats, sawdust and leather from
the yardarms. After 3 months the three ships arrived
at the island of Guam, in the Marianas, where they
obtained fresh provisions.
◦◦ St. Peter’s Basilica project went through 27 popes
and a number of architects. This constant change
destabilized the project and impacted the scope.
◦◦ When Magellan was planning the project, like
Columbus, the areas were quality was paramount
included:
• The accuracy of charts and maps, even more so
because of the greater distances.
• The seaworthiness of ships especially the rigging
against storms with the vast expanses of the
Pacific.
• The securing of provisions (food and water) to
last across large stretches of the journey. The
plan required landing on coast-lines to replenish
and restock. The ship left with bread, beer,
hard biscuits, fish and salted meat, all stored in
wooden casks, and fresh livestock like pigs and
chickens. Scurvy was going to be a major problem
because of the lack of vitamin C.
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◦◦ Daily inspections were made by a cooper (barrel

maker) who was responsible for inspecting and
keeping the casks tight.
◦◦ Magellan’s voyage was faced with the problem of
longitude that required measuring distance sailed
over time. The precision in the measuring sextant
was not accurate and was one of the essential devices
that had to rapidly evolve and be re-engineered more
precisely.
◦◦ With St. Peter’s Basilica project the final deliverable
was the creation of the premier church in the
Catholic empire. For this the most exquisite levels of
craftsmanship were required. Whatever was visible
required the highest levels of quality.
◦◦ Both Columbus/Magellan had serious challenges with
funding, and had to bide their time. They had to find
and then carefully manage their fickle sponsors and
stakeholders.
◦◦ Magellan’s communication management let him
down. By misleading his stakeholders about the
passage to the Spice Islands he lost the crew’s
confidence and trust.
◦◦ Once underway Magellan did not have a way to
communicate with his royal project sponsors where
he could not share the problems encountered, like
the increase in scope, and jointly review project
alternatives.
◦◦ During the voyage Magellan didn’t communicate
constantly or effectively, which was vital in heading
off mutinies. When the crew realized that Magellan
had lied he lost the confidence of the crew, and had
a full scale mutiny on his hands which he overcame
with brute force.
◦◦ Magellan would likely have had a better
relationship with the original Portuguese crew and
communication would have been far easier.
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◦◦ By drawing and quartering the mutineers Magellan

was sending a very powerful message to the rest of
his team relative to his tolerance for insubordination.
◦◦ St. Peter’s Basilica project faced the communication
challenges of an elongated building project (like the
Gothic cathedrals). Concepts and ideas had to be
shared along the time-line from architect to architect.
• Risk Management
◦◦ Risks were downloaded to Magellan by the monarchy
who didn’t trust him and imposed constraints,
such as the makeup of the crew (Spanish versus
Portuguese).
◦◦ Magellan’s voyage was fraught with risk. The
voyage required managing a vast array of risks
predominantly financial, navigational, and
environmental with the climate and weather, to
running into the hostile groups (Portuguese or
natives), to running out of provisions, leading to
starvation and mutiny.
◦◦ Magellan mitigated the risk by taking five ships.
When a ship deserted he was still able to continue,
although the overall project risks greatly increased.
◦◦ By not having accurate maps of South America he
was forced to explore every inlet, river, and bay along
the coast in search of a passage to the Pacific. The
risk of not finding the passage plagued him, and he
failed to acknowledge the impact this was having on
the crew.
◦◦ Magellan, when compared to Columbus, was reckless
in the execution of the project. He took huge risks
with his own life and that of his crew’s, without seek-
ing advice. When he finally cleared the passage to the
Pacific, he pushed ahead without taking adequate
provisions on board which proved disastrous.
◦◦ Not knowing the true distance across the Pacific
Ocean was a massive risk he undertook. He grossly
underestimated it as a three day sail based on an
inaccurate estimate of the Earth’s diameter.
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◦◦ Magellan got too readily embroiled in a local conflict

with natives without assessing the risks carefully
enough.
◦◦ Through the project Magellan kept accepting risk
because he didn’t want to fail - that is return to Spain
without finding the passage. Magellan was a risk
seeker.
◦◦ With St. Peter’s Basilica project the design was pushed
to the limits resulting in the collapse of two arches.
◦◦ When Royal consent was finally given to the project,
Magellan entered into an agreement where he was
nominated as captain of the expedition, and given
five vessels with provisions for two years. He was
nominated governor of any new lands found during
the voyage and would receive one-twentieth of the
profits.
◦◦ Magellan, like Columbus, had to procure enough
ships (five) to make the voyage feasible. The ships
had to be well equipped, supplied and provisioned for.
◦◦ With St. Peter’s Basilica project the supply chain was
massive considering the scale of the largest Catholic
cathedral in the world. This included transportation
of an Obelisk from Egypt.
Educators
• Discuss all the risks in Magellan’s project and his
approach in mitigating these?
• Discuss in the context of today’s projects whether
Magellan’s voyage was a success or not?
• Was it undertaken ahead of its time considering the
knowledge and technologies available to him?
• Discuss Magellan’s approach to managing his
stakeholders and crew.
325
• Discuss whether St. Peter’s Basilica project set a

precedent with project that ignored the costs. Was the
project successful?
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Chapter 11
The 17th Century and the

Modern Age of Engineering
T
he period was dominated by the Europeans racing to
colonize the world. Magellan’s round the world voyage
confirmed the size of the world and opened the door to the
unknown world. New manufacturing techniques dropped the
cost of a sheet glass and glass was widely incorporated into new
building constructions. The birth of First Scientific Revolution
saw the field of optics and atmospherics emerge, which spawned
the first phase of Modern Engineering and its influence on
project management. Large projects were now more likely to be
sponsored by the crown and state, rather than the church that
is undergoing dramatic reforms provoked by the Protestant
Reformation and indirectly by St. Peter’s Basilica project.

a. Divine right of kings leads to civil wars and
monarchies start to lose their grip on power.
b. Europeans race to acquire colonies and the
colonization of North America, Africa.
a. The development of democracy.
327
b. Destruction of North America native cultures.

• Major events
a. The first limited company, 1602.
b. The Great Fire of London, 1666.
c. Bank of England created, 1694.
a. The First Scientific Revolution.
b. Modern Engineering .
c. New Materials, manufacturing of large sheets of
glass.
• Regions
a. Europe.
a. Taj Mahal.
b. Palace of Versailles.
a. Blue Mosque in Constantinople.
• Key players
a. Sebastian De Vaubau – military engineer.
b. Gallelio.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

million.
Divine Right of Kings

This idea evolved in Europe during the Middle Ages that
kings were answerable only to God, the Absolutists. In the
17th Century national monarchs in England and France were
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11 - The 17th Century and the Modern Age of Engineering
asserting their authority in matters of both church and state.

In England this led to a bloody civil war and is a precursor to
revolutions across Europe.
European Colonization
The voyages of exploration opened the door to colonization
and the exploitation of cheap colonial labor and slaves for the
European powers. For the most part the Europeans used these
as a workforce within the colony itself, and through the 16/17th
centuries further inequities and exploitation grew with African
slavery.
In the European race to acquire colonies and the colonization
of North America, Africa, and Asia, Europeans set up settle-
ments and forts. Through colonization international trade and
the sophisticated procurement practices developed in selling
goods on one continent and buying goods for the return leg.
Impact of Changes
The Development of Democracy

Both the French and English Monarchs refused to call parlia-
ments (in England and France), which stirred up democratic
forces and the dissolution of power.
Destruction of North America Native Cultures

As the Europeans settled and colonized North America, a repeat
of history was inevitable. Native cultures were under threat
similar to the Aztecs and Incas when the Spanish arrived a
century earlier in South and Central America.
Major Events
The Great Fire of London 1666

The fire consumed about 2 miles2 (5 kilometers2) of the city
centre, leaving tens of thousands homeless. The fire was a
catalyst for rebuilding the centre of London, and foundation
of risk management. In the aftermath insurance companies
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protected their clients’ property by forming private fire

organizations who would only deal with buildings identified by
fire insurance marks. This led to the birth of fire departments for
cities without organized fire protection systems.
The First Limited Company 1602

The Dutch commercial expansion to the Far East, to get spices
and set up trading posts, leads to the creation of the first limited
company. So expensive were the ventures that merchants had
to pool their resources together. In 1602 the Dutch East India
Company was formed with a monopoly on trade to the Far East.
The structure of the company was novel where citizens were
invited to invest (unequally) through an issue of shares in the
company’s profits that were determined by supply and demand.
This was the world’s first true stock market. The company had to
keep Spanish and English competitors at bay with 40 warships
and an army of 10,000 soldiers.1
Bank of England 1694

The Bank was created to act as the English Government’s
banker. This was the first step in a national approach to the
economy. The state bank did not directly promote industry but
indirectly through hundreds of private banks.
The First Scientific Revolution

This revolution developed a new understanding of the physical
world through new instruments that could verify ideas by
observation and experimentation, something the ancient
cultures lacked.
“An inductive study of nature [is required] through experience
and experiment.”
—Bacon
Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes are seen as the founders

of modern empiricism and rationalism. They both advocated
330
that the ultimate purpose of theoretical science is to serve the

practical needs of human beings. The century sees the new fields
of optics and atmospherics emerge.
As the field of mathematics continued to evolve the
beginning of the 17th Century saw the introduction of logarithms,
the invention of the slide rule, and the development of a decimal
system.
In 1604 Gallelio used mathematics to describe the law of
falling objects at a rate of 32 feet/second per second. Every
object accelerated at the same rate. Significantly, this was the
first time that mathematics had been used to describe a law of
nature. This was the emergence of the Scientific Revolution.
In 1610 Galileo looked at the skies using a telescope which
he developed from a Dutch idea used for seeing objects at a great
distance like incoming merchant ships on the horizon. When he
turned the telescope to the heavens, and magnified the view by
1,000 times, he found a great numbers of stars which were not
visible to the naked eye. He was able to distinguish the moons
of Jupiter, Venus waxing and waning, spots on the Sun, and so
proved Copernicus was right with his heliocentric theory (the
sun at the center of the universe).
Galileo invented a simple thermometer and in 1643 a pupil
of his Torricelli made a barometer to measure atmospheric pres-
sure using a dish and an inverted tube of mercury.
The Reflecting Microscope was a powerful new microscope
developed by A. van Leeuwenhoek in 1674. It was able to detect
microorganisms as small as protozoa. Although microscopes
were available in the mid-15th Century they were somewhat
crude.
Isaac Newton combined experimentation with mathematics
and scientific works to create a comprehensive set of physical
laws around gravitation and astronomy. He also discovered that
heat when applied to different elements gave off a characteristic
color in the light spectrum, and each star had a spectrum of
light. Newton composed Principia Mathematica during in 1686,
probably one of the most important books ever written.
331
Modern Engineering
“The first phase of modern engineering emerged in the Scientific
Revolution. Galileo’s Two New Sciences, which sought system-
atic explanations and adopted a scientific approach to practical
problems, is a landmark regarded by many engineer historians
as the beginning of structural analysis, the mathematical repre-
sentation and design of building structures.”
—Source: History of engineering;
http://www.creatingtechnology.org/history.htm#1
This marked the beginning of modern engineering with

the formation of professional societies, the printing of treatise
on engineering subjects in quantity, foundation of engineering
schools, and specializations within the profession. Engineers also
began taking advantage of the brilliant scientific discoveries of
the time. The first handbooks on engineering appeared.
Steam engines appeared as a source of power (Thomas
Savery), first harnessed in the 17th Century to operate mine
pumps. They were somewhat limited until improvements were
made by James Watt in the 1770s.
Daily Newspapers
In the last 500 years changes in communications were fast,
broad, and significant. By 1650 the first daily newspapers were
in circulation in Leipzig and this saw an explosive growth to
become the main form of media for the next 275 years.
New Materials
Hardwick Hall inspired a new architecture and changes in
the manufacture of sheet glass. The development of more
sophisticated coal fuelled furnaces provided the required
quantity of molten glass. New techniques like spreading and
rolling out an even thickness on casting tables allowed for the
manufacture of large sheets of glass. The Palace of Versailles
incorporated this material on a vast scale not just in windows
but mirrors, and as a result, started a building trend with this
material.
332
Figure 11.1: Changes in glass making improved the quality and

reduced the cost making it more viable for projects, 1706.2
Regions
Europe and Asia.
Taj Mahal Project (1631-1648)
Background
By 1630 the architecture of the Moguls had reached the height
of expression in the totality and balance of its qualities of
construction, composition, detail, ornament, and settings.
Initiating
The project charter for the Taj Mahal was to build a mausoleum
for the fifth great Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan. Taj means
crown and Mahal means palace, hence the Crown Palace. He
was one of the richest men in the world. Because it was to serve
as his tomb after his death, the project had to be completed in
his lifetime. It was located to the south of the walled city of Agra.
The rationale for the project was no different to the Pharaoh
333
Khufu‘s pyramid of Giza. It was also a memorial to his wife,

Mumtaz Mahal, who would have her mortal remains buried in
this mausoleum.
The Taj Mahal incorporated and expanded upon many design
traditions, particularly Persian and earlier Mughal architecture.
Specific inspiration came from a number of successful Timurid
and Mughal buildings.
Planning
The project demanded the varied talents, creativity, artistry,
skills and abilities of many. A project core or creative team was
formed of thirty seven men including designers and architects,
who were all mentioned by name in the official Mughal histories.
• The chief architect (or plan drawer) was Ismail Afandi
(a.k.a. Ismail Khan) who had worked for the great
Ottomans in Turkey as a premier designer and builder of
domes. He was also the architect of the Red Fort at Delhi.
• Mukrimat Khan and Mir Abdul Karim from Shiraz,
Iran (Persia) were chief supervisors and administrators
who handled the finances and management of daily
production.
• Mohammed Hanif, Multan and Quandhar, master
masons from Delhi, were supervisors of the masons.
• Qazim Khan, a goldsmith from Lahore who cast the gold
finial that crowns the dome.
• Chiranji Lal, a lapidary from Delhi chosen as the chief
mosaicist.
• Amanat Khan from Shiraz, the master calligrapher
whose signature is inscribed on the Taj gateway.
Also included in this international team were sculptors from

Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from
southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, and a specialist
in building turrets.
To this core was added a project workforce of twenty thou-
sand recruited from across northern India and master craftsmen
334
from Persia, France, Iran, Italy and Turkey to work on the proj-
ect. Their names were recorded for posterity on scrolls.
The Mughal Emperor ordered for the best of artisans to
create a unique design that could not be replicated. He played an
active role in the project design and rejected hundreds of designs
before he finally approved the blue print. He personally oversaw
the artists as part of his daily routine. Most importantly once the
project started the design was not changed.
“We know Shah Jahan was interested in architecture. We know
he was interested in architectural decoration and design. Clearly,
he was consulted. He was probably very interested in continually
seeing the plans as they developed and commenting on them,
and suggesting changes that might be made. The idea that he did
any more than that, in terms of the design, is unrealistic. Clearly
it’s a building that was designed by professional architects who
knew what they were doing, not by a prince and an amateur.”
—Art historian Milo Beach3
The most significant challenge was the proximity to the
river to the site and the high water table. This would affect the
stability of the foundation.
As part of the planning the team also worked out the
logistics for:
• The site preparation – drainage of the area and creation
of a perfect square marble plinth, 55 meters (186 feet) on
each of the four sides.
◦◦ A 3 acre area was excavated, filled with earth and
rubble, and leveled at 50 meters (140 feet) above the
riverbank.
◦◦ Wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble at
the footings of the tomb because of the high water
table.
◦◦ Creation of a platform of red sandstone.
◦◦ Perfect leveling of the square marble plinth, any
slight inaccuracies would offset the Minarets.
• The production of brick
◦◦ Vast quantities required for the inner core.
335
• The quarry operations

◦◦ Red stone was brought from the neighboring towns.
◦◦ A huge quantity of translucent white marble was
brought from Makrana mines (Rajasthan) to Agra a
distance of 350 kilometers (200 miles).4
• The transportation of the finished stone
◦◦ The marble (2 ton blocks) was transported by pack
animals were teams of twenty or thirty oxen were
strained to pull the blocks on specially constructed
wagons to Agra.
◦◦ Over 1,000 elephants were used in the construction
where a convoy of elephants hauled the marble
blocks.
• The creation of accommodation for the project workforce
◦◦ For a permanent workforce of up to 20,000.
• The construction of the ramps
◦◦ To deliver the blocks to a precise position in the
structure a 15 kilometers (9 miles) tamped-earth
ramp was constructed to transport marble and
materials from Agra to the construction site.
• The performance of the finished work
◦◦ The marble blocks were raised into a desired position
using an elaborate machine like post-and-beam
pulley system.
• The removal of the ramps at the end of construction.
In the construction three types of materials (stones) were

used:
1. Common stones: sang-i-Gwaliari (grey and yellow
sandstone) sang-i-Surkh (red sandstone), sang-i-moosa
(black slate) and sang-i-Rukhan (sang-i-marmar; white
marble) were used in foundations, masonry and for
giving finishing touch to the external surfaces.
336
2. Semi-precious stones like Aqiq (agate), Yemeni, Firoza

(turquoise), Lajwad (Lapis- lazuli); moonga (coral),
Sulaimani (onyx), Lahsunia (cat's eye), Yasheb (jade)
and Pitunia (blood stone). These were mainly used for
inlaying work.
3. Rare and scarce stones such as Tilai (goldstone), Zahar-
mohra, Ajuba, Abri, Khathu, Nakhod and Maknatis
(magnet stone) were used for bold inlay and mosaic work
chiefly on floors, exterior dados and turrets.
The building was constructed with a brick core and a marble

veneer, similar to the Roman project’s like the Colosseum, and
this lowered the costs. Workmen constructed a colossal brick
scaffold that mirrored the tomb. Some of materials travelled a
great distance and an extensive supply chain was created. For
example, turquoise was brought from Upper Tibet, jasper from
Punjab, jade and crystal from China, sapphire from Sri Lanka,
Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, Carnelian from Arabia. Other
materials which were used included different kind of bricks,
sweet limestone, tiles, and spouts to lead off water, reed glue,
red and silver clay, and glass.5 In all, 28 types of precious and
semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble and used
on the blooms of fuchsias, lily, honeysuckle and more.6
Executing
The construction of Taj Mahal began in 1631. Locating the site
so close to the river was a major risk. The foundation was an
engineering marvel where each massive peer, supporting the
building, rested on deep rubble and a series of concrete holes,
connected by arches. It was so effective that even today the
building has not shifted. Wells were dug by the river so that
any fluctuations in the ground water level were absorbed before
reaching the foundation.
The double dome was constructed from concentric circles of
bricks about 2 meters (6 feet) thick. It was 10 stories (50 meters
or 80 feet) high and weighed 13,000 tons, and most remarkably
was not supported by any pillars. It had an 18 meters (60 feet)
diameter about half the width of Florence Duomo (42 meters).
337
The center and skeleton of the main building were made up

of extra strong brick masonry in which massive white marble
slabs were used on the headers and stretchers to give it a white
marble outlook. This was held by cementing material made up of
pieces of fossilized soil mixed with lime mortar.
The order of construction was:
• The Taj Mahal plinth and tomb.
• The Taj Gateway and garden.
• Remaining parts of the complex were built in stages.
The four Minarets at the four corners of the plinth were de-
liberately erected leaning outwards so in case of an earthquake
they would fall away from the tomb in case of collapse.7
The Mughals believed that the precious and semiprecious
stones affected the fortunes of different persons and places and
this was calculated and strictly adhered to in the adornment.
Marks were engraved on red stone slabs, pathways, stairs,
plinths and pavements. These included Symbolic motifs
(Swastika, Hexagon, Pentagon), Animated motifs (fish, bird),
Geometrical motifs (triangle, Square, rectangle), and Floral
motifs (leaves and petals of flowers).8
Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, animal-
powered rope and bucket system, into a large storage and
distribution tanks, and then passed into three subsidiary tanks,
from which it was piped to the complex.
Closing
The project was completed with the following main features:
• The Taj Mahal plinth and tomb, Pietra Dura, took 12
years to complete (1643). 4 Minarets, 43 meters (138 feet)
each, were topped with 8 windowed cupolas. Immediately
below the dome is the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal which
is centrally lined with the main entrance, and that of
Shahjahan, placed there by Aurangzeb to break up the
symmetry.
338
• The massive red sandstone Taj Gateway, took an

additional 10 years to complete although historical
accounts list different completion dates. It stands 30
meters (100 feet) high, and is topped by small cupolas or
chatris. It is Symbolic of the divide between the material
and the spiritual worlds. The gateway is decorated in
calligraphy with verses from the Holy Koran.
Figure 11.2: Taj gateway to garden court of the Taj Mahal.9
• The Charbagh or the Taj Garden, that enhances the over-

all beauty laid out in the Persian Charbagh (four garden
plan) style. The entire area of the Taj complex is 580 me-
ters (1,902 feet) by 300 meters (984 feet) and the garden
alone makes up an area of 300 by 300 meters (984 feet).
Remarkably the project was completed in 17 years, in the
lifetime of the Emperor Shah Jehan. Much of the project effort
went into the dome and the ornate finishing and adornments.
339
Figure 11.3: Plan and layout of the Taj Mahal and Gardens of the
Great Mughals.10
340
Figure 11.4: The Taj Mahal, made of gleaming white marble and
rested on an 8-sided platform of red sandstone measuring 40 meters
(130 feet) long on each side.11
The project costs have been estimated at 32 million Rupees

or hundreds of millions of dollars at today’s currency rates. The
output is the pearl of Indian architecture and a masterpiece
of symmetry. It seems to be floating in the air from a distance.
Today, most of the precious stones have been plundered.
Palace of Versailles Project (1661-1720)
Background
The struggle to unite the French nation had been going on since
the fall of the Roman Empire. French Counts and Dukes were
sometimes extremely powerful, and always determined to keep
control of the land they possessed and their respective incomes.
They often fought with the French King whenever he became a
little too powerful. So, the King of France spent most of the year
travelling through the provinces, meeting his subjects to make
sure they were still faithful to him.
341
Initiating
King Louis XIV of France wanted a place where he could orga-
nize and completely control the Government of France by abso-
lute personal rule. It was a straightforward project charter. As
a principal stakeholder he settled on Versailles, a royal hunting
lodge of his father because it was outside of Paris and also away
from the tumults and diseases of the crowded city. The project
had a clear political purpose of establishing the power of the
King of France over the French nobility.
In March 15th, 1661, Jean-Baptiste Colbert was named
Superintendent of Finances and was assigned to the project, as
well the construction of the Louvre, Fontainebleau, and other no-
table projects. Colbert’s role in the project was certainly not easy
as he did not approve of it. He opposed the young king’s obsti-
nately and expressed himself without reservation. But Louis XIV
had a dream and was not satisfied with Paris as a residence. So,
he told Colbert to make his dream come true, and Colbert had to
find some way to pay the cost.12
Figure 11.5: Frontispiece, Statue of Louis XIV, the project sponsor.13
342
Planning
Louis XIV was irritated by the splendors of the Chateau of Vaux-
le-Vicomte built by his ill-fated minister, Nicholas Fouquet,
for himself. Louis XIV was determined to surpass this chateau
by one much more elaborate and to pale it into insignificance.
Fouquet had employed the most renowned masters of this
period namely, Louis Le Vau, the principal architect, and André
Le Nôtre, the landscape architect and gardener, and Charles
Lebrun, the painter and decorator.
On August 17, 1661, Fouquet gave an elaborate fête to
celebrate the completion of the chateau, which Louis XIV
attended. Within three weeks the host was a prisoner of the
State, accused of embezzlement, and his estate was confiscated.
Acting immediately to out-do the glories of Vaux-le-Vicomte,
Louis XIV engaged Le Nôtre to plan the gardens and Le Vau
to submit proposals for the enlargement and decoration of the
Chateau at Versailles.
Executing
In September, 1663 Colbert reported with dismay that two years
into the project he had spent millions of livres, and a good part
was just for the construction of the gardens. With increasing
frequency Louis XIV was in residence at Versailles and directly
meddled in the project. He was dominant, directing minute
details like the laying of floors, the hanging of draperies, the
installation of art and decorative works. Builders and decorators
took advantage and suggested one elaborate change after
another, without any regard to the project cost, and despite the
protests of Colbert to Louis XIV that they were exceeding all
estimates.
Louis XIV also impatiently voiced disapprovals to the
superintendents of any delays and so they strove feverishly to
meet all his demands. Their eagerness to act cost the project a
substantial sum, but when challenged by Colbert he only cared
for the completion of his luxurious ideas. He was impatient to
enjoy his creation and to invite his court there to celebrate its
completion with both brilliant and costly fêtes. Every day a new
requirement was tabled and it had to be incorporated into the
project. There was no change control to the project scope. It was
343
Colbert’s problem to finance the project. Effectively, the palace

was built but not planned for over four phases. An example of
the extravagance includeed:
“An orangery of 1,250 imported orange trees was laid out,
with a grand terrace, among the fruit and vegetable gardens.
The original entrance court was greatly enlarged. Long wings
terminated by pavilions bordered it with kitchens and quarters
for the domestics, and stables with stalls for fifty-four horses. A
long promenade, the Allée Royale, extended to a vast basin, the
lake of Apollo.”14
The first phase (1664-1668), Louis XIV gave orders for the
building of small dwellings to be occupied by the favorites of his
entourage. Also the highway to Paris “the Cours-la-Reine” was
started. Already Versailles took on a more imposing aspect than
ancient Fontainebleau, Louis XIVs other residence.
The scope of the project increased as workmen drained
swamps and moved whole forests to construct reservoirs, ponds,
fountains, grottoes, waterfalls, straying brooks in 250 acres
of formal gardens. Thousands of troops were commandeered
into the project workforce to divert the river to supply water to
the pools and fountains. Cages were constructed for “the most
splendid palace of animals in the world.”
A great number of works of art were ordered for the
adornment of the walks and gardens. Many mythological statues
and busts were made in Rome and it was a thriving period for
sculptors of France and adjacent countries. Colbert detailed
expenditures of million livres of the nation’s money for these.
Many were removed after a short period as Louis XIV constantly
demanded the work of the latest and newest artists, and all the
newest novelties.
344
Figure 11.6: “View of Versailles from the Avenue de Paris”, by Pierre

Patel.15 The immense project cleared 37,000 acres of land for vast
formal gardens with geometrically arranged avenues, tree-lined
terraces, woods, and canals, walkways, with over 1,400 fountains
and 400 pieces of sculpture.
By 1668 the project approached completion but in 1669 the

project changed direction as Le Vau, the architect, proposed new
embellishments. Louis XIV had just turned thirty years of age,
and was eager to achieve still greater improvements to mark the
increasing prosperity of his reign. Again with no change control
half-finished buildings were demolished and rebuilt. Immense
structures arose, and once again artists flocked to Versailles.
The palace and park were elaborately decorated.
The project scope further increased when a town was created
on the vast acres purchased by Louis XIV. Houses were built for
Colbert, now superintendent of the royal buildings, and for the
officers of the Chancellery. Louis XIV bought the village of "Old
Versailles" and made liberal grants of land to individuals who
agreed to build houses there. Opposite the chateau nobles of the
Court built their own mansions.
The second phase (1669-1672) saw a new structure
provide lodgings for Louis XIV and members of his family. The
main floor was given over entirely to two royal apartments for
the King and Queen. It also saw the construction of the terrace,
which was later enclosed to become the Hall of Mirrors.
345
Figure 11.7: The lavish Hall of Mirrors extends for 75 meters (240
feet) along a terrace overlooking the gardens. The marble walls are
embellished with bronze-gilt trophies.16
Le Vau died in 1670 and the project was continued by the

architect's pupils at great cost. Louis XIV maintained a lively
interest in the project whether at home or abroad and eagerly
read plans and listened to reports.
A third phase (1678-1684) involved over 36,000 laborers
and craftsmen, and 6,000 horses. The workforce used immense
hydraulic machines driven by the river. The north and south
wings of the palace were built. The Hall of Mirrors was decorat-
ed with exquisite silver furnishings and reported to be one of the
greatest rooms in Europe.17 The project exploited the use of the
new plate glass along the main building frontage and the inner
elevation of mirrors. Louis XIV finally got possession of his new
palace in 1682. "The State," exclaimed the Sun King, "it is I!"

The fourth phase (1699-1710) concentrated almost exclusively
on the construction of the royal chapel. Its decoration was
completed after Louis XIV’s death in 1715.
Fifteen thousand people resided in the many apartments
within the palace which included the heads of state and military
officials. Each member of the royal family had their own
household as well.
346
Figure 11.8: The complete building had a floor space of 51,210 m2,
with 2,153 windows, 1,252 chimneys, 700 rooms, and 67 staircases.
The project left France with a debt of 4000 million livres until
1774.18
In addition to being one of the world's most beautiful

buildings it was also one of the most expensive and Louis XIV's
disregard for costs placed such an economic burden on the people
of France that it eventually festered into the French revolution.19
Closing
King Louis XIV said in his memoirs that Versailles was meant to
be a place where everybody, not just people from the King’s inner
circle, could have access to the King. He needed a countervailing
power to the court of mighty princes if he were to establish his
absolute authority, and for this he needed to rely on the people.
Not the masses but, educated people, intellectuals, scientists,
and (mainly) writers.
This huge project, the redesigning of nature, the importation
of huge quantities of water illustrates the Absolutist domination
of nature. Just as Apollo the sun god controlled the light in
the sky, his earthly incarnation King Louis XIV attempted to
control nature. The project left a huge debt and was probably the
most expensive project of all time. The French Government was
bankrupt to the amount of 4,000 million livres (1 billion pounds
or $6 billion) in 1774. The project was one of the principal
causes along with costly wars, and the spending of the royals
on luxuries. At the time a master carpenter earned yearly 200
livres, whereas a Paris parish priest earned 10,000 livres.
347
Figure 11.9: The project exploited the use of the new plate glass
along the main building frontage and the inner elevation of mirrors.
This was widely copied across Europe.20
In 1788 the French Government was declared officially

bankrupt. Louis XVI was forced to call for a meeting of the
Estates-General which was a representative body of the
government that had not met in 175 years. They met in
Versailles at the Jeu de Paume, a tennis court, which became
the backdrop for the French Revolution.
On the morning of October 6, 1789 a mob of angry Parisians,
mostly women, marched to the Palace of Versailles demanding
bread. They stormed the Palace, ran up the Queen's Staircase
and broke into the Guard's Room, then into the ante-chamber.
Marie Antoinette ran from her bedchamber into her private
apartments towards the King's suite to find her husband and
son. In an effort to quell public discontent Louis XVI moved his
court to Paris.
The Palace of Versailles project is famous as a symbol of the
system of absolute monarchy and its abuse. It also influenced
other projects like the Winter Palace, in St. Petersburg, Russia.
Blue Mosque Project (1609-1616)

This edifice in Constantinople was notable because of its overall
scope and huge encompassing central dome, which is 23.5 meters
348
(77 feet) in diameter and 43 meters (141 feet) high at its central
point. It was patterned on the Hagia Sophia (blue because the
tiles adorning the walls of its interior). The project ran between
1609 and 1616.
Canal Du Midi Project (1666-1680)

This canal was significant as it was precursor to the canal
revolution of the industrial eras. The unification of France under
Louis XIV revived the vision for a canal joining the Atlantic to
the Mediterranean. This canal would connect the Garonne River
to the Étang de Thau on the Mediterranean. It would reduce
a 3,000 kilometers (1,900 miles) sea journey around a hostile
Spain.
The project was initiated in 1665 by Pierre-Paul Riquet, a
rich tax-farmer in the Languedoc region, who persuaded Jean-
Baptiste Colbert, the finance minister of Louis XIV to sponsor
it. Riquet paid for one third of the project the rest by Louis XIV
with an expected cost of 3 million livres.
The project’s biggest challenge was getting enough water to
the highest sections. This was solved by building the largest dam
ever at Saint Ferréol on the Laudot River 700 meters (2,300 feet)
long, 30 meters (100 feet) above the riverbed and 120 meters
(390 feet) thick at its base. This was only the second major dam
to be built in Europe.
A project workforce at its peak had 12,000 men (including
over a thousand women) labored on the largest project in a
century in Europe to create a 240 kilometers (150 miles) long
canal. The project was nearly canceled after 10 years, when the
canal had to thread through the mountains near Béziers. Riquet
used explosives to build a tunnel. The project overran and cost
over 15 million livres, bankrupting Riquet, who died just months
before the Canal was opened. The canal created a commercial
route and influenced the canals of first Industrial Revolution.
349
Key Players
Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707)

A French military engineer whose innovative work on citadels
revolutionized the art of siege tactics and defensive fortification.
He devised outer defensive fortification, so the enemy could not
start a siege, and effective offensive siege-craft. He designed
fortifications for numerous French towns and outposts and his
treatises on fortification and siege-craft were studied for more
than 100 years. In 1703 he was made a marshal of France.
Galileo (1564-1642)
Galileo Galilei showed a remarkably modern appreciation for
the relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and
experimental physics. He made some original contributions
to the science of motion through an innovative combination of
experiment and mathematics.
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
In this era there was a general view about architects:
“An architect was, in a sense, a kind of functionary. Architects
and painters never achieved the kind of acclaim that placed
them within the ranks of the nobility, for example. They were
recognized, but they were never given an enormous amount of
importance.”
—Art historian Milo Beach
There are several parallels between the two significant proj-

ects of this age. Both were massive construction projects unpar-
alleled in their expense and the transformation of the immediate
environment around them, not with just monumental gardens
but whole villages. There was an obsession over the control of
everything. With the Taj Mahal project, the sponsor stood back
as this project was completed in 17 years. The dome was half the
diameter of the Pantheon and the Duomo.
350
In contrast the Palace of Versailles project dragged on for

over 50 years. But it was truly significant in that it precipitated
a disaster with the French revolution. The project was executed
but not planned for, over the 4 phases. By the third phase,
there were over 36,000 laborers and craftsmen, and 6,000
horses, an astounding workforce for its time. The project was
completely out of control because of its principal stakeholder,
the egomaniac Louis XIV, who just kept directly meddling in
the project, expanding its scope, and disregarding the budget.
The flagrant disregard for governance by Louis XIV reflected
the supreme power he held. Colbert, his finance minister,
was given accountability for the project but he gave up. They
were both accountable to no one partly because the Estates-
General, a representative body of the government, had not met
in 175 years. The project left a huge debt and was probably the
most expensive project of all time. Versailles can be blamed
for most of the economic problems the country endured in the
years leading up to the French Revolution. Yet the Palace of
Versailles was still widely copied around Europe and a chateau
building competition began between the European monarchs.
For example, in the small courts of Germany, as ambitious
as budgets permitted, the following projects were initiated:
Schwetzingen near Heidelberg; the New Palace (Neues Palais)
and Charlottenburg in Berlin; Herrenhausen in Hanover;
the Residenz, Würzburg; Schönbrunn in Vienna; Esterhaz
in Hungary. Also notably but on a similar scale, by the Czar
(Russia) with the White Palace. In Italy, the Caserta near
Naples, (by Luigi Vanvitelli, from 1752 onwards), and Stupenigi
outside Turin, and the “Polish Versailles” in Wilanow.
Key Lessons
◦◦ The project charter stated the Taj Mahal had to
be built as a tomb in the life time of the Mughal
Emperor. He was likely one of the richest men in the
world hence the business justification was in place.
◦◦ His presence and taking a hands-on-approach may
have prevented excessive changes, and guaranteed
351
the completion of the project in a relatively short time

frame.
◦◦ Louis XIV became embroiled in the Palace of
Versailles project on a daily basis and the governance
of the Treasurer Colbert failed to check an avalanche
of weekly changes to the project scope. Colbert had
a vested interest in controlling changes to keep the
project within a reasonable budget. Even though this
level of governance was normally enough to keep
a project like this under tight control. The project
workforce took advantage of the situation.
◦◦ The direct involvement of the Mughal Emperor and
the desire for the project to finish in his life-time
better controlled the scope of the project. Once the
design was done it did not change much.
dictated by:
• The height, breadth, and width of the structure.
• The quarrying and transporting of marble and
materials to site.
• The complexity of the dome structure and the four
minarets.
• The proximity of the site to the river and the high
water table affected the foundation, and required
major stabilization.
with the following:
• Site preparation, drainage of the area and
creation of a perfect square marble plinth.
• Construction of ramps, quarrying operations
delivery and transportation of marble and red
stone to site, and the precise positioning of these
within the structure. The production of brick for
the inner core.
352
• Construction of the structure with ornate pieces

on the exterior.
• Removal and ramp demolition, and site cleanup.
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project is a good example of a
project were scope continuously changed and was not
effectively managed crippling the budget and time-
line. Part of the problem was there was no business
case and it was driven by the vanity of Louis XIV.
The schedule and costs were impacted dramatically
but not much could be done as the project was under
the control of the principal stakeholder Louis XIV
and his changing whims.
◦◦ Many of the contractors took advantage of the lack
of change control and suggested extensions knowing
that they would be approved.
◦◦ A very similarly project was St. Peter’s Basilica
in Rome, lavish to the extreme, with no expenses
spared.
• Time Management
◦◦ The high profile and very prestigious Taj Mahal
project was a showcase building built for the Mughal
Emperor and had to be completed in his lifetime.
◦◦ With the project the extensive supply chain had
to work in lockstep with the project construction
schedule. For example, the delivery of marble
materials was critical to the schedule.
◦◦ Even though Louis XIV wanted to finish the Palace
of Versailles project in his life time the project
continued into the next reign.
• Cost Management
◦◦ The Taj Mahal was built from a concrete and
rubble core, a key factor in reducing cost, and was
then overlaid with a marble veneer, a very similar
approach to Roman projects like the Colosseum.
◦◦ Overseers of the project also managed the project
budget which was a significant part of the
management of the project.
353
• Mir Abdul Karim handled the finances and is

named in the official Mughal histories.
◦◦ The cost of extracting and transporting the marble
and red stone was the most expensive major-activity
in the project.
◦◦ Control of the Palace of Versailles project budget was
assigned to Colbert (also Chief Treasurer), but was
then usurped by King Louis XIV, who Colbert could
not control.
◦◦ There was a complete disregard for the budget, for
example, by La Vau’s (the architect) replacement, his
assistant, Francoise d’Orbay.
◦◦ Paying the large workforce of 36,000 was a logistical
challenge.
• Quality management
◦◦ The Taj Mahal project required incredible precision
in creating the four Minarets which had to lean
outwards in case of an earthquake.
◦◦ The foundation was built on a very high water table
and required an elaborate system of draining. In
both this and the Palace of Versailles projects the
principal stakeholder was on hand to inspect the
finished deliverable, and compare to the best of other
architectures.
◦◦ Both projects were showcases for empires and for
this the most exquisite levels of craftsmanship were
required. Whatever was visible required the highest
levels of quality. Overall the quality of construction
was very high.
◦◦ With the Taj Mahal the project with its complexities
demanded the acquisition of an international team
of thirty seven men of varied talents, including
designers and architects. This helped drive the
project to completion.
354
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project incorporated many

of the guilds (masons, glaziers, plasterers, gilders,
painters, gardeners, fountainers) creating a skills
shortage for other building projects. The logistics in
housing and transporting a large workforce of 36,000
required much planning and organization. Skilled
workers were brought in from distant places, for
example, Venetian glass makers to make the mirrors.
◦◦ The role of the architects was diminished to function-
aries even though they were renowned masters.
◦◦ In the Canal Du Midi project Riquet needed a reliable
project workforce, so he implemented a social security
system that paid above the going rate, provided
affordable housing, and paid sick and vacation days.
He also brought women into the project.
◦◦ This was critical in the Taj Mahal project with
the large international creative team across the
continent. Language could be an obstacle but was not.
◦◦ Louis XIV’s hands-on role in the project disrupted
the hierarchy of communications flow, so that it went
through him. There was also a major communications
breakdown between him and Colbert who practically
gave up in the later project stages.
• Risk Management
◦◦ With the Taj Mahal the architects were aware of the
possibility of an earthquake. The four Minarets were
deliberately erected leaning outwards so that in an
earthquake they would fall away from the tomb.
◦◦ There was much risk in locating the site so close
to river, as the ground was waterlogged and the
foundation had to be protected. The risk was
mitigated by boring a series of wells.
◦◦ Financial risks undertaken with the Palace of
Versailles project over a long period led to massive
cost overruns. But because the project spending
continued to be out of control over a long period it
355
led to the instability and eventual breakdown of the

overall nation.
◦◦ Insurance becomes more widespread and
sophisticated in this period as ships were trading
around the world. Lloyds of London was started in
a coffee shop in 1687, where ship captains gathered
to share information on past and upcoming voyages,
routes, weather, and hazards.
◦◦ The land for the Taj Mahal was forcibly purchased
from Raja Jai Singh in 1630.21
◦◦ With the Taj Mahal the logistical challenge was
with the diversity of so many different materials
brought from far and wide. For it was not just the
core building material, like marble which required
elephants for its transportation, and red stone from
quarries more than 200 miles away but, the twenty
eight types of precious and semi-precious stones that
were inlaid into the white marble.
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project incorporated a
massive procurement process with a broad array of
hundreds of suppliers. The cost of managing this was
very high.
Educators
of the project manager controlling the project, and
keeping interfering stakeholders at bay?
• The Palace of Versailles project was disastrous in
terms of overruns of budget, time, and scope. Yet, it
was revered architecturally and widely copied. What
important lessons can be learned from this for today?
• Was there any way that Colbert could have kept Louis
XIV from interfering? What else could have Colbert done?
• How did the acquisition of an international team of thirty
seven men help with the execution and completion of the
Taj Mahal project?
356
Chapter 12
The 18th Century
T
he 18th Century witnessed colossal changes in the Western
World with the Industrial Revolutions. The field of
Engineering became a more formalized profession with
the French and British who began to take a more empirically
oriented approach towards project management. In society there
were major shifts of power away from the church and the crown,
to the state. There was also a shift in wealth from the very rich
(land owning) towards the upper middle and middle classes
(merchants and commercial). Large projects were now more
likely to be sponsored by state and commercial interests rather
than the crown.
First Industrial Revolution 1700-1840 (Phase 1)

The Industrial Revolution began to pick up pace in 1750. The
revolution started with the evolution of steam power and the
development of the steam engine, which took many decades.
This was a solution looking for a problem and it was applicable
to many industries. It began in the UK with the introduction of
steam power (fueled primarily by coal) and powered machinery
(mainly in textile manufacturing). Factories were not new
but the introduction of the steam engine and its interaction
to existing machinery (looms, presses, stamps) modified the
way workers interacted with it. Over ensuing decades major
technological, socioeconomic and cultural changes were set in
motion as a labor economy was partially replaced by machinery.
357
In parallel, with the Industrial Revolution the production

costs of certain building materials like concrete, iron, and glass
began to drop and so these gradually replaced more traditional
materials. This happened first with iron and its use in bridges
(Darby 1775, page 371) and then in railways circa 1825.

a. Ideas of political revolution threaten monarchies.
b. Europeans continue to fight, protect, and exploit their
colonies.
c. Industrial revolution drives changes:
i. In manufacturing.
ii. In transportation, canals and railroads.
a. Advances in transportation increases movement of
goods and people.
b. Rapid growth in cities.
• Major events
a. American and French Revolutions, 1776-1789.
b. Latin America 1810–1820.
c. In 1812 Moscow burned for five days; 30,800 houses
were destroyed causing $150 million worth of
damage.
d. Finance, the Gold Standard was introduced in 1816.
e. First steam rail line open, 1825.
a. Engineering (Civil and Mechanical) formulized
through societies in the UK and France.
b. In the West the development of new processes for the
manufacturing of materials like concrete and iron.
358
c. Steam engine.
d. Machines for automating processes.
e. Growth in management profession and techniques.
• Regions
a. UK – Industrial revolution.
b. Europe – Colonization, and overseas expansion.
c. USA – Economic growth.
a. The Iron Bridge (River Severn) by Abraham Darby
III, 1781.
b. First Railway, Stockton Darlington Railway.
a. Menai Suspension Bridge.
b. St Paul’s cathedral.
• Key players
a. Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen, James Watt,
and Richard Trevithick.
b. Joseph Whitworth.
c. George Stephenson, UK.
d. Abraham Darby, UK.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

The world population in this historical period grew from 600
million to 1.1 billion. A population explosion in China’s pushed
the population to nearly 400 million by 1800, caused by new
crops like corn, sweet potatoes, better strains of rice, and
improved transport of food along China’s canals and waterways.
359
Ideas of Revolution
The English civil war created the first modern democracy,
limiting the powers of a restored constitutional monarchy. It
set in motion the notion that change was possible, which saw
widespread revolutions through Europe.
Europeans and Colonies

The Europeans continued a race to acquire colonies around the
world. They fought, protected, and exploited their colonies.
Industrial Revolution Drives Changes in Manufacturing

In the UK, factories were no longer dependent on the availability
of water power, and with steam there were no restrictions on
their location. Factories were located closer to natural resources,
materials, and new industrial centers developed.
Industrial Revolution Drives Changes in Transportation

The new industrial centers increased production and there was
an immediate requirement to improve transportation so trade
could expand. This was enabled by improving roads and the
introduction of canals which were built quickly and inexpen-
sively. New “Iron Bridge” technology was used to raise canals
above gorges, and rivers. Raw materials and finished goods were
moved more rapidly and cheaply than before. The first railroads
appeared as an evolution of the wagon ways.
Changing View of Human Resources

As the Industrial Revolution spread a more disciplined approach
to business and management was required based on scientific
research and principles. In 1776, Adam Smith wrote about the
economic advantages of the division of labor in his work: The
Wealth of Nations. Smith (1776) proposed that work could be
made more efficient through specialization and suggested that
work should be broken down into simple tasks. This would have
the advantages of the development of skills, saving time, and the
possibility of using specialized tools. Smith’s suggestions led to
many changes in manufacturing processes.
360
In 1832, Charles Babbage examined and expanded in his

work the division of labor: On the Economy of Machinery and
Manufacturers. He determined, as an advantage to the division
of labor, that the amount of skill needed to undertake a spe-
cialized task was only the skill necessary to complete the task.
Babbage analyzed and documented the manufacture of a pin
and broke the process down into seven elements to illustrate his
point. This study became important to employers in that they
only had to pay for the amount of skill required to complete a
task.1
In the early 19th Century, the working class began to ques-
tion and defy the power of the aristocracy, and to form workplace
combinations and trade organizations to provide a collective
voice for their rights and improving workers’ living standards.
Governments for the most part fought this using legislation2
which banned everything from meetings to combinations.
Impact of Changes
Advances in Transportation
The increased movement of goods and people led to an acceler-
ated growth of new industrial centers, and cities.
Growth in Cities
New factories in industrial centers attracted massive migra-
tion into cities like Manchester, UK, and this led to a popula-
tion boom. The population of England and Wales, which had
remained a static 6 million from 1700-1740, rose dramatically
after 1740.3 The population of England more than doubled from
8.3 million in 1801 to almost 17 million by 1851.
Major Events
American and French Revolutions, 1776 and 1796

The American and later French revolutions set in motion
cataclysmic change. The creation of the modern state led to
nationalist governments and the ideas of republicanism spread
361
around the world. These states produced a new kind of national

territoriality within the world economy.
Latin American 1810–1820

In short time the Europeans lost imperial control of the
Americas, both in the North and South, as the wars of
independence flared. There was a de-colonization of countries
away from the Spanish and Portuguese Empires.
Finance, Gold Standard, 1816

Gold was officially made the standard of value in England
in 1816. At this time, guidelines were made to allow for a
non-inflationary production of standard bank notes which
represented a certain amount of gold. Bank notes had been used
in England and Europe for several hundred years before this
time, but their worth had never been tied directly to gold. In the
U.S., the Gold Standard Act was officially enacted in 1900, which
helped lead to the establishment of a central bank.4
First Steam Rail Line Open 1825

See First Railway Project (page 378).
Engineering
The field of engineering became a formalized profession
in France and the UK, but along different paths. The
French developed university engineering education under
the sponsorship of the government. The French, more
rationalistic, spearheaded civil engineering with an emphasis
on mathematics. The British, were more empirically oriented,
and with the Industrial Revolution pioneered mechanical
engineering. This saw the emergence of autonomous professional
societies, with less government sponsorship than the French, but
the information was shared more quickly and readily through
organized meetings and journal publications. Technical training
started to shift from apprenticeships to a university education.
362
Civil Engineering
Civil engineering is the oldest of the main disciplines of
engineering. The first engineering school, the National School
of Bridges and Highways in France, was opened in 1747. John
Smeaton was the first person to actually call himself a “Civil
Engineer” in 1768, and identified a new profession that was
distinct from that of the military engineers.
These civil engineers built all types of structures, designed
water-supply and sewer systems, designed railroads and
highways, and planned cities. In 1828 the world’s first
engineering society came into being, the Institution of Civil
Engineers in England.
Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineering was the second branch of engineering to
emerge in the last part of the 1700s. The invention of the steam
engine was the starting point for the Industrial Revolution.
All types of machinery were being developed now and so a new
kind of engineer, one dealing with tools and machines, was
born. Mechanical engineers received formal recognition in 1847
with the founding of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in
England.
Precision Engineering
The use of high temperature kilns produced much higher quality
metals. With these engineers produced very precise components
for equipment and machines. For example, a very accurate
sextant for navigation, or more close fitting and accurate pistons
and cylinders for steam engines.
New Materials
Iron Production
Through the Industrial Revolution a number of processes were
developed for making cast iron including a blast furnace that
used coke instead of charcoal. Cast iron was an early form of
iron with a crystalline structure and a carbon content of 3%-
4% which made it hard and brittle. This characteristic was
363
incorporated into the design of rail lines, and was used with
great success in the later part of the 18th Century.
Figure 12.1: Coke Blast Furnace used for making cast iron in large
quantities.5
Concrete 1756
British engineer John Smeaton rediscovered that limestone was
the best mortar for underwater construction. The limestone had
a high proportion of clay or hydraulic lime mortar.
Steam Engine
The Newcomben steam engine, mainly used in mines, was the
first practical engine. James Watt improved it and in the 1780s
this enabled the rapid development of efficient semi-automated
factories in places where waterpower was not available.
Organizations achieved more ambitious projects as engineers
harnessed steam power.
Machines for Automating Processes

The introduction of machines for automating processes started in
the textiles industry with inventions like the Flying Shuttle (1733),
the Spinning Jenny (1767), and the Spinning Mule (1779).
364
Regions
The UK was in the midst of first Industrial Revolution which
was soon to spread to the U.S. and Europe. Europe at the time
was preoccupied with colonization, and overseas expansion. The
U.S. continued to grow commercially and economically through
agricultural exports (cotton, tobacco). In the modern looking
map of the world below, all the continents were discovered and
explored except Antarctica.
Figure 12.2: Map of 1811 showing all the continents with only
Antarctica missing.6
In the era of the Industrial Revolution the two projects selected
below were very pioneering in how they pushed the limits of
new technologies and showed ingenuity in overcoming project
challenges.
Iron Bridge Project (1775-1781)
Background
The world’s first Iron Bridge (River Severn) was built
downstream from Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, a centre for iron
production. The Severn River was the second busiest river in
365
Europe, and required a bridge to cross a gorge span of 30 meters

(100 feet) and 18 meters (60 feet) above the river. There were
six ferry crossings in the Gorge which moved people, equipment,
and materials for use in iron production. Industry was always
at the mercy of the river which sometimes ran too shallow in
the summer, and too high and fast in the winter. The nearest
bridge was two miles away at Buildwas. The ferry crossing was
difficult and dangerous, especially in the winter. So, there was
a very pressing business requirement for the project. In 1775
the first meeting was held to discuss a potential project. The
following year in March 1776 the act for the project received
Royal Assent.7
Initiating
The gorge was rich in coal, iron, and limestone and as a result
Shropshire had more iron factories within a two-mile radius
than any other city in the world. With the availability of this
new material it seemed only logical to build the new bridge
with cast iron. It would be considerably lighter than a stone
bridge with a much larger arch span. There was a vested local
interest in the project as it would help promote the use of iron,
and exemplify a new application for it, solving a long-standing
problem of crossing the river. To date cast iron had been
primarily used for wheels and tracks in simple wagon-ways. The
business justification was based on the use local materials, and
the promotion of local products and industry.
At the beginning of the 18th Century, the industry was in
near crisis as there was a shortage of wood, the main material
used for making the charcoal that fired the blast furnaces. Iron
producers were reduced to importing pig iron from abroad to
keep the industry going. In 1709 Abraham Darby III, an iron
master, discovered that coke could be used instead of charcoal
for the smelting of pig iron, lowering the production cost of cast
iron. He developed a new blast furnace at Coalbrookdale on the
River Severn.
Cast iron is weak in tension but strong in compression and
was the right type of material for building cast iron arched
bridges. To date the Coalbrookdale iron works had produced the
cylinders for the first steam engine used in mines in 1722, and
iron wheels for the horse drawn wagon-ways in 1729, and iron
tramway track in 1767.8
366
Figure 12.3: Inside of a smelting house (near Broseley) used for the
production of cast iron.9
Planning
In 1775 Thomas Pritchard designed the Iron Bridge. Darby a
local iron master was commissioned to cast and build the bridge.
The bridge comprised of more than 800 castings of 12 basic
types. The earliest estimate of costs for the project was £3,200,
as drawn up by Abraham Darby and Thomas Farnolls Pritchard.
When Darby defined estimates for the project he agreed to fund
any overspend. In 1777 shares were issued to raise the required
investments. Darby estimated 300 tons of iron would be required
(at £7 a ton). The bridge was to be a toll bridge and provide an
income to the shareholders.
367
Figure 12.4: Iron Bridge Share Certificate. The Rev. Edward Harries
contributed £525 in a share subscription of 1777 which raised
£3,150.10
Executing
In 1777 the old furnace at Coalbrookedale was enlarged so as to
increase iron production. The project team was unfamiliar with
connecting large cast-iron pieces together so they resorted to the
typical woodworking methods of the era. The joints cast would
all be familiar to a carpenter like the mortise and tenons, and
dovetails and wedges. This was common through the Industrial
Revolution where an existing best practice was used with a new
material or technology but usually in a less than efficient way.
For example, iron ships were built on traditional lines (keel and
ribs) right up to the Second World War.
There were 482 main castings and with the smaller deck
facings and hand railings up to 1,736 individual pieces. This
would have taken three months of continuous production in
one of Darby’s furnaces. All the large castings were made
individually as they were all slightly different. This included the
five large arch ribs (in 3 sections: lower, middle, outer) each cast
in two halves.
368
As the castings were made work started on the foundations.

Stone footings were built using local sandstone, and topped by
iron base plates.
With this new technology less time was spent in erection
and assembling the parts because of the pre-cast joints. The
assembly required a pair of 21 meter (70 feet) wooden derrick
poles which were stood in the river bed and acted as cranes. The
castings were brought to the site by boat, from the foundry 500
meters (0.3 mile) downstream. It would have been extremely
difficult to transport large loads over land using horses.
The assembly started with the five large lower arch ribs.
Each arch rib was lifted from a barge into a base plate and rest-
ed against an inner vertical on either bank. The top of the arches
were raised to the correct height until the two halves lined up
and joined by a scarf joint and secured. This was a very danger-
ous job for the workforce balancing on a slender timber brace,
and it required steady nerves. Ropes stopped the castings from
tipping over. According to a newspaper report, the first arch
spanned the River Severn on July 2, 1779.
Figure 12.5: The design of the Iron Bridge incorporated three types
of arch ribs (lower, middle, outer - seen on the left and right). The
center of the image shows the five lower arch ribs connected (the
width of the bridge) which rose from the base plates on either side of
the bridge.11
369
Figure 12.6: The post card of the cast Iron Bridge shows more clearly
the five arch ribs (the width of the bridge) rising from the base
plate and the complexity of the interconnections between the iron
castings.12
Two more arches were completed in the same way.

Temporary timber braces made the structure rigid. These were
later replaced by iron castings. All five arches were then braced
by diagonal and horizontal castings near the base plates, which
straddled the uprights. With all five lower rib arches in place,
the ironwork was free-standing and strong enough to be used
as a scaffold for lifting lighter castings. The rest of the middle
frame was built next, starting with the middle ribs, followed,
then by the outer ribs. The abutments were then built up to
their final height.
The deck bearers were brought in from the now completed
abutment on the north bank, cast in a temporary furnace next to
the bridge. Made to measure each pair of straight deck bearers
was linked at the centre by the Crown Bearer, which gripped
and tightened the Crown Joint. All the joints on the bridge were
then packed with iron blocks and wedges, which were sealed in
with lead.
Deck plates were levered into place, starting with the centre
one. They were located along the deck bearers by cast iron
wedges and were topped by a road surface of clay and blast
furnace slag.
370
Figure 12.7: Cast Iron Bridge over the River Severn near
Coalbrookdale clearly showing the foundations and abutments.13

There were no injuries during the production process, highly
dangerous work, that took three months.
Abraham Darby bore the additional cost of 78 tons of iron
(at £3,000 equivalent to £750,000 or $4.5 million today) plus the
masonry abutments, and the assembly work. He overran the
project budget and was in debt for the rest of his short life. The
bridge was over-designed, and subsequent bridges used far less
cast iron. The final cost of building the Bridge was £6,000.
371
Figure 12.8: A team of bow haulers on the towpath pulling a Severn

trow (barge) upstream. View of the Iron Bridge over the River
Severn, near Coalbrookdale.14
Closing
This was the first Iron Bridge of its kind. Completed in 1779
the construction had no precedent and therefore was based on
techniques used in carpentry. It took six years to complete the
entire project, mainly because of the delays in funding, but only
two years were spent on the construction.
The Bridge was opened to traffic on January 1, 1781.
Darby promoted the Bridge by commissioning paintings and
engravings, but he had lost a lot of money on the project, which
had cost nearly double the original estimates.
372
Figure 12.9: A Table of Tolls for the Iron Bridge.15
This was the first bridge in the world to use cast-iron struc-
turally and it rapidly became the focus of visitors from all over
the world. It was an icon of what was to be called the Industrial
Revolution. The Sunderland Bridge project, completed in 1796,
continued to push bridge building projects forward. The iron
arch was estimated to be 15 times lighter than an equivalent
arch in stone, and its span of 73 meters (236 feet) was far in ex-
cess of any single-arched stone bridge that was existence.
First Railway Project
Background
The First Railway project was not unique but it was the first
successful one from numerous attempts within a 20 year time
frame. This technology was so far reaching and had such a
significant impact on the forthcoming years of the century it
deserves a mention as a significant project in its own right.
Tracked roads were used at least 2000 years ago, in quarries
in Greece, Malta, and the Roman Empire, where animals pulled
loads along cut stone tracks. The early forms of railway evolved
in the mining industry in the 15th Century where wagons were
pushed by miners along wooden rails or wagon ways.
373
Figure 12.10: An example of a medieval mining wagon the “Hund”

running on a wooden tract.16
Gradually horse-drawn wagons were introduced and

developed in Germany in the 1550s spreading across Europe in
the late 16th and 17th centuries. On level ground one horse could
pull 10.5 tons of coal for 38 kilometers (24 miles) using rails.17
Figure 12.11: An example of a wagonway with wooden rails and

sleepers in County Durham, 1750.18
374
By the early 18th Century iron began replacing the wooden

tracks and wheels. These systems were known as tramways
(see figure 12.12). In 1802, William Jessop opened the Surrey
Iron Railway, in south London. It was arguably the world’s first
public railway, although it was horse-drawn.
Figure 12.12: An example of a horse drawn tramway with iron rails

and wheels.19
In the middle of the 18th Century stationary steam engines

were generally available in mining for wagon-ways that had
steep uphill sections, and these would employ cable power for
the inclined sections. British troops in Lewiston, New York used
a cable wagon-way to move supplies to base before the American
Revolutionary War.
In 1812 a number of engineers were simultaneously building
locomotives in the UK:
1. William Hedley built two locomotives in 1814-15 which
ran on Losh iron plate rails. (William Losh - Walker
Ironworks). Initially these were four wheelers, but this
caused extensive damage to the track and they were
rebuilt as eight wheelers.
375
2. George Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814.

It was a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on
the Killingworth wagon-way. This locomotive could pull
30 tons of coal up a hill at 4 mph (6.4 kilometers/hour),
and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion
locomotive (see Figure 12.9d).
Cast iron rails were still in their infancy and exhibited

excessive brittleness. Together with William Losh, Stephenson
improved the design of cast iron rails to reduce breakage.
Figure 12.13: In the late 18th Century, English civil engineer William
Jessop designed edge rails to be used with flanged wheels.20
Initiating
The district west of Darlington, in Durham, was one of the
richest mineral fields in the North of England with vast stores of
coal. However, the lack of good roads to market made the cost of
transport of coal in carts, or horses very expensive, and almost
376
the closed mine. So, there was a strong business justification for
a transportation system.
Initially, in the days of canal building James Brindley
(Bridgewater Canal) was consulted about a canal. This was
superseded, in 1813, when John Rennie completed another sur-
vey and published a report where he recommended a canal and
priced the project at £95,600 for the section between Darlington
and Stockton. This scheme was also scrapped due to the lack
of financial support. In 1818, a Welsh engineer George Overton
published a report favoring a railway (horse drawn) scheme at a
cost of £124,000. There was strong and concerted opposition from
landowners. From the supporters of the latter, a project spon-
sor emerged, Edward Pease, a successful local wool merchant,
with very good connections. He wanted to create cheaper, more
efficient, and more reliable transport for merchants and workers
between the mines of South Durham and the North Sea at the
mouth of the River Tees. He had woolen mills and other inter-
ests that would benefit from this. Pease was a Quaker, who was
known for his business enterprise, and was interested in a creat-
ing a network of railways in the UK.
“[Pease was] a thoughtful and sagacious man, ready
in resources, possessed of indomitable energy and
perseverance, he was eminently qualified to undertake what
appeared to many the hopeless enterprise of obtaining an
Act for a railway through such an unpromising district. One
who knew him in 1818 said, “he was a man who could see a
hundred years ahead.” 21
In 1821, the project charter was finally set when a parlia-
mentary bill was finally passed to build 40 kilometers (25 miles)
of track. It would connect the collieries near Bishop Auckland to
the River Tees at Stockton, passing through Darlington.
“In getting up a company for surveying and forming a
railway, Mr. Pease encountered great difficulties. The
people of the neighbourhood spoke of it as a ridiculous
undertaking, and predicted that it would be ruinous to all
concerned. Even those most interested in the opening of
new markets for their coal, were indifferent, if not actually
hostile.”
377
Pease assembled a team for planning and executing the

project, and with some difficulty. Pease also had to find the
funding for what was seen as a risky project.
“The Stockton merchants and ship owners, whom it was
calculated so greatly to benefit, gave the project no support;
and not twenty shares were subscribed for in the whole
town. Mr. Pease nevertheless persevered; and he induced
many of his friends and relations to subscribe the capital
required.”
Figure 12.14: Map of the Darlington to Stockton-on-Tees railway a

distance of 40 kilometers (25 miles) of track.22
George Stephenson was a self-taught engineer with the

desire to increase his steam railway experience, and a wish
to share some larger practical field knowledge he had already
gained. Attracted by the project he approached Edward Pease
who was much impressed by him and offered him the position of
Chief Engineer in the project responsible for its execution on a
basic annual salary of £300.
Planning
As railways evolved they started to encroach on a transportation
niche held by canals. A horse drawn barge could pull up to 40
tons. The railways could dramatically raise the speed, increase
378
the load, and had a cost advantage. Project director Edward

Pease met with George Stephenson to make design decisions on:
1. The comparative merits of cast and wrought iron rails.
2. The gauge of the railway.
3. How the system would work either through the use horse
or engine power.
These decisions affected the formation and working of all fu-
ture railways. They decided on wrought-iron rails for two-thirds
of the railway, the remainder in cast-iron. This was because they
could be produced in much longer lengths and less likely to crack
under heavy weights. This was also a financial consideration.
Stephenson proposed a 4 feet 8½ in (1.435 meters) gauge
for the line, and this was adopted as a standard throughout the
world. It was the same gauge of wheels for common vehicles of
the country, carts and wagons.
Initially, this was going to be a horse drawn tramway with
two cable-worked inclines at the western end with stationary
engines. In 1821, the plans changed when the two men surveyed
the line to see if anymore improvements could be made to
Overton’s original report. This was one of the influences that
Stephenson brought to the project. In comparison to horse drawn
traffic steam locomotives were expensive, but after tests they
proved to be viable and economic as they pulled more wagons
and pulled them faster.
“I was so satisfied that a horse upon an iron road would draw ten
tons for one ton on a common road, that I felt sure that before
long the railway would become the king’s highway.”
—Edward Pease
Stephenson’s first estimate for the project, in accordance

with the instructions of the project directors, was £6,200 for
stationary engines, not including any locomotives.
Executing
The construction began in 1821. The line was relatively level
through Darlington to Stockton. In 1822 the decision was made
to use steam locomotives. It now became Stephenson’s priority
379
to concentrate his efforts on the building of high-precision steam

locomotives for use on the line. The project needed a team of la-
borers for this and contracts for the project were highly sought
after.
“Navvies (Laborers) were paid up to three shillings a day, which
was quite handsome for the time. Their board and lodging was
only nine shillings a week – and that included one shirt washed
– so many were able to send money back to their families in
Teesdale (a lot of lead miners had been attracted to the district
to do the digging).
Young boys received 8d a day for drilling two holes in 24
stone blocks which would become sleepers – the holes were for
nails which tied the rail on top of the stone to wood beneath it.
Most of the navvies were local, but Stephenson brought in
specialist explosives men from his native Northumberland.
George Stephenson worked them hard. He ordered that they
left their lodgings in Darlington in the dark so that they could be
ready on the ground to begin their work the second the day’s
first rays of sunshine illuminated the gloom.”
—Source:http://www.darlingtonandstocktontimes.co.uk/history/
railway/sadr/
A quarry at Brusselton won the contract to deliver the blocks

of stone for the rails, with 8,000 blocks required by March 1st
and another 8,000 every 2 months until 64,000 were delivered.
These came from a quarry close by where they could be conveyed
as needed. In May, a ship arrived at Stockton from Portsea,
Hampshire, carrying 9,200 oak blocks.
By the summer of 1823, 22 of the 26 miles of rail had been
laid. However, the two rivers Skerne and Gaunless had to be
crossed with the first railway bridge in the world. The bridge
had to be designed to carry the weight of fully laden train (100
tons). For the Gaunless River Stephenson designed an Iron
Bridge which was built in a local factory and erected in 1824. It
was truly innovative as it combined both arch and suspension
principles of construction, with both cast and wrought iron, with
different properties, compression versus tension and bending.
The load carried by the bridge was shared where the outward
380
thrust of the arch was counteracted by the inward pull of the

elements.
As part of the project Pease and Stephenson jointly estab-
lished a company in Newcastle to manufacture locomotives using
skilled mechanics. This was a large investment and risk in an
immature technology that was essential to the project.
On November 7, 1823, the project committee handed
Robert Stephenson and Company its first order: four stationary
engines (two 30 horsepower, two 15 horsepower) for use on the
Brusselton and Etherley inclines.
On September 16, 1824, the project committee ordered the
first 2 “travelling” locomotives at £500 each, known as No 1
Locomotion and No 2 Hope. For Pease, the principle was simple:
he had provided the money so that the Stephenson’s would
deliver.
Figure 12.15: On September 16, 1824, Stockton and Darlington

Railway project ordered No 1 Locomotion and No 2 Hope at £500
each.23
381
Closing
On the 27th of September 1825 the railway opened, dignitaries
were carried on the opening journey in the first purpose-built
carriage, the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam
locomotive railway. Up to 40,000 people had traveled to see the
event. A locomotive driven by Stephenson, Locomotion No 1,
pulled an 80-ton load of coal and flour 15 kilometers (9 miles) in
two hours, achieving a speed of 24 miles per hour (39 kilometers
per hour) on one stretch. The horse-powered opponents tried to
derail the locomotives by offering £100 to buy these as scrap but
there were no takers.
Figure 12.16: On September 27th, 1825, the Stockton and Darlington

Railway project was operational.24
“The engine started off with a train of 38 carriages in all

and such was its velocity, that in some parts the speed was
frequently 12 miles an hour! By the time it reached Stockton
there were about 600 persons in the train or hanging on to
the waggons, which must have gone at a safe and steady
pace of from four to six miles an hour from Darlington.”
382
As the railway went operational Stockton and Darlington

Railway owned the tracks but did not operate trains. In fact,
it was run in the traditional manner of the wagon-ways where
anyone could operate steam or horse-drawn trains by paying
a fee. This was similar to the operation of canals, where canal
companies were often forbidden from operating any barges.
However, this proved chaotic as fights broke out when rival
operators came into conflict over right-of-way on the tracks.
Mixing faster steam-drawn and slower horse-drawn traffic
slowed the operation down and a collision was inevitable that
could have serious consequences. As steam technology became
more reliable, horse-drawn traffic was abandoned and new
operating methods were developed with timetables and other
forms of central organization.
The project directors never contemplated sending more
than 10,000 tons of coal a year to Stockton, and looked for their
profits almost exclusively from the land sale. The railway proved
highly successful and in the course of a few years the annual
shipment of coal, was more than 500,000 tons. Instead of being a
subordinate branch of traffic, it grew into the main branch traffic
and the land sale was merely subsidiary.
Figure 12.17: “The Rocket” Locomotive, 1825. (Smiles: Life of George

Stephenson.)25
383
Figure 12.18: "The Rocket" Locomotive, 1830 represented in two and

three dimensions.26
384
The railway the world’s first permanent steam locomotive

pulled public railway. It provided a great public benefit to the
local inhabitants of the district and opened up entirely new
markets for coal. The high profits derived from the traffic yielded
large dividends to the project sponsors who had invested their
capital. This encouraged other railway entrepreneurs and
stimulated similar enterprises in other districts notably the
commercial men of Liverpool and Manchester, where the next
line was built.

In 1783 the first successful hot-air balloon flight in France.
Although very limited in controlling height and direction, this
started a race to deliver a viable air transportation system.
Menai Suspension Bridge Project

The island of Anglesey off the coast of Wales had no fixed
connection to the mainland and all movements were by ferry or
by foot at low tide.
Figure 12.19: Menai Suspension Bridge had a span of 180 meters (570
feet) and a height of 32 meters (100 feet) under the main span.27
The bridge was designed by Thomas Telford, and it was

one of the first modern suspension bridges in the world. The
span was unattainable at that time with any other system, and
allowed for tall sailing ships up to 30 meters (100 feet) of clear
space under the main span.
In 1819 Telford began construction using concrete and iron.
The stonework was finished in 1824 which was followed by the
monumental task of raising the sixteen massive chains that
would hold up a 189 meter (579 feet) length of road surface
385
between the two towers, the central span. Tunnels were driven
into solid rock on either shore to anchor the chains which were
drawn up to the top of towers and left to hang down to the water
level. The central section of chain, weighing 23.5 tons, was then
loaded onto a raft, maneuvered into position and connected to
the dangling chain. The project workforce of 150 used block and
tackle to draw the chain up to the top of the tower to complete
the span. The remaining 15 chains were raised in a similar
manner over the next ten weeks. Rods were then hung from the
chains and bolted to iron bars that were used as the base for
the wooden road surface. The bridge was opened on January
30, 1826 to great fanfare. Its completion, along with other
improvements to the road by Telford, reduced travel time from
London significantly.
Figure 12.20: Menai Suspension Bridge painting.28
The bridge suffered damage in a storm but remained in good

condition and is one of the most graceful of bridges ever built.
386
Bridgewater Canal Project

In 1759 a 40 mile (65 kilometers) canal was built in the UK.
It is recognized as the first of the Industrial Revolution and it
started a boom in canal building in the UK. Within one hundred
years there was a vast network of 1,000 miles of canals that
covered the whole of the UK. With this came a Transportation
Revolution.
Key Players
1. Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen, James Watt, and
Richard Trevithick, and their steam engines.
2. Joseph Whitworth’s development of screw-cutting and
other machine tools, standardized screws, nuts and bolts.
This accelerated the pace of development of machinery
for the mass production of industrial goods.
3. The railways, George Stephenson, Isambard Kingdom
Brunel (1806–1859) and others.
The Darby Family (1750-1800)

The first of a succession of iron manufacturers, Abraham Darby
was the son of a Quaker farmer and served his apprentice-
ship with a maker of malt-kilns. He began a business in Bristol
around 1700 with three Quaker partners and set up a works of
malt-mill making but added brass and iron founding.
He acquired premises at Coalbrookdale, in Shropshire, close
to supplies of low-sulphur coal and in 1709 he produced a mar-
ketable iron in a coke-fired furnace. He demonstrated the supe-
riority of coke in cost and efficiency by building much larger fur-
naces than were possible using charcoal. The quality of Darby’s
iron made it possible for him to manufacture thin castings that
could compete successfully with brass in such applications as the
manufacture of pots and pans.
The steam engine (Thomas Newcomen) in 1712 created a
new market opportunity for iron. By 1758 Darby, succeeded
by his eldest son Abraham (1711-63), cast at Coalbrookdale
more than 100 Newcomen cylinders. In 1779 Darby’s grandson,
387
Abraham Darby III (1750-91), completed the world’s first Iron

Bridge.
George Stephenson (1781-1848)

Stephenson was one of the most renowned British engineers of
this age. He was determined to create an overall railway solution
that worked. As an engineer by training he took the best ideas,
improved upon them, and made them work. He refused to give
in, and continuously made improvements. For example, he
improved Trevick’s engine, and also worked on the replacement
of wooden rails with malleable cast iron rails.
Stephenson is best known as the Chief Engineer for the
following railways: Manchester & Leeds, Birmingham & Derby,
Normanton & York and Sheffield & Rotherham. His designs
revolutionized transportation that saw the birth of railroads.
Stephenson was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution,
and when the Stockton & Darlington project was completed
in 1825, he was thrown into the public eye. Large crowds saw
George Stephenson at the controls of the Locomotion as it pulled
36 wagons of goods, and people. So successful was the line in
reducing the cost of transporting coal he was appointed engineer
and provider of locomotives for the Bolton & Leigh railway.
As the Chief Engineer of the Liverpool & Manchester railway
he also solved a large number of serious engineering problems
like crossing the unstable peat bog of Chat Moss, a nine-arched
viaduct across the Sankey Valley and a two-mile long rock
cutting at Olive Mount.
The Stockton & Darlington projects as Pease so presciently
said made Stephenson’s fortune, when he died 27 years later, he
left £140,000 or $840,000.
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
The projects from this period are significant in having to deal
with all the challenges that new technologies and materials
can present. This is best exemplified by the Iron Bridge project
where Abraham Darby assumed far too much of the risk by
388
agreeing to pay for any overruns. More time was spent at the
forge in preparing the new materials, and then delivering
these to site. Although not much different to the ancient
practice of working with stone which was quarried, marked
and transported, and made ready for assembly. Another major
challenge was the initial assembly of the very large and heavy
arches and ribs into a framework. The rest of the assembly was
simplified by the interlocking nature of the pieces. The project
broke Darby financially but it was widely copied making iron the
material of choice for bridges. The bridge was a breakthrough as
the iron arch was 15 times lighter than a stone equivalent, and
its span of 73 meters (236 feet) was far greater than any single-
arched stone bridge.
The Stockton and Darlington Railway project faced so
many challenges that it was a surprise the project ended up
being so successful. These challenges included local resistance
to the project, lack of business support, choice of several new
technologies, and most of the risks sitting with the project
directors. One of them Edward Pease induced many of his
friends and relations to subscribe the capital required for the
project, further increasing the risk to him personally. Decisions
had to be made relative to the technology options available
namely, powering the railway (horse, cable, and locomotive),
cast versus wrought iron rails, and the gauge of the railway. The
testing in the pilot proved that steam was viable and economic,
as locomotives pulled more wagons, and faster.
The railway became hugely profitable, up to 50 times greater
than the original projections. After its proven success, the
2nd railway project (Manchester to Liverpool) was deemed so
important that the Prime Minister opened it. From this point
onward most projects started to take a more rigorous empirical
approach and were now estimated and measured using scientific
techniques. The project also set a precedent for future projects in
how opposition to it was handled and empowered by the railway
act.
The Menai Suspension Bridge project highlighted how
materials and technology had evolved during the Industrial
Revolution in a relatively short time. The project delivered
a structure that was a quantum leap forward in span at 180
meters (570 feet). At the time bridges were generally limited
389
to 46 meters (150 feet) span. It would have been impossible to

reach this span with earlier materials, and is a good example
of how the Industrial Revolution was a catalyst for innovative
projects and designs.
All three projects benefited from the evolution and advances
in both civil and mechanical engineering which allowed for
the introduction of new materials in a controlled manner. The
characteristics of the materials could be explored scientifically
using mathematics and how they would behave in the real
world. Practical thinking became scientific in addition to
intuitive, as engineers developed mathematical analysis and
controlled experiments.
Key Lessons
◦◦ For the Iron Bridge project, the business justification
was based principally on the promotion of local prod-
ucts and industry through the use of local materials.
◦◦ The First Railway project required the integration
of many project knowledge areas. It also required
the disciplines and skills in engineering including
surveying, road building (laying out the path for the
track), bridge construction, construction of iron rails,
and locomotive building.
◦◦ The business justification was vastly under estimated
(by a factor of 50) of how profitable the steam venture
could be.
◦◦ The First Railway project was planned to be flexible
to changes that were likely to occur. There was no ac-
curate business model to base the project on, so the
payback projections were very inaccurate. The near-
est point of reference was the canal and its operation,
but this proved in execution to be completely inad-
equate, as it operated at a much lower speed and was
not used to ferrying passengers. In the later stages of
the project a new business model emerged.
390
◦◦ Pease shared Stephenson’s vision for the impact of

the project and expressed it as:
• “You will see the day the railways will supersede
almost all other methods of conveyance in the
country – when mail coaches will become the great
highway for the king and all his subjects. The time
is coming when it will be cheaper for a working
man to travel on a railway than to walk on foot.”
◦◦ The First Railway and Iron Bridge projects were
significant in pushing materials and technologies to
their limit.
◦◦ The Iron Bridge project scope was dictated by:
• The height based on passing boat traffic.
• The load bearing capacity based on the expected
road traffic.
• The availability of materials and the
transportation of cast iron pieces to site.
◦◦ The project demonstrated the difficulties in
estimating the overall scope accurately with the
introduction of new technologies and materials.
◦◦ The bridge was over-designed, and subsequent
bridges were designed with much less iron as lessons
were passed on.
◦◦ The First Railway project scope was dictated by
a number of deliverables that had to be carefully
considered. These included surveying, digging
cuttings, road building (laying out the path for the
track), bridge construction, construction of iron rails
(casting), and locomotive building.
◦◦ The scope of First Railway project changed as tech-
nologies were proven and became viable, i.e., from
horse drawn to locomotive. When Stephenson invited
Pease to ride on the locomotive footplate he was im-
pressed by the experience “in truly visionary terms.”
391
◦◦ With the First Railway project, there was no

accurate business model to base the project on, so the
projections were very inaccurate. The nearest point of
reference for transportation was the canal.
◦◦ For both projects the scope was decreased by having
the foundries close by (500 meters (1,650 feet) for the
Iron Bridge).
• Time Management
◦◦ The Iron Bridge project required a carefully
coordinated erection sequence which was hazardous
as the bridge was very unstable at the outset.
◦◦ The production and delivery of cast iron had to be
carefully scheduled with the erection sequence to stay
within timelines.
◦◦ The First Railway project was under significant time
constraints, as there was tremendous competition
and business pressure to have the first working
railway because it would lead to new business
opportunities.
◦◦ The project required the careful coordination and
scheduling of many engineering discipline activities
like surveying, construction of roads, bridge, iron
rails, and locomotives.
• Cost Management
◦◦ In the Iron Bridge project the use of local materials
like coke, iron, and sandstone kept the costs down.
◦◦ Abraham Darby III grossly under-estimated the
amount of iron and was obliged by the contract to
pay for this. The bridge was over-designed, and
subsequent bridges used far less cast iron.
◦◦ For the First Railway project Pease and Stephenson
had to raise the finances which could only be
supported by a share issue. They were also then hit
by the extra costs of having to jointly establish a
company in Newcastle to manufacture locomotives.
392
This immature technology was a large extra

investment and carried a lot of risk but, it was
essential to the project.
◦◦ Stephenson employed a practice where the spoil,
from cuttings and embankments, was used to build
up neighboring embankments. It was transported
by tipping wagons instead of carting away by road, a
more expensive proposition.
◦◦ Stephenson employed cheaper materials were
possible for example wrought over cast iron rails, and
stone over oak blocks (for sleepers).
◦◦ For the Iron Bridge project the quality standards for
the casting joints had to be high to ensure a good fit,
as there was far less flexibility than working with
timber.
◦◦ Similarly, for the First Railway project the quality
standards for the casting of the rails and locomotives
had to be high, and meet certain tolerances.
◦◦ Quality for both projects was very much controlled
in the foundry, and as a result was a lot easier to do
than on site. This was one of the significant changes
for projects using the new materials of the Industrial
Revolution.
◦◦ In both the Iron Bridge and First Railway projects
it was essential to have the right project team,
workforce, and adequate skill sets. Locomotive
production required a workforce of skilled mechanics,
and engineers.
◦◦ The technologies were bleeding edge with a steep
learning curve. The workforce had to adapt and
get to grips with it in a short time frame. Much
improvisation was required as the technology was
trialed and went through a pilot.
◦◦ The success of the First Railway project resulted from
the ability of Pease (project sponsor) to recognize the
393
character and genius of Stephenson.29 He was the

chief engineer and architect, and given the latitude
and space to bring his ideas to fruition.
◦◦ Pease was careful himself not to be elected to the
management of the project, although he had immense
influence on the project.
◦◦ Promoting the First Railway project locally was
necessary to build up project support both with
businesses and with the local population. Because
this was a first there was no reference point to the
advantages of the technology in economic terms.
◦◦ The opening of the First Railway was done with much
fanfare in terms of it as an event and it attracted up
to 40,000 people. Dignitaries were invited, and for
the first time the public could travel in purpose-built
carriages pulled by a steam locomotive, at great speed
for its time. This greatly helped promote the railway
and get its acceptance.
◦◦ The project set a precedent in that it thwarted the
fierce opposition to it namely that of the landowners.
Parliament was conscious of the need to support the
railway’s progress and the railway act allowed the
project to go where it pleased to survey a line. The
project was empowered to acquire sufficient land by a
form of compulsory purchase.
◦◦ Edward Pease, head of the board, managed all the
communications with the board. He would regularly
update them on all significant progress in the
project. Promoting the First Railway project locally
was necessary to build up project support both with
businesses and with people.
◦◦ Darby promoted the Iron Bridge by commissioning
paintings and engravings. With time the bridge
became an icon and was a popular attraction.
• Risk Management
394
◦◦ Darby assumed too much of the financial risk by

agreeing to pay for overruns which had cost nearly
double the original estimate.
◦◦ Another risk was the use of large cranes (a pair of 21
meters (70 feet) high), where wooden derrick poles
were stood in the river bed. These were for lifting the
pre-cast joints into place from boats brought to the
site.
◦◦ With the First Railway project most of the financial
risks were with the project directors. Pease induced
many of his friends and relatives to subscribe the
capital required, and share the risk.
◦◦ Pease and Stephenson had to assume all the financial
risks in their personal investments in establishing a
company to manufacture locomotives.
◦◦ The risks with using steam technology were high as
the technology was still immature and unproven but
essential to the project.
◦◦ The risk of not selecting the right technology and
making a costly mistake was high, for example horse
versus steam.
◦◦ The risk of not getting support as there was local
opposition to the project who thought it was
unfeasible, and wrote the project off. Business people
were not supportive even though it had a very high
potential payback.
◦◦ The risk of selecting the incorrect business model,
as choosing between goods and cargo versus people
proved difficult.
◦◦ With the Industrial Revolution new materials and
technologies had a significant impact on projects of
the era in terms of increased risks. Steam engines on
ships were a high risk and caused great casualties.
For example, when high-pressure steam engines ap-
peared 2,563 people were killed, with a similar num-
ber injured, in 233 steamboat accidents between the
years 1816 and 1848. In 1852, Congress created the
Joint Regulatory Agency of the Federal Government.
395
Eventually, uniform codes and regulations for the

construction and operation of high pressure boilers
were adopted.30
◦◦ For the Iron Bridge project the contract was written
so the risk of under-estimates was carried by the
seller. Abraham Darby III was in debt for the rest of
his life and bore the additional cost of £3,000 himself,
a small fortune worth about £750,000 today.
◦◦ For the First Railway project specialization in specific
materials, machines, and products required extensive
procurement management.
◦◦ In both projects there was reliance on procuring
materials locally. At the time iron industries were
located close to coal mines so both were close to hand.
Educators
• Discuss in the context of today’s projects why these
projects were successful considering the major challenges
that they initially faced.
• Discuss the importance of running a pilot when working
with new technologies and materials. How would this
have helped the First Railway project?
• In developing a business justification for the First
Railway project was there a business model other than
the canal to base the project on?
• Did Darby, Pease and Stephenson assume too much of
the financial investments and risks?
396
Chapter 13
The 19th Century
T
he 19th Century witnessed even greater changes than in
the previous century. The Industrial Revolution continued
to expand and evolve changing the economies and societies
of nations, and through globalization spread to other parts of the
world. With this came the evolution of management principles in
the business world that became the backbone of modern project
management today. In society, the shifts in power continued
towards the state, and wealth was driven by a rapidly growing
industrial class, superseding the land owning classes. There
is a growth in mega projects supported by the state but driven
by commercial interests. The crown took a less relevant role.
Projects became more ambitious and larger in scale as confidence
and experience in new technologies was mastered.
First Industrial Revolution 1840-1890 (Phase 2)

The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two
decades of the 19th Century spurred the second phase of the first
Industrial Revolution. These machine tools could cut metal on an
industrial scale with precision and accuracy. This in turn vastly
evolved steam engines where high-pressure steam could be used
in a great many new ways. For example, cotton, railways, road
transport, farming, and even shipping could exploit steam power
to the fullest extent possible.
The machine tools enabled the manufacture of more produc-
tion machinery and manufacturing activity rose in scale, becom-
397
ing more mechanized and spreading to numerous industries like

food, textiles, lumber, furniture, paper, printing, etc.
In parallel, the Industrial Revolution brought the production
costs down of materials like concrete, iron, and glass. These all
had a significant impact on projects of the era and started to
replace more traditional materials. This happened in different
industries and construction projects. For example, the era saw
the use of iron in bridges (Darby 1775, page 387) and in shipping
(SS Great Britain in 1843), and iron and glass and concrete in
buildings (Crystal Palace 1851, page 418). There was a learning
curve as the project workforce had to learn how to work with
these new materials, and evolve new practices. Without the
adequate skill sets, like skilled mechanics, these projects would
not have been possible.
Heavy machinery and equipment also changed with the likes
of steam powered locomotives, tractors, cranes and shovels that
facilitated the building of railroads, tunnels (under the River
Thames 1825-1843) and canals, including the Suez and Panama
Canals. This shift happened very quickly across many different
industries.
The Industrial Revolution impacted many other industries
including established ones like agriculture with the introduction
of steam powered machinery, that vastly improved agricultural
methods and created surpluses to feed the growing municipal
populations. It also lowered the cost of transportation and
started to dominate and influence work life in different ways. As
a result, labor had to react to these changes and the technical
advances that were occurring across all industries. These
advances created a need for improved work methods, increased
productivity, and higher levels of quality.

technology, epidemics)
a. Industrial revolution drives changes.
i. In transportation on land (railroads) and sea (iron
ships).
398
ii. In increasing the automation of factories.

iii. In communications.
a. Globalization and commercial trade.
b. Increased urbanization.
c. Major emigration to the West.
• Major events
a. Revolutions of 1848.
b. U.S. Civil War, 1861-1866.
c. The Great Chicago Fire sparks a building boom, 1871.
a. The Second Scientific Revolution.
b. Communications, the Morse telegraph 1840, and the
first telephone 1876.
c. New materials.
d. Industrial revolution drives new technologies.
e. Growth in the management profession and
techniques.
• Regions
a. UK, Europe, U.S.
a. Transatlantic Cable 1857-1866.
b. Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869.
a. Crystal Palace 1850-51, the first modern 20th Century
building.
b. London City Sewer Project – 1853-1860.
c. Suez Canal 1869.
d. Eiffel Tower 1889.
399
e. First mechanical computers, 1840-1890.

• Key players
a. Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
b. Theodore Judah.
c. Cyrus Field.
d. Hermann Hollerith.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

The world population in this period grew from 1.1 to 1.6 billion.
Industrial Revolution Drives Changes in Transportation

The development of steam-powered ships, and railways on
a massive scale significantly improved transportation links
across land and sea, and lowered their costs. This freed up the
movement of materials, goods, and people, and led to a global
economy.
Industrial Revolution Sees Automation of Factories

The rapid development of steam engines and their application to
factory machinery previously powered by water caused changes
on a previously unimaginable scale.
Industrial Revolution Drives Changes in Communication

The application of steam power in the printing industry caused
a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing.
The Industrial Revolution drove a communications revolution
with the Morse telegraph (1840) and then Telephone (1876),
both essential tools for project communications management. In
18701 the invention of the typewriter further changed written
communication as it was rapidly adapted by the business world.
400
Impact of Changes
Globalization
Major social change was spurred with the rapid mobility of
people, merchandise and information brought about by railroad,
ships, and telegraph.
Impact on the Work Force

Factories were not new but the introduction of the steam power,
and the engine and its interaction to existing machinery (looms,
presses, stamps) modified the way workers interacted with it as
the rate of production stepped up, and it caused a change in the
relationship between worker and employer.
The late 19th Century also saw the industrial welfare
movement a voluntary effort by employers to improve the
conditions in their factories and extended into the employees life
outside of work. The employer provided assistance to employees
to purchase a home, medical care, or for education.
Increased Urbanization
A rapidly expanding workforce of thousands needed to be taken
care of in terms of housing, health, welfare, and education.
All this brought in new institutions, establishments, and
organizations.
Major Emigration to the West

The movement of goods and people increased, through advances
in transport, at greater speeds. The industrialization of the
Americas saw a vast increase in trade and required a growing
labor force.
Major Events
The Great Chicago Fire 1871

The fire destroyed most of the city, an area of about four miles (7
kilometers) long and 3/4 mile (1 kilometer) wide, encompassing
401
more than 2,124 acres (8 kilometers2). More than 17,500

buildings were destroyed initiating a massive building boom.
The Second Scientific Revolution

The sciences became more mathematical and theoretical, and
data collection was more prevalent. Separate sciences began
to merge and collaborate, for example, biology, electricity,
mechanics, magnetism, and chemistry all contributed to the
discovery of electromagnetic induction and field theory.
New Developments
As both industrialization and science progressed, real
collaboration became increasingly common in the 19th Century.
Faraday’s and Maxwell’s work on energy fields led directly
to new developments, as did Maxwell and Hertz’s work on
electromagnetic waves.
Electrical Generators and Motors 1832

The development of electrical generators and motors was
also a logical outcome of Faraday and Maxwell’s work. The
first dynamo was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832. The first
commutator-type direct-current electric motor was built by the
William Sturgeon in 1832.
Communications - The telegraph 1839-42

Wheatstone and Morse’s work on the telegraph followed shortly
on Faraday’s demonstration of magnetic inductions. The first
commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir William
Fothergill Cooke for the Great Western Railway in the U.K. in
1839. This was followed by Morse in 1842.
Elevators 1860
The electrical motor was first used by Otis and was significant as
it allowed buildings to rise in height.
402
Communications - Radio 1897

Maxwell and Hertz’s work on electromagnetic waves or radio
waves (1888) directly inspired Marconi to develop the radio.
New Materials
Manufacturing of glass and steel took large steps forward as
building materials in their own right.
Patent Plate Glass 1838

The new process of glass production and the annealing of glass
provided a simple and economical method for making glass
sheets of any size or thickness. The invention of the patent plate
glass (1838 by J.T. Chance) allowed the building of the Crystal
Palace.2
Bessmer Steel 1856

Steel took over from iron when Henry Bessmer proved that pig
iron could be decarbonized, thus producing an immensely strong
material.
Figure 13.1: Bessemer Converter decarbonized iron to produce steel.3
403
Industrial Revolution Drives New Technologies

The momentous changes brought about by the Industrial
Revolution and its repercussions required new thinking and so-
lutions at a more macro level. This new industrialized world of
the factory system with mass production of manufacturing and
assembly required a system to supply large quantities of raw
materials, resources, man power, equipment and organization. It
also needed more sophisticated systems of storage, transporta-
tion, and distribution.
The Factory System

This was a system of manufacturing that grew in the 19th
Century. Goods were made by workers gathered in a factory
rather than handcrafted by craftsmen at home. The principals
of the system lay in breaking the overall process into smaller
activities and creating cells were tasks would be repeated. The
first factories manufactured products like pulleys for sailing ship
rigs, and firearms (muskets), and later textiles in mills.
First Assembly Line

Five hundred years before Henry Ford thought about the
assembly line, the Italian harbor (Arsenal of Venice) was a
classic example of an assembly line operation, though not
acknowledged as such. Venice developed methods of mass-
producing warships in the Arsenal, including the frame-first
system to replace the Roman hull-first practice. The new system
was much faster and required less wood. At the peak of its
efficiency in the early 16th Century, the Arsenal employed some
16,000 people who apparently were able to produce nearly one
ship each day, and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly-built
galley with standardized parts on a production-line basis not
seen again until the Industrial Revolution.
Transportation Networks
The Industrial Revolution required an advanced system for
transportation and distribution. This was first brought about by
the canal networks, in the 18th Century, and then the railway
systems, in the 19th Century. As trade expanded globally, so
did the development of ocean going steamship liners. From
404
all this evolved some of the largest projects ever sponsored by

governments namely the transcontinental railroads of the U.S.
(1869), Canada (1870), Russia (1917), and the super-liner and
dreadnought races of the early 20th Century.
In the early 1860s the bicycle evolved from a simple push
device to one with a mechanical crank drive for pedals on an
enlarged front wheel.
Portable steam engines provided belting power on farms to
run threshing machines, circular saws, etc. This Frick model
steam engine operated regularly from 1877-1949.
Figure 13.2: Frick portable steam engine of 1877.4
Growth in Management Profession and Techniques

As business expanded so did the management of production
which saw the introduction of techniques like standardization,
quality-control, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and
work-planning.
Insurance and Risk

The emphasis was on enhancing security for businesses signifi-
cantly during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th centuries.
This saw the advent of limited liability that shielded company
board directors from personal liability if the business failed.
405
Regions
The Industrial Revolution spreads from the UK to Europe and to
the U.S. Through the 19th Century it spread around the world.
Transatlantic Cable Project (1857-1866)
Background
As early as 1842 Professor Morse declared a submarine cable
connection between America and Europe was possible. By the
mid 1850s, telegraph cables stretched along most of the rail lines
in the UK and U.S. This form of communication was land based
and across short bodies of water only, like the English Channel
in 1850. It did not cross large bodies of water because of the
many challenges in implementation and the reliability of the
cable. For example, manufacturing a strong enough cable that
was resilient to water. If the cable snapped recovering it would
be very difficult.
Figure 13.3: Planned route of submarine telegraph lines 1858.5
Initiating
The first transatlantic telegraph cable was attempted in 1857
by an American named Cyrus Field and an English engineer
named Charles Bright. Field, a rich industrialist, had a vision
of global communications. Supported by the British6 and U.S.
406
Governments, funds were raised from both American and British

sources by selling shares in the Atlantic Telegraph Company.
Field himself supplied a quarter of the needed finance estimated
at £88,000 ($500,000).
Planning
A special survey was made along the proposed route of the cable
and revealed that the proposed route was possible, showing a
maximum depth of 4,400 meters (3 miles). The technology was
proven and land cables had existed for 30 years. But submerging
a cable meant it would be inaccessible and therefore the quality
had to be vastly superior. A cable was specially constructed and
consisted of 7 copper wires covered with 3 coats of gutta-percha
(a form of natural rubber used for wire insulation), and wound
with tarred hemp. This was overlaid with a sheath of 18 strands,
each of 7 iron wires, in a close spiral. It weighed nearly 550
kilograms/kilometer (1.1 tons per nautical mile), was relatively
flexible and able to withstand a pull of several tons.
Executing
Prior to laying the Transatlantic Cable, a pilot project undertook
the laying of a cable across the Cabot Strait a distance of 110
kilometers (69 miles). The cable was to connect Newfoundland to
Cape Breton and then the rest of Canada to the United States.
This step was to be much easier than crossing the Atlantic, but
it proved extremely difficult. In the end the pilot cost almost the
whole project budget and more funding was needed.
The first attempt across the Atlantic was on August 5, 1857
when the cable was started from the Southwest Coast of Ireland.
Several cable-laying ships were used the converted warships
HMS Agamemnon and USS Niagara. On the first day, the cable
broke, but was grappled and repaired. A few days later it broke
again over the ‘telegraph plateau,’ nearly 3,200 meters (2 miles)
deep, and the operation was abandoned for the year.
The second attempt using a different approach began the fol-
lowing summer when the same two ships met in the middle of
the Atlantic. The two cables were spliced together, and on June
26 1858 the cable was dropped and the ships headed out in op-
posite directions. The cable broke, after less than 5.5 kilometers
407
(3 miles), and again after 87 kilometers (54 miles), and then a

third time when about 370 kilometers (200 miles) of cable had
been run out of each vessel. The attempt was abandoned and the
ships with the cable returned to Queenstown, Ireland.
The third attempt was on July 17, 1858 when the ships met
again mid Atlantic. The cable ends were found and spliced on
July 29th. The cable ran out easily this time. Niagara arrived in
Trinity Bay, Newfoundland on August 4th and the next morning
the shore end was landed. Agamemnon too had a successful run
and on August 5th arrived at Valentia Island, and the shore end
was landed and completed the link. The first official telegram
was sent from Queen Victoria to the U.S. President, James
Buchanan, on August 16th. The following month the cable was
destroyed when excessive voltage was applied to it in an effort to
achieve a faster telegraph operation.
Public and investor confidence was undermined in the
project, and this delayed efforts to restore a connection. It was
not until 1864 that Field succeeded in raising the necessary
finance to try again.
The technology was improved in this period where Lord
Kelvin recommended a new type of cable for the next transat-
lantic attempt, which included using lower voltages, thicker in-
sulation, and more sensitive detection, and for this he developed
a sensitive mirror galvanometer. The new cable core consisted
of seven twisted strands of pure copper, coated with compound,
then covered with four layers of gutta-percha, alternating with
four thin layers of the compound cementing the whole. This core
was covered with hemp saturated in a preservative solution, and
then spirally wound with eighteen single wires of soft steel, each
covered with fine strands of manila yarn steeped in preserva-
tive. The weight of the new cable was 980 kilogram/kilometers
(2 tons) per nautical mile), or nearly twice the weight of the old.
The new and improved long cables had been successfully laid in
the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.
In 1865 a fourth attempt was undertaken with just one
ship Great Eastern to lay the new cable. Her immense hull was
large enough to carry all the cable required. She was fitted with
three iron tanks for the 4,260 kilometers (2,300 miles) of cable
required, and her decks furnished with the paying-out gear.
408
At noon on July 15, 1865, the ship left Ireland but the attempt
failed on July 31st when, after 1,968 kilometers (1,062 miles), the
cable snapped and the end was lost.
Undeterred Field got back to England he issued another
prospectus, and formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company
to lay out a new cable and recover and fix the broken one.
On July 13, 1866 Great Eastern started once more, is a fifth
attempt. Despite weather problems on July 27th reached Trinity
Bay. Friendly telegrams were again exchanged between Queen
Victoria and the United States President. On August 9th Great
Eastern put to sea again to find and grapple the lost cable of
1865, sixth attempt, some two-and-a-half miles down. After
several weeks the lost cable was fished out with a grapnel and
brought to the surface where it took 26 hours to get it safely on
board. The recovered cable was then spliced to a fresh cable in
her hold and paid out so there now were two working telegraph
lines.

The first message on the 1858 cable took over 17 hours to
transmit or 2 minutes to transmit just one character. The
1866 cable could transmit eight words a minute over 50 times
faster and the service generated £1,000 ($6,000) in its first day
of operation. Much of the credit for this was owed to design
improvements by Lord Kelvin. It was not until the 20th Century
that message transmission speeds over transatlantic cables
would reach even 120 words per minute.
Closing
The project was ahead of its time pushing materials and
technology to their limits. Without Field’s commitment and
extraordinary leadership it would have taken longer (years to
decades) to complete the project. The multiple attempts required
and the trials and tribulations that Field experienced over the
next 12 years would have been enough to shake anyone’s faith,
but Field persevered. Field put money into the project and
became very rich where by 1880 he was worth $6 million.
In 1870 telegraph lines were connected from the UK to
India (under the Eastern Telegraph Company). In October 1872
409
Australia was linked to the rest of the world. London became

the world centre in telecommunications and 11 cables radiated
out to form a “live” girdle around the world. By 1892, when Field
died, there were a dozen cables across the Atlantic.7
Figure 13.4: Major telegraph lines around the world in 1891. There
were over a dozen cables that spanned the Atlantic.8
First Transcontinental Railroad Project (1863-1869)
Background
The U.S. Transcontinental Railroad, crossing the continent
from coast-to-coast, had been discussed for at least 30 years in
government circles. As early as 1832, many wanted to connect
California to the rest of the Union. Many reputable engineers
testified before legislative committees that the project was
impractical. The main challenges related to the 800 miles of
almost uninhabited country over the Sierra Nevada Mountains
and across an alkali desert, most of it unexplored territory. On
March 3, 1853 Congress gave $150,000 and authorization to the
Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, to order the Topographical’s
to explore the American West and “ascertain the most practical
and economic route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to
the Pacific Ocean.”
410
Initiating
This was one of the first mega projects organized by the U.S.
Government. The civil war had provided much experience in
organizing major projects. President Abraham Lincoln initiated
the project through the Pacific Railroad Act - an official project
charter to build both a transcontinental railroad and telegraph
line. The business case for the government was based on the cost
savings for the government in military transportation with a
net gain of $50 million over the cost in a seven year time frame.9
These figures did not include the major economic impact of
opening up the American West in terms of increased trade, or
decreased postal Costs.
“…the necessity that exists for constructing lines of railroad and
telegraphic communication between the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts of this continent is no longer a question for argument; it
is conceded by everyone.”
—August 16, 1856, Mr. Denver of the House Select Committee
on the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph
Planning
The project was breaking new ground in terms of the distances
covered in crossing these mountain ranges and plains, and this
required an enormous project budget, the likes not seen before.
The government had to initiate the funding through both funds,
government bonds, and land through grants (see Figure 13.5
below). It had to act as a catalyst for the project persuading
financiers to join in. Many thought the project was “impossible.”
The bonds were to be repaid after project completion. They
loaned $16,000 for each mile of track laid in the flat plains,
$32,000 for each mile of track laid in the Great Basin, and
$48,000 for each mile of track laid in the mountains. The land
grants were evenly split between the railroad companies and
government, so both would benefit financially when the land
value rose after the project. Each company received 10 sections
(6,400 acres) of public land grants, mineral rights excluded, on
each side of the track for each mile of track built.
An initial capital of $1 million was raised for the surveys.
The railroad was to be built by two competing companies, the
Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR) and Union Pacific Railroad
411
(UPRR) from the east and west simultaneously. As the

companies completed project milestones they were granted the
land, a healthy competition opened up between them, to race to
an undetermined meeting point.
Est. Acres of
Amount Date
Railroad Character of Bond Payable in Land
Issued of Issue
Granted
CPRR California State aid Gold $1,500,000 July 1, 1864
“ United States subsidy Currency $25,885,120 Jan., 1865 — July, 1869
First Mortgage — July 1,

“ Gold $6,378,000 July 1, 1865
(A, B, C, and D) 1866
First Mortgage — Jan. 1,

“ Gold $19,505,000 Jan. 1, 1867
(E, F, G, H, and I) 1868
Central Pacific
“ $53,268,120 July 1, 1864 — July, 1869
Bond Subtotal
Central Pacific
“ July 1, 1862 & July 2, 1864 7,997,600
Land Grants
UPRR First Mortgage Gold $27,237,000 Jan. 1, 1866 — July, 1869
United States subsidy

“ Gold $27,236,512 Jan., 1866 — July, 1869
(second mortgage)
Land-grant mortgage
“ Currency $10,400,000 Apr., 1867 — 1869
(first mortgage)
Union Pacific
“ $64,873,512 July 1, 1864 — 1869
Bond Subtotal
Union Pacific
“ July 1, 1862 & July 2, 1864 12,000,000
Land Grants
Total Bonds $118,141,632 July 1, 1864 — 1869
Total Land Grants July 1, 1862 & July 2, 1864 19,997,600
Table 13.1: The project was driven by mortgages and bond issues.
The railroad companies (Central and Union Pacific) were incented
forward by land grants.
During the planning phase there were many obstacles and

hardships. Initially the U.S. congress was deadlocked from
1845 until 1862 over whether to use a northern or southern
route. This lasted until the departure of Southern Senators
during the Civil War. The project scope was enormous and the
challenges began with surveying the vast American West and
locating a practical route across the Sierra Nevada Mountains
of California. Other challenges lay in pulling together a
disparate multi-trade workforce. In addition to track laying
412
which employed 25% of the workforce, the project also required

hundreds of blacksmiths, carpenters, engineers, masons,
surveyors, teamsters, telegraphers, and cooks.
Theodore Judah (Chief Engineer) put together an assign-
ment of tasks to the trades and their costs.10
#s Job description Wage

Transit party for running Lines - Salary per month
1 Principal Assistant $250
1 Transit man $150
2 Chainmen, each $50 $100
2 Axemen, each $40 $ 80
2 Flagmen, each $35 $ 70
1 Stakeman $ 35
Party for taking Trigonometrical Observations of points along the line
1 Transit man $100
2 Tape men, each $40 $ 80
For sketching Topography.
1 Topographer $100
1 Draughtsman $100
For running Levels
1 Leveller $100
2 Rodmen, each $50 $100
1 Axeman $ 35
For running test Levels.
1 Leveller $ 80
1 Rodman $ 45
1 Axeman $ 35
Miscellaneous
2 Hunters, each $40 $ 80
2 Teamsters, each $50 $100
2 Wagons and Horses –
1 Steward or Commissary $ 75
1 Cook $ 50
Table 13.2: The average cost of provisioning these men was $1.50 per
day each or $3,150 per month for all.
413
1 Chief Engineer, 1 year, at $10,000 $10,000

1 Asst. Engineer, at St. Louis, at $3,000 $ 3,000
1 Asst. Engineer, at San Francisco, at $5,000 $ 5,000
1 Draughts man at each place, at $2,400 $ 4,800
1 Asst. Draughts man at each place at $1,500 $ 3,000
4 Parties’ salaries, at $20,000 per year $80,000
4 Parties’ subsistence, at $16,250 $65,000
Instruments $ 5,000
Stationery and office expenses $ 3,000
20 Horses, at $100 $ 2,000
8 Wagons, at $200 $ 1,600
Tents, camp equipage, &c. $ 5,000
Travelling expenses, incidental, &c $13,000
Table 13.3: The total project workforce was between 20,000 to 25,000.
Executing
In 1863 the Central Pacific began laying track eastward from
Sacramento, California. Two years later the Union Pacific
started laying track westward from Omaha, Nebraska in July,
1865.
By 1864 Cost Management became the predominant project
issue. The CPRR laid 20 miles of track before running out of
money. Since the North and the South were deeply engaged
in the Civil War, the price of equipment was becoming greatly
inflated and some was becoming more difficult to acquire.
During the building of the railroad, the price of one ton of
rails went up from $55 to $115. The price of one keg of black
powder went up from $2.50 to $15. A large locomotive once
cost $10,000, but due to inflation, a small engine cost $14,000.
The Federal Government paid in “greenbacks” that were not
trusted and converted to only $.57 on the dollar. As a result,
the Big Four,11 the major financiers, developed the Contract and
Finance Company, in which they pocketed $63 million, held
$100 million of stock, and had power over nine million acres of
land from federal grants. They did, however, play the leading
role in organizing and permitting the building of the Central
Pacific Railroad.12 The financiers had risked their entire fortunes
but rigged the process to make another, larger fortune with the
project.
414
The project approach was to build first and improve later,

as the railroad became operational. The emphasis on a rapid
pace kept the critical path of activities on track. Hence, the use
of wooden trestle bridges, which could be rapidly put together.
From 1840, trusses, chiefly of timber but with wrought-iron
tension-rods and cast-iron shoes, were adopted in America. In
addition, new technologies were introduced like swivel wheel
trucks which enabled trains to negotiate tight curves and for use
in switchbacks to climb steep inclines.
The project had a substantial supply chain and there were
many obstacles and hardships that faced it. The principal one
was the transportation of materials and equipment from the
East coast by ship (via Panama or around Cape Horn at the tip
of South America a distance of 30,000 kilometers (18,000 miles))
for the CPRR. The materials for the project included the iron,
the spikes, the tools to dig, the powder to blast, the locomotives,
the cars, the machinery, everything had to make an expensive
and hazardous eight months' voyage, before it could be landed in
San Francisco, and had then to be reshipped 193 kilometers (120
miles) to Sacramento by water. The project depended upon the
promptness with which all this material was shipped. The only
thing plentiful in California was wood for the ties.
"The number of ties varied from 2,260 to 2,640 per mile, de-
pending upon alignment and grade. ...The total completed
length of the sheds and galleries was about 37 miles, the
building of which consumed 20,000,000 meters (65,000,000
feet) of board measure lumber, and 900 tons of bolts,
spikes, and other iron.”13
The project workforce was obtained from everywhere
including some from California which was thinly populated, had
very high wages, and could not really spare workers due to gold
mining. The project workforce came from New York and the East
Coast. As the project got underway so desperate was the labor
shortage that the U.S. Government initiated a scheme with the
Chinese Government where a Chinese workforce of 10,000 was
procured for the project. The incentive for individual workers
had to be high to travel over 5000 miles. They were paid $35 per
month, in gold, and with work camps provided they could readily
save $20 per month, a substantial amount to take home.
415
In the rugged Sierra Nevada Mountain range, they had to

blast 15 tunnels out of solid rock and build bridges across ra-
vines and rivers. The railroad was built by hand prior to mecha-
nized construction equipment and without dynamite, only gun-
powder was available. Also on the slopes the line passed through
dense forests up to 46 meters (150 feet) in height. The cost of cut-
ting trees, clearing brush, and grubbing out stumps was an item
of considerable expense. Large numbers of pack animals were
used to carry nearly all supplies and hay and grain over steep
mountain trails to the construction camps. During the winter the
Sierra Nevada blizzards, snow drifts, and avalanches, required
the construction of 60 kilometers (37 miles) of snow sheds.
In crossing the desert eastward, towards the mountains, the
arid conditions and lack of forests required the transportation
of water for men and animals, on one occasion up to 40 miles. It
was necessary to have the heavy work in Palisade Canyon done
in advance of the main force, so 3,000 men with 400 horses and
carts were sent there over the desert, a distance of 482 kilome-
ters (300 miles), along with hay, grain, and all the supplies.
Other project problems included hostile Plains Indians,
smallpox breakout, the UPRR financial scandal (Credit
Mobilier), and corrupt politicians. Confidence in the project was
low, for example, out west even in towns were the project was
going to provide significant benefit, workers demanded their pay
before they performed the day’s work.
416
Figure 13.5: The ceremony for the driving of the golden spike at
Promontory Summit, Utah on May 10, 1869.14

Over time the daily construction rate increased from one to two,
to five miles a day. The progress became so rapid it astonished
engineers, capitalists, and governments around the world15 who
were closely watching its progress. The leading Central Pacific
road crew set a record by laying 16 kilometers (10 miles) of track
in a single day.
The overall construction time was three years, six months,
and ten days. The project was completed eight years ahead of
schedule, but was still running into cost control issues with
the budget. The closing ceremony was delayed because of the
kidnapping of Thomas Durant, the vice president and architect
of the Union Pacific by the unpaid workforce who revolted and
demanded their back pay. The New York Board of Directors
wired the $500,000 necessary to pay the subcontractors and
Durant was freed.
The eventual railroad was 2,858 kilometers (1,776 miles)
long (690 miles built by CPRR and 1,086 miles built by UPRR)
with the joining of the rails at Promontory Summit, Utah on
May 10, 1869. The line went from Omaha, Nebraska (UPRR) to
Sacramento, California (CPRR), connecting with other railroads
417
from the east (Boston, and New York via Chicago, Illinois or St.
Louis, Missouri) to span the continent from east to West Coast.
About 200,000 net tons of iron total were used just for building
the railroad from Omaha to Sacramento. In 1868 the trip from
San Francisco to New York cost $150 for first class, and $70 for
second class.
Closing
A commission appointed by an 1898 act of Congress determined
the overall cost to be $58.8 million in 1899. In 1909 the last of
the government debt was duly paid. The railroad established
a transcontinental mechanized transportation network and
was considered the greatest American technological feat of the
19th Century. It also paved the way for other projects like the
Canadian (1885) and Trans-Siberian (1905) Transcontinental
Railroad.
Crystal Palace Project (1850-1851)
Background
The advances in sheet glass and iron saw John Cladius London
write his book Construction of Hothouses. He paved the way for
a competitive boom to build ever-larger glass houses used as
conservatories and hothouses including the conservatory at Kew
Gardens in England and Jardin d’Hiver in Paris.
Initiating
The project justification was based on the increasing competition
on British manufacturers who needed a showcase to promote
their products. The Great Exhibition of 1851 provided the venue
but required a building to house over 14,000 exhibitors with
100,000 exhibits from around the world. It was a matter of
prestige as in 1851 the U.K. was the leading industrial power
in the world and the organizers wanted the Crystal Palace to
symbolize this stature.
418
Planning
Planners had been looking for strength, durability, simplicity of
construction and speed. In a very competitive climate the design
attracted 233 entrants and was won by Joseph Paxton. He had
experimented with glass and iron in the creation of large green-
houses, like the Great Conservatory at Chatsworth (1836) and
had seen their strength and durability. This was the first time
that glass was considered a climatic membrane that controlled
the encapsulated space and light, rather than windows held
in a confined load bearing frame. His £79,000 design was well
under the £100,000 ($15 million today) limit imposed. A most
important requirement was that the structure could be moved
after the exhibition to another location without scarring the
landscape.
Figure 13.6: Shows the assembly of modular sections. A row of elms

trees was incorporated into the structure.16
Executing
The Crystal Palace was built in 8.5 months in 1850-1851 by
about 5,000 Navigators (laborers used in canal projects) with
up to 2,000 on site at once). It was a glass, iron and concrete
pavilion about one third of a mile long. Its short construction
419
phase was due to the interchangeable prefabricated parts, a

modular building of standardized factory made components. The
glass panels were held by cast and wrought iron trusses, and
cast iron columns. This acted like a stressed skin envelope that
strengthened the whole structure.17
The central exhibition hall, near the 8 meter (27 feet) tall
Crystal Fountain, enclosed a full-size living elm trees in the
park. The great engineer Brunel praised it as it showed how far
iron technology had progressed in the 70 years after the first
Iron Bridge project. All the parts were prefabricated off-site,
transported to Hyde Park and assembled from a kit of parts in
seven months. Over 550 tons of wrought iron, 3500 tons of cast
iron, and 400 tons of glass (900,000 feet) were used.
Figure 13.7: General view of the works in progress, base plates for
the cast iron columns were set into concrete foundations.18

The Palace’s 92,000 meters2 (990,000 feet2) of exhibition space
were of Gothic proportions and were used to display the latest
technology from the Industrial Revolution. It also housed the
World’s first dinosaur exhibition. The Great Exhibition building
was 564 meters (1,850 feet) long, with an interior height of 33
meters (108 feet). The exhibition drew 6 million visitors.
420
Figure 13.8: The front entrance of the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park,
London that housed the Great Exhibition of 1851, the first World’s
Fair.19
Closing
It was the first modern building, in its use of materials, that
heralded in the 20th Century.20 It initiated the spirit of the
new technological era, focused on lightness of materials, and
flexibility of structures. The project was widely copied with
national railway stations and enclosed shopping arcades in
Milan, Paris and Hamburg.
Its designer, Joseph Paxton, along with other colleagues
formed the Crystal Palace Company. As the company issued
shares and raised £1.3 million ($8 million), it was able to buy the
palace from its builders, the engineers of Fox and Henderson.21
The building’s future after the fair was uncertain because of its
unprecedented scale.
London City Sewer Project (1853-1860)
Background
John Snow, a British physician and William Farr, a British
epidemiologist, regarded as one of the founders of medical
statistics, collected statistic on the Cholera epidemic of 1853.
421
Due to industrialization the population of London had

exploded. In the early 19th Century the River Thames was
practically an open sewer, with disastrous consequences for
public health, including numerous cholera epidemics. In 1849,
there was a major outbreak that nearly killed 15,000 people.
John Snow, a British physician and a leader in the adoption
of anaesthesia and medical hygiene, studied the cholera
outbreak and proposed that the transmission mechanism for
cholera was by hands. At the time little was known about
bacteria. At the same time, British epidemiologist William Farr
supported the miasmic theory, which stated that cholera was
spread through polluted air and not by polluted water.
In 1853 another epidemic killed over 10,000 people. William
Farr collected the statistical evidence to support his miasmic
theory. Analysis of his data showed people living close to the
River Thames, at lower elevations, were more susceptible to
cholera. The theory was the lower altitude air was more polluted
than the regions at higher altitude, and he used this data as
evidence for the miasmic theory. Farr collected details about
water companies, their water quality, and mortality rates. His
results proved that people who consumed water supplied by
Southwark & Vauxhall and Lambeth water companies were
more susceptible to cholera, because these companies used water
from the Thames River as their source. Though William Farr did
not agree with the theory derived by John Snow, he helped him
with his statistical data.
Snow completed a much more elaborate investigation of
the effect of the water-supply in Soho. The London epidemic of
1854 which suddenly killed 600 local inhabitants gave him an
opportunity to test his theory. By charting the incidence of the
disease, he showed that over 500 cases occurred within 10 days
over a radius of some 229 meters (750 feet) centered on London’s
Broad Street. By talking to local residents he identified the
outbreak’s source as the public water pump on Broad Street.
Snow found a leaking cesspool situated only three feet from the
Broad Street well.
A work house in that area had its own private well, and
there were only 5 deaths among its 535 inmates. A brewery
on Broad Street likewise never used the water from the Broad
422
Street pump. Its workers drank beer and there were no cases
among its 70 workers.
Through a spot map Snow illustrated how cholera cases were
centered around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate
the connection between the quality of the source of water and
cholera cases. He showed that companies delivering water from
sewage-polluted sections of the Thames to homes increased the
incidence of cholera. This pattern convinced the local council
to disable the well pump by removing its handle. As soon as
the pit was sealed off and the water filtered off the problem
disappeared.
Figure 13.9: A portion of John Snow’s map showing cholera cases in

the area surrounding the Broad Street Water Pump.22
Initiating
Drastic action was needed and the tipping point followed the
‘Great Stink’ of 1858. The backed up River Thames caused
thousands of upper class residents to flee the City. Parliament
remained in session but the windows of the building were draped
with curtains soaked in chloride of lime, to prevent the closure of
Government.
423
Planning
Proposals to modernize the sewerage system had been put for-
ward in 1856, but were shelved due to a lack of funds. However,
after The Great Stink, Parliament realized the urgency of the
problem and resolved to create a modern sewerage system. The
government called in top engineer Joseph Bazalgette to create
an underground complex of sewers.
Executing
Joseph Bazalgette, a civil engineer and Chief Engineer of
the Metropolitan Board of Works, designed an extensive
underground sewerage system that diverted waste to the
Thames Estuary, downstream of the main centre of population.23
Six main interceptory sewers, totaling almost 160 kilometers
(100 miles) in length, were constructed, some incorporating
London's lost rivers.
The intercepting sewers, constructed between 1859 and
1865, were fed by 720 kilometers (450 miles) of main sewers
that, in turn, conveyed the contents of some 21,000 kilometers
(13,000 miles) of smaller local sewers. Construction of the
interceptor system required 318 million bricks, 670,000 meters3
(880,000 yards3) of concrete and mortar, and excavation of over
3.5 million tons of earth. Bazalgette and his team built 82 miles
of intercepting sewers parallel to the River Thames, and 1,770
kilometers (1,100 miles) of street sewers at a cost of £4.2 million.
Bazalgette used 318 million bricks to create the underground
system and dug up more than 2.5 million meters3 (2.8 million
yards3) of earth.

Work began on this ambitious enterprise in 1859 and was
complete by 1868, a major achievement for its time. Bazalgette
drove himself to the limits in realizing his subterranean vision.
The job was made harder by having to work alongside the
developing underground and overground railway systems.
Originally built to serve 2½ million people, the sewers were
already serving 4 million by their completion.
424
Closing
The 19th Century London city sewer project (1860) wasn’t
undertaken until there was overwhelming statistical evidence
that cholera was directly linked to the sewage polluting the
Thames River, and that it was used for drinking water. The
project was significant as it exemplified the use of empirical
evidence in establishing a business case to support a project.
By 1866 most of London was connected to a sewer network
devised by Bazalgette. He is generally recognized as having
saved more lives than any other single Victorian public official.
Today the extended system serves a population of eight million
and is essential to the smooth-running of London.
In 1866, there was another major epidemic for which William
Farr produced a monograph to explain the death rate which
provided a comprehensive analysis of the epidemic, treating it as
a complex social and medical phenomenon.
Edward Jenner’s and Louis Pasteur’s work on inoculation
and their germ theory of disease was widely accepted and
William Farr’s statistics added credence. As a result large
engineering projects (public health measures) were initiated to
collect and treat sewage so as to eliminate the causative agent of
cholera.
Snow’s study was not just a major event in the history
of public health, which is regarded as the founding event of
the science of epidemiology. It was also significant to projects
generally. The use of statistical (quantitative evidence in that
it could be measured) influenced a business case for a major
project. Why is this so significant? The business case was built
on empirical evidence.
Suez Canal Project (1858-1869)

The first Suez Canal was built more than three thousand years
earlier in the 13th Century BCE possibly Ramses II.24 It ran
from about the midpoint of the modern canal straight west, and
connected to the Nile River. In about 550 BCE, the Persian King
Darius I rebuilt the canal after conquering Egypt.
In 1854, Ferdinand de Lesseps created a company to con-
struct a canal. The dimensions of it were 22 meters (75 feet) in
425
bottom width, 58 meters (175 feet) in surface width, and a depth

of 8 meters (26 feet).
Figure 13.10: Suez Canal from 1881. The canal cut through 3 lakes
that made up almost 19 miles (30 kilometers) of the total length
which was 100 miles (160 kilometers) in length, 75 of which were
excavated.25
426
Figure 13.11: Suez Canal section south of El Guisr, showing

construction trains.26
The excavation took nearly 11 years. It was opened in
November 1869 and cost about $100 million, or a million dollars
a mile including harbors. This low cost was due to the fact that
the cut was made through a stretch of level sand. The laborers
employed were chiefly natives, estimated at 30,000, and mainly
were drafted by Said Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, a large stock-
holder in the enterprise. He practically forced his subjects to
work on the project in much the same manner as Rameses of
old.27 The project was a major success. However, in a short time
frame the British Government took control of the canal as it
owned most of the stock.
Eiffel Tower Project (1887-1889)

The tower was built by engineer Gustave Eiffel as the entrance
arch for the Exposition Universelle, a World’s Fair and this
drove the project`s business justification, similar to the Crystal
Palace project. Considering this was the first structure of this
size and the rudimentary means available, this was a record
speed.
On site Eiffel ingeniously anchored the tower in wet soil
by sinking air tight iron chambers to the bed rock. He put
hydraulic pistons in the cylindrical shoes for the four columns
so they could be adjusted precisely. A project workforce of
300 construction workers joined together the 18,038 pieces
of puddled iron (pure structural iron), using two and a half
427
million rivets. The assembly was made up of 5 meters (16

feet) prefabricated sections prepared in Eiffel’s factory on the
outskirts of Paris. Two thirds of the total rivets were assembled
in these prefabricated sections. Each of the 18,000 pieces were
used to construct the Tower were specifically designed and
calculated, traced out to an accuracy of a tenth of a millimeter.
All the metal pieces of the tower were held together by rivets
as workers assembled this gigantic erector set. The pieces were
hauled up by steam cranes, which themselves scaled the Tower
along runners intended for the Tower’s elevators.
It took 5 months to build the foundations and 21 months to
finish assembling the metal pieces of the Tower, and this was a
record speed. The installation of public elevators with slanting
tracks along various angles created many technical questions, as
the project team had no real experience in running elevators to
such heights and with such weight.
The tower was 300 meters (1000 feet) tall and was the
world’s tallest tower until 1930 when New York City’s Chrysler
Building 319 meters (1,047 feet) took over.
Figure 13.12: Partial construction of the Eiffel Tower which was to

dominate the Paris skyline to this day.28
428
One of the most significant facts about the tower was it was
mathematically designed to reduce wind resistance.
First Mechanical Computers (1840-1890)
The Babbage System Project (1840-not completed)

Both Charles Babbage and Herman Hollerith had remarkably
strong business cases to get their mechanical computers
completed. These were purpose-built systems that solved
particular problems; hence, the high payback. Although both
systems were soundly engineered, only Hollerith ever completed
his and implemented it into government census bureaus around
the world. Babbage’s project ground to a halt as he was faced by
a wide range of technical issues.
Hollerith System Project (1882-1887)

The U.S. census was faced with the challenge of trying to com-
plete the 1880 census before the next census count started at
the beginning of the next decade. As the population increased
the race to finish was becoming very close. The 1880 Census
took nine years to complete at a cost of $5.8 million dollars but
their main concern was that the 1890 census would not be com-
pleted before the 1900 Census. Herman Hollerith joined the U.S.
Census Bureau as a statistician in 1880. He was faced with the
problem of analyzing the large amounts of data generated by the
1880 census. Hollerith was led to look for ways of manipulat-
ing data mechanically, suggested by a colleague Dr John Shaw
Billings.
In 1882 Hollerith moved to the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology to teach mechanical engineering. He investigated
Billings’s suggestion and examined some technologies like
Jacquard loom and realized that the punched cards stored
information very efficiently. Another idea was related to how a
train ticket collector punched tickets, and the ease with which
information could be punched onto cards. Hollerith began to
experiment with paper tape, rather than cards, and pins that
would complete an electrical contact when going through a hole.
Through trial and error Hollerith realized that cards were better
suited for the purpose.
429
Hollerith moved in 1884 to a post in the U.S. Patent Office

in Washington, D.C. a brilliant move in that he could patent his
own inventions. His first patent in 1884 (there were 30 patents
from the United States during his career and many overseas
patents) was for a system to convert the information on punched
cards into electrical impulses which activated mechanical
counters. Over time he improved the machines which read the
cards through better electrical connections by placing mercury
beneath. He also increased the amount of information handled
on each card.
Hollerith’s system was first tested on tabulating mortality
statistics in Baltimore, New Jersey in 1887 and again in New
York City. It also competed for the 1890 U.S. census contract
with two other systems, and by showing that it could handle
data more quickly it won convincingly.
Hollerith now turned to manufacturing the punches (Pratt
and Whitney) and counting devices (Western Electric Company).
Everything was in place by June 1890 and the first data from
the census arrived in September of that year. The counting
was completed by December 12, 1890 having taken about three
months to process instead of the expected time of two years if
counting had been done by hand. The total population of the
United States in 1890 was found to be 62,622,250. The system
also gathered new data such as the number of children born
in a family and still alive and the number of people who spoke
English.
The Hollerith system was clearly a great leap forward. It
saved the U.S. $5 million by completing the analysis in a shorter
time and with less manpower. The system was again used for
the 1891 census in Canada, Norway and Austria and later for
the 1911 UK census. Honors came to Hollerith from all sides for
his outstanding invention.29
When Hollerith took on the project to automate the count
he had to meet a very specific deadline. The project was well
executed as he took a very pragmatic approach with a very
specific end goal in sight.30
430
Key Players
Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859)

Brunel was the most renowned British engineer of this age. He
is best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a
series of famous steamships, including the first with a propeller,
and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs
revolutionized public transport and modern day engineering.
When Brunel completed the London to Bristol railway (1841)
he demanded precision in a consistent and uniform gradient.
It is still one of the flattest tracks in the UK. Soon nicknamed
as ‘Brunel’s billiard table’, it was completed at a total cost of
£6,500,000.31 On this track high speed records were set. Brunel
showed that new technologies, like the railroad, brought in new
requirements for precision and quality.
Brunel was very much at the forefront of the Industrial
Revolution and his projects innovatively solved long-standing
engineering problems like building of the first tunnel under a
navigable river, the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship
and the largest ship ever built. His steamship the SS Great
Eastern was instrumental to Transatlantic Cable project. He
was very much ahead of his time and general acceptance of his
innovations often lagged far behind.
Joseph Paxton (1803 – 1865)

He started his career as a garden boy and at the age of 20 was
the Head Gardener at Chatsworth, one of the finest landscaped
gardens in the UK. There he designed a series of pre-fabricated
and modular buildings for use as glass houses. These could be
quickly produced and assembled into a variety of configurations.
This became a test ground for him as he experimented with
prefabricated glass and iron structures. As a pioneer of these
techniques he made a bid for the Crystal Palace project of the
Great Exhibition of 1851. The successful completion of this led to
further work on public parks in Liverpool, Birkenhead, Glasgow,
Halifax, and also significant country houses around Europe for
the likes of the Rothschild’s family.
431
Theodore Dehone Judah (1826–1863)

He was the Chief Engineer at the Central Pacific Railroad and
surveyed the best route over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. He
then lobbied in Washington, D.C. on behalf of his company, and
helped with the passage of the 1862 Pacific Railroad Act. He also
helped raise the finances through the Sacramento merchants.
However, he was marginalized by these financiers after the act.
Cyrus Field (1819–1892)

He was a very successful businessman and financier who led
the Atlantic Telegraph Company to successfully lay the first
telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean in 1858. As a principal
project stakeholder he persisted with the project and drove it to
a successful outcome with a number of attempts.
Hermann Hollerith (1860-1929)

He took a very pragmatic approach to solving problems with
a very specific end goal of meeting a deadline that would
have been overrun using previous methods. Hollerith adopted
existing off the shelf technologies where he could so he kept the
development time down. The 1890 Census was completed in
seven years at a cost of $11.5 million, but it was a more complete
census and took two years less than the 1880 census. Hollerith
was paid $750,000 for the rental of his machines.
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
The second phase of the first Industrial Revolution, coupled with
a scientific revolution, evolved new materials and technologies
that opened up new project avenues in transportation (railroad,
ships, canals, bridges) and construction (buildings). The projects
were driven by engineers (Bright, Paxton, Judah, Eiffel, De
Lesseps, Hollerith, and Brunel) and project directors (Field,
Durant). They all had vision and exuded great confidence
in taking these projects on and delivering successfully. For
example, the Transatlantic Cable had a number of setbacks but
Field persevered and was repeatedly able to raise the finance
432
to complete the project. He also persevered with the technology

buying a new cable and ships.
The latter part of the century was a testament to a line of
projects in the use of new materials (iron, glass, and concrete),
coupled with the use of technologies (steam, electrical,
communications), and taking on projects of significant scope like
the Transcontinental Railroad, and Transatlantic Cable project.
The projects were based on scientific principals and empirical
methods. These projects were very successful and this in turn
inspired confidence in taking on the mega project of the 20th
Century. The U.S., UK, and France were at the forefront of these
projects. The rule book was rewritten by these projects.
Key Lessons
• Integration Management - became more important in
the 19th Century with the need to support projects with
more technological complexity and a great number of
dependencies. For example:
◦◦ Laying the Transatlantic Cable was a daunting
prospect as the sheer scope of the effort was mind-
boggling. The business justification showed a tremen-
dous payback on creating a new communication link
through this new technology. Messages could be sent
in real time, slowly at a transfer rate of eight words a
minute, but at a price (initially it cost $100 to send 10
words). The project required a major investment that
could only be achieved through a share issue in the
Atlantic Telegraph Company, both in the U.S. and
U.K.
◦◦ The project required the integration of many
disciplines. From the precision engineering of
the submarine cable, to the expertise required in
corrosion protection, or in electrical and conductive
materials, to its manufacture in vast lengths. It
required large vessels with payout gear that could
carry 9,200 tons of cable. Other disciplines from
433
an implementation view included communications

methods, navigation, and underwater cable recovery.
The technologies used were continuously evolved
and improved. From projects like this, systems
engineering evolved, driven by the requirement to
manage numerous disciplines in a complex project.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project required
substantial project planning. One of the major
challenges was coordinating the vast quantities of
materials, supplies, equipment and men required.
For example, 200,000 net tons of iron were used for
building the rails from Omaha to Sacramento, and up
to 2,640 ties were required per mile. As the project
was initiated from the west, half of the U.S. iron had
to be transported from the east to the West Coast
by ship, around the Cape Horn of South America, a
distance of 30,000 kilometers (18,000 miles), with
up to thirty vessels at sea at any one time. The
estimated cost was a daunting $60 million project,
even though the business case showed a substantial
return for the U.S. Government. The cost savings just
in military transportation was $50 million over the
cost in a seven year time frame and did not include
the economic impact of opening up the American
West in terms of trade, or decreased postal services.
◦◦ The U.S. Government had to pull out all the stops to
get this project initiated, but even then suffered the
humiliation over the lack of confidence. Newspapers
were constantly circulating stories, and the project
workforce demanded pay in advance. Eventually
these problems were overcome through substantial
bond issues, land grants, and incentives to get the
railroad companies competing to build track.
◦◦ The project directed the two competing railroad
companies to manage their own project budgets
carefully as they raced to complete their tracks. As
a result, the U.S. Government could focus on other
activities like raising the finances for the project.
434
◦◦ The Crystal Palace project, had to be completed in a

short time frame with the world exhibition pending,
pushed the limits of technologies, with new materials,
concrete, iron and large sheet glass, not used in
construction before on such an unprecedented scale:
• The project charter required the delivery of a
very large building of strength and durability
which could be constructed quickly with a readily
assembled workforce at a fixed cost. It also
specified it could be easily removed after the
exhibition so Hyde Park could be restored to its
previous state.
• National prestige drove the business case for
the project and this was to deliver a building
that would exhibit the best of national output
(manufactures and industrial goods) of all nations
to the world. Half of the Great Exhibition would
be devoted to Britain and its Empire and the
other half to nations from around the world.
• The repetitive, simple, and modular design
reduced the need for change control. In addition,
the desperately short time-frame put the pressure
on to avoid any changes.
◦◦ The London Sewer project was significant because
this was one of the earliest examples were the
business case was based on empirical evidence.
◦◦ Both Charles Babbage and Herman Hollerith
had remarkably strong business cases to get their
mechanical computers completed. These were single
purpose built systems that solved particular problems
hence the high payback.
◦◦ Herman Hollerith succeeded in completing his
mechanical computer project, in contrast to Charles
Babbage, because he took a more pragmatic
approach with a very specific end goal even though
the engineering capabilities were similar for both
projects. He was a more effective project manager.
435
◦◦ To define the scope and challenges of the
Transatlantic Cable project the team ran a pilot
that laid a cable across the Cabot Strait. It proved
extremely difficult. By the time a working cable was
installed almost all the project budget was spent.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project required
substantial project planning, and coordinating to
manage the vast quantities of materials, supplies,
equipment and men required. The logistics of this
including the 30,000 kilometer (18,000 mile) supply
chain were as difficult as the construction. The
latter was affected by the difficulties of the terrain
(mountain and desert) and the environment.
◦◦ Defining the scope of the Crystal Palace project was
simplified by the fact that the structure was modular
and made up of standard parts. The project reviewed
previous large constructions using a similar approach
(greenhouses) and scaled these up to come up with a
relatively accurate scope.
• It required a space of Gothic proportions to house
large exhibits, and encompass in the structure a
row of fully grown elm trees.
• Working with new materials like concrete, iron
and large sheet glass, reduced the volume of
required material.
• Scope was controlled by awarding a fixed price
contract that was delivered by a fixed and
approved plan.
◦◦ Empirical evidence helped define the scope of the
London Sewer project in determining how extensive
the underground complex of sewers was going to be.
• Time Management
◦◦ The Transatlantic Cable project was a one shot affair,
as any failures in rolling out the cable would stop
the project. There were a number of stops and starts
to the project when the cable snapped and the ships
436
had to return to port. However, Field always kept the

project going with the necessary investments.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project approach
was to build first and improve later as the railroad
became operational. This approach established a
revenue flow early and kept the project on schedule
by focusing on the critical path activities. Quite
remarkably the project was completed eight years
ahead of schedule.
◦◦ The project schedule was very much impacted by
the environment and seasonal weather, especially
through the mountains.
◦◦ The Crystal Palace project reflected how
interchangeable prefabricated parts made from cast
iron and glass, could be easily manufactured, quickly
delivered, and very readily assembled. This project
had a relatively short schedule of 8.5 months. These
materials dramatically reduced project scheduling
when compared to traditional methods and materials.
• An equivalent project, but using brick or stone,
would have taken 3 to 5 times to complete. The
site construction used pre-fabricated components,
some cast less than 24 hours earlier, exemplifying
how the schedule was crashed as the rate of
assembly became closely aligned to the rate of
production.
◦◦ With some projects there was no flexibility with
timing and deadlines like the U.S. census which had
to be completed before the next census started, within
a decade. Hollerith took on the project to build a
system to automate the counting and had to meet this
deadline.
◦◦ Similarly William Farr and John Snow in 1860s
raced against time to find a solution to the Cholera
epidemic raging through London. Their conclusive
evidence led to the necessary funding of the London
Sewer project to build sewers diverting sewage from
437
the River Thames. There was a push to compress the

project schedule.
• Cost Management
◦◦ By the 19th Century mega projects like the
Transcontinental Railroad and Transatlantic Cable
project required a mega budget, and could only
be supported by a share issue, government bonds,
and land grants. This was complicated by the fact
that two governments, the U.S. and UK, were
collaborating on the project and raising the necessary
investments.
◦◦ For the Transcontinental Railroad project a history
of railway project experience was critical to the
estimates. Although this was a considerably larger
project, the teams were able to make parametric
estimates in the planning phase.
• The extensive surveys calculated the scope of
the various routes and the degree of difficulty
in constructing them. The work effort for the
multi-trade workforce was estimated and put
together in a simple project plan that showed the
assignment of tasks to the trades, and their labor
and provisioning costs.32
◦◦ The costs escalated out of control as the Civil War
raged. The project was plagued by inflated costs, and
confidence in the project dropped to the point that
the project workforce demanded their pay before they
even performed the day’s work.
◦◦ Cost Management was tightly managed through the
Crystal Palace project. An initial project budget of
£100,000 ($15 million today) was set but none of the
design tenders could meet this. The project was made
financially feasible by two factors.
• First, a plunge in material costs of concrete,
iron and large sheet glass, through changes
in production brought about by the Industrial
Revolution.
438
• Second, the impact of pre-fabrication (a by-

product of the factory system), and the ability
to assemble standardized parts and modules,
quickly and cheaply. The final project costs were
£150,000 ($22 million today), the equivalent
structure in brick or stone would have been 3 to 6
times the costs.
◦◦ The London Sewer project controlled costs by:
• Using concrete (Portland cement) on a massive
scale (880,000 cubic yards of concrete and
mortar).
• Not treating the sewage but relying on emptying
reservoirs when the high tide was going out to sea
- a simple but effective solution.
◦◦ For mega projects like the Transcontinental Railroad
and Transatlantic Cable Quality Management started
in the factories with the manufacture of components.
The high cost of shipment demanded a reduced out of
the box failure rate.
◦◦ One of the complexities of the Transatlantic Cable
project was to ensure that the cable functioned prop-
erly before it was laid. Any repair would be extremely
difficult. Therefore, the quality of the cable was para-
mount, and so was the operation of laying it as it
could easily snap as happened in 1857. This required
a recovery and repair operation the following year.
◦◦ The U.S. Government mandated precision
engineering through enforced standards for the
Transcontinental Railroad project. For example, the
track gauge had to be within a tolerance as had the
incline (limited to grades of 116 feet per mile), and
curves (as sharp as a 400 feet or 120 meters radius).
These were inspected through the life of the project.
◦◦ According to the railroad commissioner
• During construction of the Central Pacific…
Railroads and their early subsidiaries, the Federal
439
Government appointed commissioners to inspect

the work prior to the awarding of subsidies.
Operating under the auspices of the Secretary of
the Interior, the commissioners reported on the
progress of construction, condition and valuation
of the line and appurtenances, facilities, and
equipment in use, and made recommendations
for improvements, route changes, etc. The
investigations…were carried out in sections
generally of forty mile increments.33
◦◦ Many projects from this era using the new materials
of iron and glass, required very high tolerances. For
example, the Eiffel Tower was specifically designed
with accuracy to a tenth of a millimeter.
◦◦ With the Crystal Palace project quality management
was paramount as the design required a greater
accuracy, and degree of tolerance than with other
materials. The quality control started in the factory
which was responsible for delivering uniform iron
pieces, and modules. The cast iron columns were
tested on site as part of the on-site quality control.
The structure comprised of 24-foot bays or modules,
repeated 77 times, simplified quality control. The
approach was very similar to the repeating arches of
the Roman Colosseum. Prefabrication of components
improved the quality of the overall structure, as the
components were typically molded.
◦◦ The London Sewer project was triggered by John
Snow’s use of spatial analysis that resolved a ghastly
public health problem. This was a precursor for the
broader use of statistical analysis in investigating
problems, and within projects.
◦◦ As the production costs of materials like concrete,
iron, and glass dropped their usage increased
across different industries and projects. The project
workforce had to learn how to work with these
new materials, and rapidly evolve new practices,
that required a steep learning curve. Without the
440
adequate skill sets, like skilled mechanics and

engineers, these projects would not have been
possible.
◦◦ In the Transcontinental Railroad project when the
U.S. Government procured a substantial Chinese
workforce from the Chinese Government the
incentives and rewards for individual workers had to
be high to travel the 16,000 kilometers (10,000 miles)
for the project.
◦◦ The Crystal Palace project required a huge quantity
of glass, 280,000 meters2 (900,000 feet2), and this
posed a manufacturing problem for the glass
manufacturers which they only solved by taking on
additional French and Belgian glassblowers.
◦◦ The workforce comprised of 5,000 laborers with 2,000
on site, at once. Because of the repetition of the pre-
fabricated modules unskilled workers in teams could
quickly and accurately assemble these. There was a
learning curve as the workforce had to learn how to
work with the new iron and sheet glass materials,
and evolve new practices. Paxton showed great skill
in his ability to coordinate his crews of workers and
was recognized for his compassion. The equivalent
structure in brick or stone would have required a
much larger and far greater skilled workforce.
◦◦ Mega projects like the Transcontinental Railroad
and Transatlantic Cable required constant and
proactive communications to keep the project in the
public eye so investors and public funding could be
found. Both projects were hampered by reputable
engineers testifying up front that the projects were
impracticable and unfeasible.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad was presented to the
public as a project of national great importance as it
connected California to the rest of the Union
◦◦ The term “Crystal Palace” was coined to promote this
new glass structure as part of the communication
441
strategy to get public awareness up to the

significance of the project. External communications
management was important in gaining public
support for the project and the exhibition. The Times
newspaper had campaigned against the Exhibition
committee’s own proposal of a fixed brick structure,
and heavily promoted the Crystal Palace.
◦◦ With the London Sewer project the publication of
statistics was a catalyst in getting broad based
support for the project.
• Risk Management
◦◦ The Transatlantic Cable project ran a high risk of
the cable snapping as it was being laid. This risk was
accepted by the project by incorporating a procedure
to search for and grapple the ends of the cables.
◦◦ The financial risks were high as the project would
involve procuring several ships, or one large enough
ship, for several months. Manufacturing a strong
enough cable that was resilient to water was very
expensive. Recovering the snapped cable was a very
expensive operation that could take weeks.
◦◦ The first Transcontinental Railroad project was
funded with U.S. Government issued bonds and was
estimated to have cost a staggering $60 million. The
financial risks were enormous, which plagued the
project throughout, to the point that confidence was
so low in the project that the project workforce was
demanding a day’s pay in advance.
◦◦ The U.S. Government had to come up with creative
incentives that pushed the two competing railroads
into a race to build the most rail track to an undeter-
mined meeting point. This in itself was contingency
planning as the risks were spread around.
◦◦ As the companies hit construction milestones, they
were granted sizable parcels of land along the track
to race. The two were into a race to earn the most
money and obtain the most land by 1865.
442
◦◦ The companies at the same time had to manage

the many risks. For example, the project schedule
was affected by difficulties in getting equipment,
materials, and supplies to the construction camps,
and the overall shortage of laborers on the west side.
◦◦ The transportation of materials and equipment to
site, for the CPRR, was a risk. It came from the East
coast by ship (via Panama or around Cape Horn
a distance of 30,000 kilometers (18,000 miles). It
readily delayed the schedule because of the six month
journey required.
◦◦ Other risks to the project included environmental
for example building through the rugged Sierra
Nevada Mountains in winter meant facing blizzards,
snow drifts, and avalanches in extremely cold
temperatures.
◦◦ The construction risks were enormous. Over fifteen
tunnels had to be blasted out of solid rock, and
wooden trestle bridges were built across ravines and
rivers (hundreds of feet high).
◦◦ The project had to also cross a very inhospitable
desert.
◦◦ The U.S. Government was in a state of war with
Native Americans and the project faced all sorts of
dangers and hostilities because of this.
◦◦ As the Industrial Revolution progressed, greater
risks were taken with the size of new structures
using materials such as iron, glass, and concrete.
For example, the Crystal Palace project used these
materials on an unprecedented scale. This public
exhibition building was based on the concepts of a
greenhouse. So, there were many risks that ranged
from the ability to use the new materials effectively,
to staying on schedule, to the safety aspects of
the project (the overall size of the structure), and
financial risk in the success of the project.
◦◦ Paxton had a model structure completed where
workers walked around it as part of a test. Army
443
troops were recruited to march past it in unison. The

model held well and this helped prove the structure
was safe.
◦◦ William Farr and John Snow in the 1860s used
statistical analysis to find a solution to the raging
Cholera epidemic through the quarters of London.
Their conclusive empirical evidence led to the
necessary funding of a project to build sewers. This
led to a more empirically based approach to projects,
and in turn a quantitative approach to risk analysis
in projects.
◦◦ Procurement contracts were at the core of the
Transcontinental Railroad project which was based
on two competing companies receiving land grants.
◦◦ The U.S. Government also initiated a scheme with
the Chinese government were a substantial Chinese
workforce was procured for the project with up to
10,000 workers. The incentives and rewards for
individual workers had to be high to induce them to
travel over 5,000 miles for the project.
◦◦ Much thought had to be given to the transportation.
At any point there were thirty ocean-going vessels
moving the supply chain along. On land there was a
high dependency on the use of pack animals to the
most inaccessible places in the mountains and desert.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad procurement
processes were further complicated by the elongated
delivery. For example, East coast steel mills had to
ship materials (via Panama or around Cape Horn)
a distance of 30,000 kilometers (18,000 miles). The
only local material in plentiful supply in California
was timber. This was used for the ties and the trestle
bridges.
◦◦ For the Crystal Palace project the building committee
put out to tender a design to which 245 submissions
were made. These were all unsatisfactory, none
meeting the tender criteria, so the committee
444
proceeded with their own composite traditional

design. None of the 19 bids submitted by contractors
came in under the £100,000 budget ($15 million
today). Paxton delivered a design, in just 13 days,
modelled on his greenhouse at Chatsworth. Paxton
published his plans in the Illustrated London News
and had a very favourable public response. The
design was accepted by the building committee.
◦◦ The use of contractors in all the aforementioned mega
projects required good planning and maturity of
processes to execute.
◦◦ The use of new materials, like iron and glass, were
used in projects on an unprecedented scale, to the
point where only share issues could fund these
projects. For example, the Crystal Palace Company
was formed and issued shares that raised £1.3
million. Similarly, the first Transcontinental Railroad
project was funded with U.S. Government issued
bonds as was the First Transatlantic Telegraph Cable
project.
Educators
of using empirical evidence with the London Sewer
project to create the business justification.
• Discuss Cyrus Field’s multiple setbacks with the
Transatlantic Cable project, his perseverance, and
whether it was wise to continue to raise finances to
complete the project?
• Discuss the U.S. Governments approach to the
Transcontinental Railroad project particularly the
funding through land grants, and the competition
that opened up between the railroads, to race to an
undetermined meeting point.
• Discuss the impact of the Industrial Revolution on project
management.
445
446
Chapter 14
The 20th Century
T
he 20th Century witnessed colossal changes across the
world, a period of wars and conflicts around the world,
with two major Industrial Revolutions. The century
started in the midst of the second Industrial Revolution and
the emergence of new technologies and disciplines namely,
chemical and electrical engineering. So many changes and
innovations required an even more structured approach to
business, management, and projects. In society the shifts of
power continued to the industrial classes and business world.
The state’s role is to run mega projects of national interest. The
crown virtually has no role in these.
“The hundred years after 1900 were a time of unparalleled
progress. In real terms, it has been estimated [that] average per
capita global domestic product increased by little more than 50%
between 1500 and 1870. Between 1870 and 1998, however, it
increased by a factor of more than six and a half.”
—Niall Ferguson, The War of the World
Second Industrial Revolution (1890-1940)

This second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to the
exploitation of fossil fuels as a source of energy and to include
the chemical industries, petroleum refining and distribution,
electrical industries, and, the automotive industries and internal
combustion engine. German Chemistry extracted nitrogen
447
from the atmosphere to make explosives, and fertilizers, that

increased crop yields. The revolution sees a transition of
technological leadership from the United Kingdom to the United
States and Germany.

a. Mass adoption of the factory system in the West was
a catalyst for growth.
b. Greater confidence in deploying the technology of the
19th Century.
a. Mass urbanization and growth around manufacturing
centers like Manchester, Detroit, Massachusetts, the
Ruhr, and Lille.
• Major events
a. San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, 1906.
b. World War I, 1914-1918.
c. New Deal in the U.S.
a. First mechanical computer, 1890.
b. First automobile, 1890.
c. Tesla coil transmits radio waves 50 miles, 1895.
d. Typewriter, 1898.
e. First manned powered flight, 1903.
f. Plastic, 1907.
g. First modern luxury transatlantic liner, 1912.
h. Pierre du Pont introduces the principle of return on
investment, 1915.
i. The Television, 1927.
448
j. The first “word processor,”1 1936.

a. Panama Canal, 1880-1914.
b. Empire State Building, 1929-1931.
c. Hoover Dam, 1931-1935.
• Regions
a. Titanic, 1907-1912.
b. Race to the South Pole 1911-12.
c. Golden Gate Bridge, 1933-1937.
d. Public works projects in 1930s to address
unemployment.
• Key players
a. Frederick Winslow Taylor.
b. Henry Gantt.
c. Frank Crowe.
• Chapter Wrap-up
Trends and Changes

The world population in this period grew from 1.6 to 2.2 billion.
The spread of mass production is best exemplified by the
meteoric growth of automobiles. From the first horseless carriage
in 1880 the total number of automobiles in the U.S. topped 4,000
in 1900, and by 1911 rose to 600,000, 1915 to 895,000, and by
1927 to 3.7million.
Impact of Changes
Mass urbanization saw a massive growth in industrial cities
around manufacturing centers.
449
Major Events
Sinking of Titanic 1912

The least likely disaster of the new century the sinking of the
liner was headlined as a major event around the world. Through
Titanic’s construction project the elevation of expectations that
this was “the greatest ship ever built” instilled a sense of su-
preme confidence. This led to compromises in the implementa-
tion stage and allowed for catastrophic mistakes to be made
like pushing the ship to its operational limits in a bid to beat
Olympic’s best crossing time.
World War I (1914-1918)

For most politicians the world war was something that they
never envisioned happening:
“New economic factors clearly prove the inanity of
aggressive wars. …Because of the interlacing of nations,
war becomes every day more difficult and improbable.”
—Source: Lectures in 1910 by Viscount Esher, chairman of the
UK’s “War Commission” and senior advisor on foreign policy
and the military; he believed that the Angel doctrine was as
accepted in Germany as in the UK2
The consequences of industrialized nations fighting such

a war would lead to bankruptcy. The world war mobilized
continents with huge armies and resources into a global conflict
which proved to be a prolonged war of stalemate. It manifested
the industrialization of war and leveraged mass production in
weapons and ammunition, and mass transportation to mobilize
and mechanize vast armies. By 1918 the logistical operation
supplying the British Expeditionary Force was the largest the
world had ever seen.
New Deal (1933 and 1938)

The Wall Street crash (1929) and the onset of the Great
Depression drastically affected profits, voluntary welfare
programs, and millions of jobs. In reaction to this U.S. President
Franklin Roosevelt set up the New Deal where public works
450
projects emerged to keep unemployment down and provided

assistance by creating jobs. Technocrats and planners in
Washington were to plan and run mega projects. Projects
included road building, the Hoover Dam, Golden Gate Bridge,
and San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. New social programs,
including old-age pensions, labor standards, and minimum
wages for some industries were developed
Other governments took a similar approach of state initiated
public works mega projects. These included the autobahns in
Germany, ocean liners (Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth) in the
UK, and the Maginot Line in France.
Engineering (Chemical and Electrical)
Chemical Engineering
In the 1800s, industry started using more and more chemical
processes in many areas such as metallurgy, food production
and textiles. At the end of the 19th Century, the increased use of
chemicals in the manufacturing industry eventually created a
new industry whose main function was the production of chemi-
cals. A “Chemical Engineer” was involved in the design and op-
eration of these new chemical producing plants. It wasn’t until
the development of the petroleum industry that chemical engi-
neering became recognized as a unique engineering discipline.
Electrical Engineering
In the 1800s research in electricity grew, from the original
electric cell invented by Alessandro Volta in 1800 to the
Gramme dynamo and electric motor that were invented in 1872.
Electrical engineering developed in close collaboration with
these developments in chemistry and physics. This led to the
development of electrical power and organizations could achieve
more ambitious projects by harnessed electricity. An electrical
engineer was involved in the design and operation of these new
electrical plants.
451
Other Engineering
By the end of this period many other forms of engineering
were appearing. For example, marine engineers tamed the
peril of ocean exploration. Aeronautic engineers turned the
ancient dream of flight into a travel convenience for ordinary
people. Control engineers accelerated the pace of automation.
Industrial engineers designed and managed mass production
and distribution systems. College engineering curricula were
well established and graduate schools appeared.
The Second Industrial Revolution

The very late part of the 19th Century saw the second Industrial
Revolution emerge (1890-1940) with a number of new emerging
technologies. It was dominated by electricity and chemicals, and
the internal combustion engine. It brought in telecommunication
(telephones), electrical devices, the internal combustion engine,
transportation by land (automobiles), sea (ocean going liners),
and air. Epitomized by mass production of consumer goods and
the mechanization of manufacture it served the needs of an
increasing population.
Light bulb 1879

The electric light was invented simultaneously in 1879 by two
people: Thomas Edison in the United States and Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan in England. Swan created the first electric light
bulb, but could not maintain a vacuum in the bulb. Edison’s
lamp consisted of a thin platinum filament housed in a glass
vacuum bulb, and he created a small version for domestic use.
Industrial
In the 19th Century there was an effort to standardize work.
The Gilbreths (Frank 1868-1924 and Lillian) worked with
standardization and method studies. In one example, bricklayers
were observed and it was determined that no two used the same
technique or set of motions. With standardization of technique
they were able to improve productivity by over 100%. With his
wife they studied the work habits of various manufacturing
and clerical jobs to determine how else it could be increased.
452
Their work was carried into factories to increase the efficiency of

workers.
Frederick Winslow Taylor 1856-1915 was the first to
scientifically analyze each part of an individual’s work so that
the most suitable person could undertake it, scientifically
chosen, and trained to perform it in a certain way. This required
good co-operation between management and workers, with a
clear division of labor and responsibility between them.
“Taylor’s impact has been so great because he developed a
concept of work design, work measurement, production control
and other functions that completely changed the nature of
industry. Before scientific management, such departments as
work study, personnel, maintenance and quality control did not
exist.”
—Source: (http://www.accel-team.com, 2004)
In 1911, the scientific management movement was started

by Frederick Winslow Taylor with his book The Principles of
Scientific Management which stated the principal objective of
management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for
the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each
employee. Taylor believed that management should use the
techniques used by scientist to research, analyze, and test work
skills to improve the efficiency of the workforce.
He devised a means of detailing a division of labor into time-
and-motion studies and a wage system based on performance.
Known as “Taylorism” (the grindless repetition of tasks) would
become the standard for businesses worldwide in the next
decade.3
Henry Gantt (1861-1919), studied management techniques
specifically in the field of the construction of naval ships in the
First World War. As a result, he created the Gantt chart in 1917.
It was a system of outlining the sequence and duration of all
tasks in a process, reflected by task bars and milestone markers.
This in essence was “Time Control.”
453
The Human Relations Movement

This originated in the 1920s, a forerunner to modern human
resource management, focused on employee feelings and group
behavior. It was influenced by the Hawthorne Studies4 which
measured the relationship between productivity and the working
environment and showed that changes in the environment
such as lighting did affect productivity. This was a significant
break from Taylor’s theories in that the workers were not
solely motivated by self interest. Further research led to the
understanding that workplaces are more than machine like
environments in that there are social environments and human
emotions that require consideration.
As unions began challenging the fairness and validity of
Taylor's scientific management theories, new personnel roles
emerged as employers recognized that professionals could play
a middle role between employees and employers, and this set
the stage for investments in the role of effective human resource
management.5
Personnel Program
In the 1930s personnel programs emerged mainly to increase
productivity. These included safety programs, medical aid and
sick benefits, holidays, housing allowances and other benefits.
Workplace Safety
The beginning of the 20th Century saw a move to improve worker
security through a series of workplace safety acts and worker’s
compensation laws. Other changes saw the introduction of
health and safety into the food industry, through the Meat
Inspection and Pure Food and Drug Acts of 1906.
Early Mass Communication

The modern field of communications traces its lineage through
business information, business communication, and early mass
communication studies published in the 1930s.
454
Public Relations
The field of Public Relations broadly interpreted to include
corporate and government communications, non-advertising
publicity, media relations, political campaigning, health
communications and other methods that seek to persuade “below
the line” and to create dialogue.
Personal Risk
Other major changes in the 20th Century were with personal
risk. In the U.S. this was enacted by Medicare and Medicaid and
corporate pension reform, greatly extending consumer protection
which moved to safeguard the environment.6
The Evolution of Quality Management

The beginning of the 20th Century saw a formulization of
Quality Management as various techniques and practices were
developed. Frederick Taylor defined the Principles of Scientific
Management (1911) which devised a means of detailing a
division of labor in time-and-motion studies and a wage system
based on performance. Taylor’s gospel also known as “Taylorism”
(the grind less repetition of tasks) would become the standard for
businesses worldwide.7
In the 1920s Dr. Walter A. Shewhart of Bells Labs, a
physicist, introduced in 1924 the Statistical Process Control
and the “plan-do-study-act” (PDSA) cycle.8 The methods
were based on continual monitoring of process variation. The
concepts of “common cause” and “assignable cause” variability,
and “a state of statistical control” were introduced. It was the
first use of statistically-based tools and techniques for the
management and improvement of processes. It was the basis for
the modern quality movement, including Six Sigma. Shewhart’s
work was further developed by Deming and the early work
of Shewhart, Deming, Dodge and Romig constitutes much of
what today comprises the theory of statistical process control
(SPC). However, there was little use of these techniques in
manufacturing companies until the late 1940s.
In the 1930s - Dodge and Romig introduced the Acceptance
Sampling Methods. This was probabilistic approach to predicting
455
lot acceptability based on sampling results. It centered on defect

detection; the concept of acceptable quality level (AQL)
Projects
Scheduling further evolved with Gantt’s work in 1920s where
activities could be laid out visually on a chart to indicate
progress. These were extensively used in the Hoover Dam project
to overlap the project phases.
Financial Tools
The growth of capitalism in the 16th Century (which saw the first
limited company and national bank) evolved the calculation of
profit and loss in standard units, and a real world representation
through tokens and symbols.
The following were developed in the 20th Century for specific
industries, and have come into project management as best
practices:
• CBA - Cost Benefit Analysis - Economic accounting is
not new. The Frenchman Jules Dupuit, followed by the
Englishman Alfred Marshall, developed the concepts
in the early 20th Century. In the 1920s, the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers developed a process for economically
evaluating which public projects to pursue. Economists
adopted the Army’s process, and have been formalizing
and standardizing the CBA since the 1950s. The CBA
provides a repeatable, objective method of measuring if,
and by how much, the economics of a business change by
pursuing investment options. U.S. Federal Government
technology projects actually require, by law, the use of
CBA in justifying projects.
• ROI - Return on Investment was originally developed
circa 1912 at E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (or
Du Pont). F. Donaldson Brown developed a new method
of measuring financial performance in an efficiency
report he authored, and became VP Finance for Du
Pont. As chief of financial operations, Pierre du Pont
introduced the principle of return on investment. His
model has often been referred to as the Dupont Model,
456
and 80 years later, it is currently in vogue. When well

detailed, it is among the more comprehensive and
practical of the methods used in modern management.
Brown’s efforts at DuPont led to DuPont taking a
financial interest in General Motors (GM), and actually
helped GM survive through difficult times in the 1920s.
GM went on to become highly successful, and became
recognized as a vanguard in the planning process, cost
accounting, and in capital productivity.
• EVM - Earned Value Management is a collection of
management practices and a structured method to
establish a Performance Measurement Baseline, that
can be used to measure and analyze performance
on all projects. The roots of EVM were in industrial
manufacturing at the turn of the 20th Century, but the
idea took root in the U.S. Department of Defense in the
1960s. The original concept was called PERT/COST.
Panama Canal Project (1904-1914)
Background
The idea of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean through
Central America dates back to the 16th Century when a survey
for a route through Panama was made. It was situated in one
of the most difficult and inhospitable climates on earth with
a tropical terrain of mountains and hostile jungles. A railroad
was built across Panama, opening in 1855, by a publicly traded
corporation based in New York City, the Panama Rail Road
Company, chartered in 1849. It was financed by mainly U.S.
private companies.
The project costs were $8 million about eight times the initial
estimate in 1850. The project presented considerable engineering
challenges, going over mountains and through swamps. Over
300 bridges and culverts were built along the route. Post project
the ongoing work proved just as challenging in upgrading and
making the railroad permanent. In the tropical climate wood
decayed rapidly so bridges were replaced with Iron Bridges, and
457
trestles with gravel embankments. The lifespan of a tie was

a year so these were replaced with lignum vitae ties (tropical
hardwood).
An estimated 5,000 to 10,000 people died during the project
although the Panama Railroad company kept no records. This
was indicative of the serious challenges facing a canal project.
Figure 14.1: Map of the Panama Railroad at a length of 80

kilometers (47.61 miles), 1861.9
Initiating
The U.S. was interested in getting the canal constructed. The
business case was lucrative. The journey for a ship sailing from
New York to San Francisco via the canal cut the travel distance
to 9,500 kilometers (6,000 miles), from the 30,000 kilometers
(18,000 miles) route around Cape Horn.
The Panama railroad was very successful financially, and
by the time the line was officially completed (January 28, 1855),
more than 33% of the $8 million cost had already been paid for
by eager fare paying passengers and companies paying freight
tariffs. Engineering and medical difficulties made it the most
expensive railroad project ever completed (per unit length of
track). Likewise the on-going maintenance and upgrades rates
458
were very expensive. But the (first class passage fare $25 each
way) very high fares and freight costs made it one of the most
profitable in the world. The Panama Rail Road Company stock
became one of the most highly valued of the era. The railroad
was successful but an all-water route between the oceans was
still very much desired. It was assumed that it would likely have
a very positive return in the long run like the railroad.
Figure 14.2: Panama Railroad and the cut at Basaltic cliff, 1861.
From “Illustrated History of the Panama Railroad” by Fessenden
Nott Otis, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1861.10
The U.S. had been negotiating a treaty with the Columbian

Government since 1855 granting the U.S. the exclusive
rights and privileges to build a canal through the territory
of Nicaragua. In 1880, two Frenchmen, Commander Lucien
Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse and General Turr, organized the
Panama Canal Company and obtained a concession from the
Columbian Government. The success of the Suez Canal (1869 see
page 425) buoyed the French and they began construction of the
459
Panama Canal immediately in 1880. But the French abandoned

the project in failure after they had spent over 20 years and $260
million on it.11
For the U.S. the project was vastly more strategic for
economic, political, and military reasons. Panama was part
of Colombia, and with U.S. backing, Panama seceded from
Colombia in 1903 and promptly signed a treaty with the U.S.
allowing for the construction of a canal and U.S. sovereignty
over a strip of land on either side of the structure (the Panama
Canal Zone).
Planning
To be successful the U.S. project had to learn from mistakes
made by the French. The first French Canal Company
inaugurated the undertaking with an exclusive concession
obtained from Colombia in May, 1876.
Ferdinand de Lesseps, responsible for the completion of the
very successful Suez Canal project, was placed at the head of the
new project. It was thought he had credibility and would secure
investor’s confidence as the company sold shares in the project.
His belief that the project could be accomplished more
quickly and easily than the Suez was very misguided. He was
not an engineer and relied on a survey that was only two-thirds
complete. The original cost and time estimates were $168 million
and 7 years. In accordance with the terms of the concession
the plans and estimates were submitted to an International
Engineering Congress in Paris, in 1879 that he organized
to discuss several schemes for constructing a ship canal. De
Lesseps opted for a sea-level canal based on his experience
with the construction of the Suez Canal. From the 136 congress
delegates only 42 were engineers, the remainder were promoters,
politicians, speculators, and personal friends of De Lesseps. The
engineering congress re-estimated the cost and time at $214
million and 7-8 years. They approved and passed the plans.
De Lesseps made 2 visits to the Isthmus, in 1879 and 1886,
staying about 2 months on each occasion. He was accompanied
by an engineering commission who came up with the revised es-
timate in 1879. De Lesseps further reduced this estimate to $131
million, and then without apparent reason, to $120 million.12
460
The total subscriptions, stocks and bond issues, reached

$394 million and the shareholders numbered 200,000. In the
U.S. De Lesseps was unable to dispose of the reserved stock
as Americans were interested in a canal but not under French
control.
The excavation of the Culebra Cut was started in 1882 but
progress was slow with no tracks to remove the spoil that the
excavators were producing. When the problem was resolved, the
highest peaks of the cut were tackled but, the worry of landslides
and what slope should be taken became a major concern.
In 1883 there was a realization that the tidal range of the
Pacific to Atlantic differed in levels by up to 6 meters (20 to 1
feet) and this would be a danger to navigation. A tidal lock was
proposed at Panama to preserve the level from there to Colon
and this saved about 10 million meters3 of excavation. It would
also prevent landslides.
In 1884 there was a very high sick and death rate among
the workforce through cholera, malaria and yellow fever.
The hospitals were well equipped, with excellent doctors and
surgeons, and supplied with the best medicines and instruments
of the time, but they were poorly managed. They were handled
under contract, and the administration was left almost entirely
to French Sisters of Charity, who were devoted and religious
women, but were not trained nurses. Workforce turnover became
a huge problem as inadequate medical care was available and
workers returned to France.
In 1885 the project ran into financial difficulties and applied
to the French Government to issue lottery bonds. This was done
successfully during the Suez Canal project.
In 1886 construction equipment was in short supply with too
few dredgers, and too much work was being done by hand.
The crash came in December, 1888. At this point $157
million had been spent in Panama, and $78 million in Paris
for a total of $235 million. This vast sum is said to have been
“one-third expended on the canal work, one-third wasted, and
one-third stolen.” The project costs were as follows: salaries
and expenses of management aggregated $16.5 million; rents
and maintenance of leased property, $3.3 million; material and
supplies, $29.7 million; buildings, $15.4 million; construction
461
and engineering expenses, $89.4 million; land purchases,

$950,655; and medical and religious attendance, $1.8 million.
In view of the various forms of graft, extravagance and
waste, it is not surprising that there was so little to show for in
actual work accomplished. At the end of eight years the work
was about two-fifths completed. About 59.75 million meters3 (200
million feet3) had been excavated, a total which included 14.255
million meters3 (46 million feet3) from the Culebra Cut. This
lowered the peak by 102 meters (336 feet). The overall value of
work was about $25 million.
The work was done by contractors, few had met their
contracts, and many made small fortunes. Those who were
entrusted with the work of excavation were paid for the
amount of spoil which they took from the canal prism. With no
data available on the cost of such work, it was impossible to
even estimate what the charge should be. In many cases the
contractors took out what was most easily excavated and avoided
the hard spots.
After the project was shut down M. De Lesseps and his son
Charles were sentenced to five years imprisonment, and similar
sentences were imposed upon several other of their associates.
It also emerged that 150 French deputies had accepted bribes
and voted for the allocation of financial aid to the Panama Canal
Company.
The French project carried a horrendous death toll of an
estimated 22,500 workmen as the local workforce toiled in
extreme conditions and died from disease (malaria and yellow
fever) and in landslides.
In summary, the reasons behind the French project failure
were due to mismanagement of finances, corruption, poor
initiation, lack or planning for the workforce and its welfare in
a tropical climate, inadequate equipment, poor contracts, and a
lack of good project management.
Executing
When the French left, they left behind a considerable amount
of machinery housing and a hospital. The U.S. paid the French
Canal Company $40 million for the Panama railroad stock,
462
plant and materials (some was used and some sold for scrap),
buildings, surveys, plans, maps, and records, land, clearings,
roads, etc. They also paid for 4 years’ use of the ship channel in
Panama Bay.
The U.S. had to improve the living standards of the project
workforce and deal with the health issues. Engineers focused
on building the infrastructure necessary to complete the
canal including proper housing for canal workers. Significant
investments were made in eliminating yellow fever and malaria
from the area through extensive sanitation and mosquito-control
programs.
Starting in 1904 the railroad had to be massively upgraded
with heavy duty rails to accommodate all the new rolling
stock, steam engines and shovels brought in from the U.S. and
elsewhere. The new railroad closely paralleled the canal where
it could. In many places the new Lake Gatun flooded over the
original rail line and a new rail line had to be raised by fill above
the water. There were also considerable additions made to the
rail system. The new steam shovel technology, many times
larger than the original, allowed massive cuts and fills.13
The railroad facilitated the building of the canal by providing
a ready supply route of equipment, supplies and the project
workforce. More than 4,000 wagons were used for the removal
of the tens of millions of meters3 of excavated material from
the canal cuts. Each wagon was capable of carrying 15 meters3
loaded by steam shovel. Up to 160 locomotives pulled the wagons
which were unloaded by 30 Lidgerwood unloaders that rapidly
discharged the excavated material. Techniques were developed
to pick up large sections of track by steam powered cranes and
relocate them without rebuilding them. This allowed the track
to precede the railroad mounted steam shovels where ever they
needed to go. Massive scrapers scraped the dirt cars and allowed
them to be unloaded rapidly. The rebuilt, much improved and
often rerouted Panama Railroad continued alongside the new
canal and across the Gatun Lake. It was completed in 1912 at a
cost of $9 million.
The project was challenged by the elevation of 26 meters
(85 feet) above sea level, which required a complex system of
locks. In 1904 a survey of the area was started for the largest
463
dam along the canal. The first American steam shovels started
work on the Culebra Cut with 2,600 men. Both the Atlantic and
Pacific portions of the canal were dredged. In 1906 a decision
was made to switch to a lock canal, to reduce the volume of
material. It required the creation of a lake from the Chagres
River to supply water to the canal.
Figure 14.3: Map of the Panama Canal, and the elevations required.14
In the first three months of 1907 the total workforce was

up to 39,000. Up to 4,535,000 kilograms of dynamite were used
every year.
464
Figure 14.4: Work on the Culebra Cut in 1907 excavated 512,500

meters3 of material. Over 100 steam shovels were used, each
excavated 920 cubic meters in an eight-hour day.15
Altogether over 268 million meters3 of material were

excavated to form the canal and relocated to various areas
throughout Panama. Some created a 500 acre town along the
Pacific Ocean called Balboa.
465
Figure 14.5: The Panama Canal locks under construction, in 1910.

The partly-constructed middle wall is shown; the large pipe near the
bottom is the culvert used to carry water into the locks. Three sets of
locks were built, Gatun, Pedro Miguel and Miraflores.16
Figure 14.6: Map of the Gatun Dam17 over the Chagres River created
the Gatun Lake 2.4 kilometers (1.5 miles) in length and nearly 0.8
kilometers (0.5 mile) wide at its base.
466
Closing
The canal was 80 kilometers (50 miles) long and featured 17
artificial lakes, several channels, and 3 sets of locks which raised
the water level a total of 42.4 meters (139 feet), where each one
took about 8 minutes to fill.
The project workforce fought through the humid weather,
2,667 millimeters (105 inches) of annual rain, mountains, and
malaria/yellow fever epidemics in order to finish the canal in
1914, when the first ship sailed through the canal.
In total, 5,609 workmen died during the U.S. construction
effort and the overall death toll was a total of 27,500 in both the
French and American efforts from disease (particularly malaria
and yellow fever) and landslides.18 It was one of the largest and
most arduous construction projects undertaken and cost $380
million to complete.19
Between the World Wars and Business Management

Between the two wars new disciplines were added to the
study of business management notably, human relationships
(between employer and employee), an evolution in marketing
(and its importance) and industrial human relations school of
management arose to deal with the practical problems caused by
Taylorism and the mindless repetition of tasks.
Project engineers developed or adapted coordination
techniques that gave the managers control over the progress of
the project but did not attempt to dictate to specialized experts
how to do their work. MIT professor Erwin Schell articulated
this philosophy, telling students in the 1930s, “The work of the
engineers in most departments is not sufficiently routinized
to allow process control. The most satisfactory policy appears
to be that of employing competent men and then holding them
[responsible] for results in terms of the erection schedule,
leaving ways and means largely to their individual discretion.”
Dr. Walter A. Shewart in 1924 developed the first Control
Chart, which launched statistical process control and quality
improvement.
Ronald A. Fisher (British geneticist and statistician) in 1925
developed Statistical Methods for Research Workers
467
In 1924 Mary Parker Follett analyzed the dynamic aspects

of the individual in relationship to others. Follett advocated
the principle of integration, “power sharing.” Her ideas on
negotiation, power, and employee participation were influential
in the development of organizational studies.
Hoover Dam Project (1931-1935)
Background
The driving factors behind the project were first to meet
the growth of Las Vegas and Southern California, as these
metropolitan centers required the availability of cheap water
and power. The second was to control the Colorado River and the
cycles of drought and flood in the southwest which slowed the
growth of the agricultural industry. By providing hydroelectric
power the dam would self-fund the project.
Initiating
In 1927 the Swing-Johnson bill detailing the Hoover Dam project
was passed in Congress. The Federal Government had federal
land above Black Canyon where Hoover Dam could be built. Up
to 1925 the Department of Reclamation had completed such proj-
ects, but in 1925 the government began contracting these proj-
ects out. The bill started the procurement process. Around the
country construction companies looked over the request for pro-
posals. However, many found the plan very ambitious, the land-
scape was unforgiving, and there were questions as to whether
the technology was advanced enough for a dam of that size.20
Planning
The bid process started in March of 1931, as five bids were made
for the project. It was obvious that the scope of the project was
beyond a single company and even the largest construction
companies didn’t have the workforce or the capital for such a
project. The company had to provide a $5 million bond.
The leading dam builder in the U.S. was Frank T. Crowe, a
Department of Reclamation superintendent, who built a string of
dams in Idaho, Wyoming, and Washington. He wanted to work
468
on the Hoover Dam but under the new rules could not, so he left
Reclamation Services and joined one of the smaller companies
(Morrison-Knudson Co.) bidding on the dam. He realized only
a consortium of construction companies in a joint venture had
any chance of winning the bid. Crowe persuaded Morrison to
go down this path and he got six smaller companies to band
together to form Six Companies Incorporated. Morrison made
Crowe construction superintendent.
The consortium brought different expertise to the project.
For example, the Wattis Brothers in railroads, the JF Shea
Company in tunnel building, the Pacific Bridge Company in
bridges, MacDonald and Kahn in large buildings, and Henry
Kaiser and Warren Bechtel in road building.
Crowe had much experience on the project’s cost estimate
and knew what went into the calculations the government used.
He had aided developing a cost estimate for a dam on the lower
Colorado River back in 1919 and also with the preliminary
design in 1924. Not surprisingly, under Crowe’s leadership,
the conglomerate won the contract in 1931. The Six Companies
bid of $48.9 million for the project was only $24,000 above the
Department of Reclamation estimate and $10 million lower than
the next lowest bid. This was the largest single contract the U.S.
Government had ever awarded.21
The project was organized with bonuses or penalties
attached to the delivery schedule depending on whether the
project was early or late. This provided an incentive to begin a
very aggressive pace of construction.
The plan required an infrastructure to be completed first
prior to the building of the dam. First, as the dam site was
very remote, roads and railroad lines had to be constructed, for
transporting materials, equipment and the workforce. Second,
the Colorado River had to be diverted by building tunnels
through the canyon walls.
Executing
The project was run out of the Six Companies office in Las
Vegas, and this kick started the hiring of a large workforce.
With the Great Depression there was a massive migration of the
469
unemployed to Las Vegas in the hopes of landing jobs with the

project, bringing their families and their possessions.
The first deliverables were the railroads and highways to
the site. A substantial camp was required to house and feed
the workforce. At site a number of plants were built including
gravel-screening, concrete-mixing, air compressor, a plate
steel fabricating. Without these the project would have been a
logistical nightmare.
The next activity was to divert the Colorado River away from
the project’s foundation site, a monumental task, and this was
seasonally dependent as it could be best done during the low-
water season in the winter of 1932-33. Work on the 4 tunnels
began in May 1931 at a rapid pace of 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week, two on each side, were cut through the bedrock walls of
the canyon. At 1,200 meters (4,000 feet) long, 18 meters (56 feet)
in diameter, and lined with three feet of concrete, these were the
second largest tunnels ever built.
The tunnel work was brutal as inside temperatures reached
60°C (140°F) coupled with carbon monoxide from gasoline-
powered trucks, dust and fumes from the blasting. Up to 4
workers died from heat exhaustion each week. Crowe had
conceived of many new inventions during his dam projects and
came up with a “drilling jumbo,” 30 x 60 kilogram (144 pound)
rock drills attached to four platforms and welded to a truck. The
machine bored into the rock face at the same time to speed up
drilling and this decreased the overall tunnel construction time
a full year ahead of schedule. Work shifted to the temporary
earthen cofferdams which were constructed above and below the
dam to divert the river into the tunnels. Tunnels and earthen
dams were completed by April 1932.
During the project, living conditions were made more
difficult as workers poured in looking for work, more than 5,000
in all. Many brought their wives and children and lived in tents.
With poor sanitation, little access to clean water, 48°C (119°F)
heat and no utilities, this tent shantytown community known
as Ragtown was a living hell. Six Companies realized that this
community could be there for years so Boulder City, Nevada was
completed in 1932. Barracks, housing, post office, library, stores,
470
newspaper and general public welfare with churches and schools

for the children were built, and electricity was brought in.
With the river diverted the site was de-watered and dredged
down to bedrock so excavation of the dam and power plant could
begin. This activity was critical and the base had to be built
correctly otherwise there would be potential problems with the
dam. Workers used power shovels to dig through to the bedrock
12 meters (40 feet) below ground. In the process they shifted
more than a half-million meters3 of river bottom mud. Along
the canyon walls high-scalers were suspended and laboriously
chipped and shaved away with jackhammers to create a smooth
surface so that the dam’s walls would adhere. This was a high
risk job and the scalers earned $5.60 a day, the highest paid
workers on the project.
“The problem was to set up the right sequence of jobs so the
workers wouldn’t kill each other off.”
—Frank Crowe, manager of the project
In just two years of winning the contract, June 6, 1933, con-

crete was poured for the dam’s base 18 months ahead of sched-
ule. The concrete was poured into rows and columns of 230 indi-
vidual blocks in the base so it could dry properly and not crack.
Two concrete plants on site produced the concrete which was
transported on railcars in large four and eight cubic yard buck-
ets. Crowe had also developed an overhead cable-way system of
delivering concrete and moving equipment that was far more
advanced than any other system of its time. At its peak 1 bucket
was delivered about every 78 seconds.
471
Figure 14.7: The dam was poured in rows and columns of blocks.
Enough concrete was used to pave a highway 5 meters (16 feet) wide
from New York to San Francisco.22
The cooling of the concrete was a major problem. It would

have taken over one hundred years to cool and properly cure
the massive amount of concrete. The chemical heat generated
by concrete setting was dissipated by imbedding over 937
kilometers (582 miles) of one-inch steel pipe that circulated
ice water. The pipe was placed in the interconnecting concrete
blocks as it was poured. An ammonia refrigeration plant that
cooled the water was capable of creating a gigantic 450 kilogram
(1,000 pound) ice block every day. Once the concrete cooled
the pipes were then filled with concrete to create a true solid
structure, one piece.
The next activity was to build the four 120 meters (395 feet)
intake towers and the powerhouse’s two 70 meter (230 feet) high
wings that were designed to house the 17 generating units. The
two outer tunnels would be outlets for huge spillways. The inner
tunnels would convey water from intake towers in the reservoir
to the power plant.
472
Altogether the Hoover Dam required 3.1 million meters3 (11

million feet3) of concrete and another million for the power plant,
intake towers and other support structures. For the consortium
to recover its initial $5 million investment, it gave high prices for
the work done in the diversion phase and lower prices for subse-
quent work. For this to work, Frank Crowe placed the concrete
for only $0.90 per foot, a price that was 35% lower than the price
of the second lowest bidder, because of the delivery system.
In terms of the project work force in April 1931 there were
about 800 men working around the dam site at a common
wage of 50¢ per hour. By June, there were 2,000 workers. By
November 1932, the project payroll hit $500,000 a month, and at
the height of the project in June 1934, 5,128 men were working 7
days a week.
Figure 14.8: the construction continued into the night so the project
would stay ahead of schedule and avoid penalties.23
Closing
The project saw the development of new techniques and
devices which helped bring the project in two years ahead of
schedule. For example, the motor-driven jumbo drill, the on-site
fabrication of steel pipe, and the overhead cable-way system of
delivering concrete. Other developments saw the use of hard-
473
hats (cloth hats dipped into tar and hardened into a tough shell),
and dishpan reflectors to light the diversion tunnels.
In 1935 the project was completed at a cost of $165 million.
The diversionary tunnels were closed so Lake Mead could be
filled. In 21 months, 5,000 men had built a structure with a 183
meter (600 foot) base and 213 meter (700 foot) walls. The of-
ficial death toll of 112 seems low considering the conditions and
the number of men (5,000) who worked on the dam from 1931
through 1935. In 1936 power generation began more than two
years ahead of schedule and turbines continued to be added until
1961, when the last one went on line.
Empire State Building Project (1929-1931)
Background
The twenties saw world record fever grip New York in topping
the skyline. The investors (sponsors) for the Empire State
Building project wanted to beat the Chrysler Building project
which was slightly ahead in its height. It had the advantage of
breaking ground earlier on September 19, 1928.
Completion
Height Sky Scrapper
Date
1930 283 meters (927 feet) Bank of Manhattan Building
1930 319 meters (1,047 feet) Chrysler Building
1931 443 meters (1453 feet) Empire State Building
Table 14.1: World Record Fever Led To A Race Between

Corporations.
Initiating
A contract was put out for companies to compete on. The general
contractors Starrett brothers & Eken Inc., known as the premier
“skyline builders” of the 1920s, made a bold bid to win the job.
They were sure that their competitors had assured the client
they had plenty of equipment and anything needed they would
rent. The Starrett Brothers approached this differently and told
474
the client they had no useful construction equipment for this

project. They explained the size and scope of the project required
the design and purchase of new, custom pieces and equipment.
These could be sold after and credited back to the project, and
this would cost less than renting second hand equipment. The
client agreed and they won the contract.
Planning
The schedule on this project was aggressive and planned to be
completed in only eighteen months. The contractor planned the
project down to the minutest details. In running the project in
a crowded Manhattan there were some major risks. First, there
was the possibility of serious accidents with the movement and
placement of heavy equipment to the project site. Second, the
busy city traffic for 12 hours a day meant materials to the site
could be severely delayed. This also interrupted the movement of
people.
The contractor determined that first, with the immense
project scope many different trades people (up to 60) would be
required, and second that most supplies had to be ordered to
specification in plants as close to a finished state as possible, to
minimize preparatory work needed at the site. The suppliers had
to be dependable, provide quality work, and meet the timetable.
The project schedule was developed such that the phases
overlapped. For this Gantt charts were used for the first time to
complete this type of analysis.
The project was the first (commercial) to employ fast-track
construction, where construction started before the designs
were fully completed to reduce delays and manage costs. The
structural engineer made a schematic design from the architect’s
sketches to include the materials (reinforced concrete or steel),
types of floors and column spacing.
Executing
Even before the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel was demolished, the
site’s previous occupant began excavation of the new building in
January 1930, as two shifts of 300 workers dug through the rock
to create the foundation, in a 24 hour operation.
475
For the project huge volumes of construction materials were

going to be needed: 60,000 tons of steel, 56,000 meters3 (184,000
feet3) of concrete, 10 million bricks, 61,000 meters3 (201,000
feet3) of Indiana limestone and granite (for the exterior), 3,000
meters2 (10,000 feet2) of marble for external use, 6,500 windows,
and 100,000 meters2 (300,000 feet2) of marble for the elevator
lobbies and corridors. The site was not that big and the logistics
required solutions to receive, handle and distribute all these
materials quickly and efficiently.
In March 1930 the modular assembly of the steel building
frame skeleton began. In this type of construction whole sections
were pre-fabricated off-site, transported to site and then lifted
into position. By pre-marking the steel posts and beams with
their place in the framework and the number of the derrick to
hoist them, workers could quickly swing the girders into place
and rivet them. These could not be raised more than 30 stories
at a time, so several large derricks were used to pass the girders
up to the higher floors.
The 60,000 tons of steel were manufactured in Pittsburgh
forging plants and transported immediately to New York via
train, barge and truck, as quickly as 80 hours after coming out
of the furnace and off the roller. Many of the steel beams arrived
too hot to touch with bare hands.
Figure 14.9: One of the 500 Mohawk iron workers that built the steel
frame.
476
With limited site space concrete was mixed in the basement,

and then hoisted to the floors in carts. A small gauge railroad,
built on each floor during construction, allowed the carts to be
pushed around to where needed. Each cart held eight times more
than a wheelbarrow and could be moved with far less effort.
Bricks were another problem and a common practice was
to close off the street, deliver and dump piles in the street for
bricklayers to wheelbarrow away. This was backbreaking and
inefficient. Instead, the bricks were dumped down a chute into
a hopper in the basement. The bricks were released from the
hopper and dropped into carts, which were then hoisted up to
the appropriate floor.
The building became a vertical construction site where men
and materials were raised by hoists to upper floors, under con-
struction. Construction was going on simultaneously inside and
outside of the building. As electricians and plumbers installed
the infrastructure inside while other trades followed in a finely
tuned assembly line fashion.
The contractor organized a timekeeping system were daily
work completed was checked in unit costs. A just-in-time
delivery system of materials could then be synchronized to
meet the day’s production for the workforce. These were factory
efficiencies introduced into the project.
In the summer and fall of 1930, the contractor organized 5
high-class lunch counters on site (on the 3rd, 9th, 24th, 47th, and
64th floors) operated at lower-than-average prices. Construction
sites to date generally operated without food service with a few
having a basic cafeteria.
The food was described as “substantial” and “economical.”
The lunch counters reduced the number of elevator trips by the
workforce. In a project were “time is money” this translated into
major cash. The contractor recorded that “not more than 15% of
the men left the building during the lunch hour,” That gave the
workforce more time for lunch and a more productive work force.
At its peak the project workforce reached 3,500 men, who
recorded seven million man-hours including Sundays and
holidays. The workers were paid an excellent rate of pay ($15 a
day) for the day.
477
As a result, the project build rate was more than a storey a

day, incomparable with any other project at the time. This can
be attributed to a number of initiatives like effective project
logistics, a skilled and organized workforce, and a level of detail
that was unknown in its time. Six months after the structural
columns were set the steel frame reached the 86th floor.
The speed of construction was amazing as the project was
completed ahead of schedule (an astonishing 11 months, in
March 1931) and under half of the projected $50 million budget,
($25 million about $400 million today).
Closing
The 86 storey, 58,000 ton building, located on Fifth Avenue in
New York, ranks among the world’s most beautiful and was
promoted as the eighth wonder of the world.24 It was the world's
tallest building for more than 40 years (until the World Trade
Center twin towers were erected in 1972).
Figure 14.10: "The Empire State Building, New York, New York."
January 8, 1934.25 The 443 meters (1,453 feet) 103 storey structure
(including the mooring mast) was built in just over 13 months.
478
Titanic Project (1907-1912)

The project objective was to build 3 Olympic Class Ships. It
saw an increase in the size of liners (tonnage) by over 40%.
The project had a solid business case with a short payback of
a few years of operation for each ship. As a result, the latest
in emerging technologies was incorporated in particular to
provide safety features. For example, from the 16 bulkheads,
to the double skin, electric transition doors for the crew,
complete electrification of the ship, a 50 phone exchange, and an
automatic fog warning system.
Race to South Pole Project (1910-1912)

This was a race between the British and Norwegian expedition
teams who were pushing men and technology to the limits
in the most hostile environment on the planet. Careful time
management was critical for both teams as they had provisioned
their route back to ensure that they had enough supplies and
provisions as they ran out. Getting back to these buried food
caches was a question of survival.
Golden Gate Bridge Project (1933-1937)

In the 20th Century public works projects emerged to address
growth in unemployment like the Hoover Dam, Golden Gate
Bridge in the U.S., Autobahns in Germany, Ocean liners (Queen
Mary and Queen Elizabeth) in the UK, and the Maginot Line in
France.
Background
The principal business driver behind the project was growth
as San Francisco was the largest American city still served
primarily by ferry boats. Without a permanent link with
communities around the bay, the city’s growth rate was limited.
479
Initiating
The risks in building a bridge across the bay were very high,
with strong, swirling tides and currents, with water 102 meters
(335 feet) in depth at the center of the channel, and almost
constant winds of 60 mph (97 kilometer per hour). Experts
thought that very high winds and blinding fogs would prevent
construction and operation of a bridge across the 2,042 meters
(6,700 feet) strait.
Planning
The design incorporated a thin and flexible roadway for lower
wind resistance and the ability to readily flex. The suspension
cables helped transmit these forces to the bridge towers to
reduce the overall stress. The steel for the towers and cables was
shipped from the East Coast via the Panama Canal.
Executing
The construction was fraught with risk, gusts that could blow
off workers. The employer Joseph Straw made a concerted effort
to introduce safety. For example, hard hats (made of leather)
and safety lines were mandatory, where employees could get
fired for not wearing these. Sunscreen and sunglasses were also
provided. The employer also installed a safety net for $137,000
which saved 19 men (known as half way to hell club) and became
a morale booster for the project.
Closing
The project was finished by April 1937, $1.3 million under
budget and six months ahead of schedule, and had the
longest suspension span in the world. It was built in a hostile
environment perceived very difficult to bridge. The bridge was
innovative in making safety a high priority.
480
Figure 14.11: Golden Gate Bridge, under construction, ca. 1935.26
Key Players
“Genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration. Accordingly a
genius is often merely a talented person who has done all of his
or her homework.”
—Thomas Edison
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915)

Taylor scientifically analyzed each part of an individual’s work
and trained to perform it in a certain way with co-operation of
managers and workers. Although somewhat discredited today he
had a significant influence in his time.
Henry Gantt (1861–1919)

He studied management techniques specifically in the field of
naval ship construction during the First World War and created
the Gantt chart around 1917. These are a system of outlining the
sequence and duration of all tasks in a process, reflected by task
bars and milestone markers. This in essence was “Time Control.”
481
“For the past hundred years Gantt charts have remained little
unchanged and are a proven analytical tool for projects was
used on major infrastructure projects including the Hoover Dam
(1931-36) and Interstate highway system (1956).”
—Source: http://www.ganttchart.com/Evolution.html
Frank T. Crowe (1882–1946)

A construction engineer he left the United States Bureau of
Reclamation after a 20 year career to join the construction firm
of Morrison-Knudsen. He was instrumental in creating the Six
Companies consortium. He pioneered critical practices in the
construction of large dams notably a pneumatic delivery system
for transporting and delivering concrete with overhead cables.
Known as “Hurry up Crowe” he pushed his project workforce to
the limits and just within safety margins. He instilled competi-
tion between the various work crews. He built some of the larg-
est dams in the U.S. the Hoover, Shasta and 18 other dams.
Chapter Wrap-up
Conclusions
The success of the Panama Canal project should be contrasted
with the disastrous French project. The success of the Suez
Canal project created an over confidence for the French. The U.S.
project was considered very strategic so it was highly organized,
had strong sponsorship, and was driven by a very determined
team. The project ran into its challenges but the lessons from the
previous French project were taken on board and followed.
The period saw an improved accuracy in project estimation
with the Empire State Building and the Hoover Dam projects.
Both projects came 11 and 24 months ahead of schedule because
of a concerted effort, and focus on aggressively approaching the
schedule. Both projects incorporated many technological innova-
tions which improved productivity, based on concepts derived
from the Industrial Revolution.
The period saw a greater regard for safety conditions on
projects, the use of safety nets, harnesses, and hard hats on
482
the Golden Gate Bridge and Hoover Dam projects. These were
all firsts and widely copied by other projects. They served to
improve the project stakeholder and workforce relationship and
confidence in the project.
The success of these four mega projects highlighted the U.S.
prowess at delivering projects in a century which the U.S. domi-
nated as a superpower. In particular, the Empire State Building
project delivered substantially under budget and ahead of time.
Key Lessons
◦◦ The U.S. approach to the Panama Canal project was
innovative and had flexible change control. Based on
the disastrous French project earlier, changes were
made to the project that improved the governance,
and provided greater accountability. Changes were
also made to the project approach, and this included
the creation of locks to reduce the hazardous
landslides.
◦◦ When the U.S. took over the project it was completed
at enormous cost because the political will was there
as the strategic importance of a canal drove the
business justification. A canal would effectively allow
for a reduction in a two coast navy.
◦◦ The U.S. project recognized that the sheer scale of the
project required substantial project planning, and the
coordination to site of vast quantities of equipment,
materials, and supplies. This was done to avoid
repeating the mistakes of the French effort which
had relied on the workforce to fill the gaps when the
equipment failed to deliver.
◦◦ One of the contributing success factors to the Hoover
Dam project was having a consortium with a diversity
of expertise and specialization in different areas of
the project. The right skills were then available as
required.
483
◦◦ The project was a public works project at a critical

time with unemployment rising.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project was initiated
in 1929 before the Wall Street crash. When it was
completed in 1930 the Great Depression reduced
demand for office space and the building become
known as the “empty state building.” It stood
practically empty until the 1950s. The business
justification was superseded by changes in the
environment and the marketplace.
◦◦ The scope of the Panama Canal project was reduced
considerably by creating Lake Gatun. A pragmatic
approach was taken to getting the canal finished and
operational.
◦◦ The scope of the Hoover Dam project precluded a
single company to take it on and could only be done
with a consortium of companies offering expertise
across the scope of the project. The project scope
included a massive supply chain of materials which
required the creation of roads and rail to the site.
◦◦ The scope of the Empire State Building was increased
by constructing in a crowded Manhattan, with 12
hour traffic, and a limited construction site space
to store materials and perform pre-assembly. This
required the careful planning of the supply of
materials in a “just-in-time” delivery which proved to
be highly innovative for its time.
• Time Management
◦◦ The Panama Canal project with the U.S. effort took
a very pragmatic approach to minimize the work
effort and keep the project on schedule. For example,
the creation of Lake Gatun minimized the digging
effort, as did the availability of equipment like steam
shovels in quantity.
◦◦ The Hoover Dam project had to stay on schedule
otherwise the consortium had to pay a $3,000 per
day penalty for every day the project went over. This
484
made it imperative for everything to go according

to plan. The project came in two years ahead of
schedule.
◦◦ The most time dependent activity was the diversion
of the Colorado River during the low-water season.
Its success allowed rapid progress with the schedule.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project took the approach
of fast-tracking and overlapping phases. For example,
construction started before the designs were fully
completed, and the foundation was created before the
site was cleared. This approach was necessary as the
Empire State Building project got into a race with
the Chrysler Building project. However, as the Great
Depression set in the market economics changed.
Once the Empire State Building project was complete
the original business case was not met as the building
struggled to find tenants, and this continued for 20
years.
• Cost Management
◦◦ The accuracy of the Panama Canal project budget
estimation process was improved with the U.S. effort
based on the failure of the French effort. The budget
was also refocused on essential project areas like
the equipment and railroad which were massively
upgraded with heavy duty rails, all new rolling stock,
steam engines and shovels.
◦◦ With the Hoover Dam project Frank Crowe
understood the estimation process for a dam very well
and was able to come in with very accurate estimates.
These came very close to the Bureau of Reclamation
estimates.
◦◦ Crowe priced work in the diversion phase at a higher
rate, and subsequent work lower knowing that
the introduction of innovative equipment (like a
drilling jumbo and an overhead cable way system of
delivering concrete) and techniques would impact the
cost of the former. To further lower transportation
costs a number of plants were built close by including
485
gravel-screening, concrete-mixing, air compressor,

and a plate steel fabricating plant.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project was based on a 50
year history of steel structure project experience, and
this was critical to making parametric estimates.
◦◦ The project aggressively managed the project budget
and proactively reduced costs by introducing just-in-
time logistics, and innovations like the mini railroads
on each floor, and the ability to hoists carts between
floors. Costs were also reduced by prefabricating off
site.
◦◦ The schedule of delivery from suppliers for steel and
brick had to stay on track otherwise it would throw
the time line off.
◦◦ In this period there was a shift in the concerns for
the welfare of the project workforce. For example,
in the Panama Canal project the U.S. effort starting
in 1904 was very much focused on the welfare of
the workforce. Significant investments were made
and engineers built the infrastructure to complete
the canal including worker housing and extensive
sanitation and mosquito-control programs. In
contrast the death toll was 20% of the total of
workmen that died in the French effort.
◦◦ Similarly, with the Hoover Dam project a large
transitory workforce had to be taken care of,
including transportation to site, living quarters, and
kitchens. As workers poured in looking for work, a
tent shantytown known as Ragtown grew up. This
had to be resolved by providing basic essentials and
utilities, that saw the development of Boulder City.
◦◦ Frank Crowe created a competitive environment were
teams vied to pour the most concrete blocks.
◦◦ The consortium was made up of companies that
specialized in specific areas of the project.
486
◦◦ Increased concern for the project workforce saw the

Empire State Building project set up high-class lunch
counters on site operated at lower-than-average
prices. This coupled with an excellent rate of pay
created a more satisfied and productive workforce
that translated into cash were time was money.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project also brought in
500 Mohawk “Iron Workers” who had a tradition of
iron working since the mid-1880s. This important
experience in assembling complex iron structures
very much helped complete one of the most critical
and very dangerous activities in the project.
Assembling girders at the required heights had with
it safety issues and was not sought after work.
◦◦ In all of these projects the increased concern for
the welfare and safety of the project workforce
improved the relationship of the project workforce,
management, and stakeholders.
◦◦ For the Panama Canal project the complexity in
canals, dams, locks, and lakes required close control
and supervision of the surveying.
◦◦ With the Hoover Dam project certain aspects had
to have quality control like the laying of concrete.
Without strict controls over the volumes poured
(blocks were used), and the use of refrigeration pipes,
the concrete would not cool and properly cure.
◦◦ For the Empire State Building project the rate
of construction of one floor per day required due
diligence in the assembly of the structure. The key
dependencies were with the suppliers supplying
quality materials, and the sequencing of these for the
correct order of assembly.
◦◦ Suppliers were selected on their dependability and
quality of work.
487
◦◦ The Panama Canal project required a substantial

budget which required substantial project support
that could only be realized through effective commu-
nication management. The project was promoted as
that of significant national importance.
◦◦ The high national visibility of the Hoover Dam, as a
public works project, forced the project into taking a
proactive approach in improving the living conditions
of the large transitory workforce to maintain a
positive image with the public.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project entered a
skyscraper race with the Chrysler building which
drew massive press attention and public interest.
Both these had to be carefully managed.
• Risk Management
◦◦ The Panama Canal project was fraught with many
risks the most serious were the immediate dangers
to the workforce, through tropical diseases and poor
working and living conditions.
◦◦ These contributed significantly to the French project
failure. As a result, the U.S. project made these risks
a priority.
◦◦ The project reduced the threat of hazardous
landslides through the creation of locks.
◦◦ For the project financial risks were accepted more
because the project was of national interest and
security.
◦◦ The Golden Gate project had a greater regard for
safety with a safety net fitted at the employer’s
expense that was a great morale booster for the
project workforce.
◦◦ It was mandatory for the project workforce to wear
hard hats made of leather and use safety lines.
Workers were fired for not wearing these.
◦◦ The bridge’s design also mitigated the risk of very
high winds.
488
◦◦ For the Hoover Dam project the Six Companies

consortium minimized the financial risk ($5 million
bond) by bringing companies together with proven
expertise and experience in different areas of the
project. Other areas of risk to the project related
to health and safety issues particularly with the
tunneling, and the high wall scalers.
◦◦ In a setting familiar to today the Empire State
Building project carried several project risks caused
by the limitations of the site, its size and location.
First, the movement and placement of heavy equip-
ment in a crowded Manhattan was a potential for se-
rious accidents. Second, materials to the site could be
delayed by the busy city traffic, 12 hours a day. Also
the materials could interrupt the movement of people.
◦◦ The solution to these was a modular assembly
construction. Sections of the steel building frame
were pre-fabricated off-site, transported to the site
and then lifted into position. This approach became a
best practice on future inner city skyscraper projects.
◦◦ A lack of diligence with this discipline was a
significant factor for the problems encountered in the
French attempt of the Panama Canal project. The
effort had been hampered by poor management which
failed to prevent suppliers and contractors exploiting
the project. This wastage contributed to bringing the
project to a halt.
◦◦ The successful completion of the Panama project,
encouraged contractor driven mega-projects like
the Hoover Dam, Empire State Building. Both were
very tightly managed through contracts and very
successful in finishing ahead of time and on budget.
◦◦ The contract for the Hoover Dam was driven by
bonuses and penalties attached to the delivery. This
refocused the approach dramatically and increased
the pace of the project.
489
◦◦ The Empire State Building project required a high

degree of cooperation between the suppliers who were
shipping steel beams, and bricks to site. This was a
just-in-time project were there was very little room to
move on site so everything had to be well coordinated.
Educators
• Discuss in the context of today’s projects the factors
behind the improved accuracy in project estimation with
the Empire State Building and the Hoover Dam projects.
• Discuss the risks taken with the Empire State Building
and the Hoover Dam projects.
• Discuss the difference in the French and U.S. approaches
to the Panama Canal project. Where adequate lessons
taken from the Panama Rail Road project?
490
Chapter 15
Brief Summary of Projects
T
his chapter provides an opportunity to step back and look
at all the projects holistically and sequentially. It further
reinforces why these projects were selected in the first
place.
Comparing Projects
The following list outlines the projects according to different
characteristics:
• Most technical challenges, and the greatest degree of
difficulty encountered
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project created a perfectly level
base, erected a burial chamber out of 40 to 60
ton granite blocks, and created a ramp up to one
kilometer (half a mile) in length.
◦◦ The Transatlantic Cable project payed out a 4,000
kilometers (2,500 miles) cable at sea, in all weathers,
to a depth of up to four kilometers (2.5 miles). It
also recovered the broken cable, several times, by
grappling the ocean floor.
◦◦ The Hoover Dam project diverted the very large
Colorado River through tunnels, and created an
extremely large structure (183 meters (600 feet) base
and 213 meters (700 feet) walls).
491
◦◦ For the Florence Cathedral project Brunelleschi

created a dome with a diameter of 42 meters (130
feet) that even today would be extremely difficult to
recreate.
• Most logistical challenges in getting construction
materials and equipment to site
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project had an
extensive 30,000 kilometers (18,000 miles) long
project supply chain around the Cape Horn.
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project transported 40 to 60 ton
granite blocks 800 kilometers (500 miles).
◦◦ The Panama Canal project had areas that were very
difficult to get to and required upgrading the Panama
railway for this access.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project operated within
a small site (city block), in a downtown locale with
continuous traffic in a 12 hour window.
• Most complex equipment required
◦◦ The Colosseum project required vast quantities of
essential equipment including captsans, windlasses,
gins, cranes, as well as sleds and wagons.
◦◦ The Panama Canal project required much heavy
equipment (locomotives, steam shovels, cranes) to
literally shift mountains of excavated materials.
◦◦ The Hoover Dam project required complex cooling
(800 kilometers (500 miles) of piping), drilling, and
concrete delivery systems.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project had innovations
like the mini railroads on each floor, and the ability to
hoist materials in carts to each floor.
• Most pressing time requirements
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project had to be finished within
the life time of the pharaoh (20 years).
◦◦ The Colosseum project was a gift to the people and
was under time pressure to be completed by four
492
15 - Brief Summary of Projects
contractors working under a penalty and reward

contract.
◦◦ Both Columbus and Magellan pushed their crews to
their limits, as they faced a threat of a mutiny if land
was not found within an expected time frame.
◦◦ The Crystal Palace project had to be built in 8.5
months in time for the Great Exhibition of 1851. The
world exhibition could not have proceeded without it.
◦◦ The London Sewer project solved a pressing public
health issue where outbreaks of cholera had caused a
significant death toll.
• Most stringent quality requirements
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project required substantially
perfect leveling of the base otherwise being off one
inch would mean yards at the top.
◦◦ The Parthenon project built slightly curving long
steps that made the line look perfectly straight
horizontally, a phenomenon known as line sag.
◦◦ The Pantheon project required a carefully calculated
and variant mix of concrete to hold up a dome with a
large 8 meters (25 feet) opening.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project took the
innovative but pragmatic approach of building first
and improving later.
• Most human resource challenges to the project workforce
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project struggled in
finding enough workers because the gold rush had
created a severe labor shortage in California.
◦◦ The Panama Canal project had to face the threat of
tropical diseases and the health of the workforce. The
French project had appalling losses of life.
◦◦ The Golden Gate Bridge project was built at heights
which required far greater safety for the workforce.
• Largest project workforce engaged in a single project
493
◦◦ The Great Wall of China project at some points had a

recruitment of 1.8 million workers.
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project had a peak project
workforce of 36,000.
◦◦ The Giza Pyramid project had a peak project
workforce of up to 40,000.
• Most influential project that changed the course or
direction of history
◦◦ The Colosseum project helped stabilize the Roman
Empire.
◦◦ The Columbus project influenced and accelerated
exploration broadly which developed into a European
race.
◦◦ The London Sewer project was the first that was
initiated because of statistical evidence.
◦◦ The St Peter’s Basilica project was a catalyst for the
Protestant Reformation movement.
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project was one of several
root causes of the French revolution.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project had a
significant impact on opening up the American West
of the continent to settlement.
• Most influential, refined, and exquisite final deliverable
◦◦ The Parthenon project was widely copied through
history.
◦◦ The Pantheon project created a completely unique
structure that was not emulated until 1,300 years
later.
◦◦ The Hagia Sophia project influenced Mosques for
thousands of years.
◦◦ The Chartres Cathedral project was probably the
greatest project in the medieval building boom.
◦◦ The Florence Duomo project is still one of the most
unique standing domes.
494
• Most important in generating and influencing other

projects
◦◦ The First Railway project (Stockton Darlington
Railway) initiated a land transportation revolution,
1825-1860, where within 35 years projects had gone
from laying 20 to 2,000 miles of track.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project showed that
industrial megaprojects could be delivered under time
and budget. It also greatly influenced the building of
national railroads in Canada and Russia.
◦◦ The Crystal Palace project, with its ground
breaking glass and iron structure, was a clear sign
of the future, and what could be created with these
materials. This was a prototype of sky-scrapers of the
20th Century.
◦◦ Both the Hoover Dam and Empire State Building
projects incorporated over-lapping phases and
building ahead of schedule. This led to the projects
coming in significantly under time and budget.
• Most expensive
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project (cost $6 billion) was a
contributing factor of the French Revolution.
◦◦ The St Peter’s Basilica project (cost $48,000,000) was
a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation.
◦◦ For the Panama Canal projects, French and U.S., the
combined costs of both efforts was $600 million.
◦◦ The Hagia Sophia cost 20,000 pounds of gold, an
immense fortune.
• Best organized project workforce
◦◦ The Colosseum was built by four contractors who
engaged workers from the Roman guild system.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project put inordinate
amounts of time into planning all the activities and
the assignment of the project workforce to them.
495
◦◦ The Hoover Dam project was under the consortium

of Six Companies Incorporated to provide a well
rounded workforce in skill sets for the project.
• Most under time and budget (efficient project delivery)
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project was completed
eight years ahead of schedule.
◦◦ The Hoover Dam project was completed more than
two years ahead of schedule.
◦◦ The Empire State Building project was completed
eleven months ahead of schedule.
• Most persistent projects
◦◦ The Gothic cathedral projects typically spanned
decades, some centuries, but they were still
completed.
◦◦ The Transatlantic Cable project required five
separate attempts and Atlantic crossings to get a
fully working cable link.
• Most risk encountered by a project
◦◦ In terms of threats to human life several projects like
the Panama Canal (French attempt), Hoover Dam,
and Magellan’s, all experienced the loss of life.
◦◦ In financial terms, Magellan’s project, the Gothic
cathedral projects, the Transatlantic Cable project,
Transcontinental Railroad project, and Panama
Canal project.
• Most ahead of its time a project pushing technology and
people to limits
◦◦ Magellan’s project in terms of the limited capability
of ships, maps, and navigational equipment.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project, considered
the greatest American technological feat of the 19th
Century.
◦◦ The Transatlantic Cable project in terms of the
depths (4,400 meters, 3 miles) that the cable was laid
496
at, and the number of major setbacks that occurred

through the project.
• Most inhospitable environment for a project
◦◦ The Panama Canal project situated in one of the most
difficult and inhospitable climates on Earth with a
tropical terrain of mountains and hostile jungles.
◦◦ The Transcontinental Railroad project was built
across an extensive mountain range and desert.
• Most out of control project
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project lacked change control
and the principal stakeholder did not pay attention to
the budget.
◦◦ The Panama Canal project (French attempt) had
out of control procurement, and very poorly planned
execution.
• Most over the top project, lavish and beyond functional
requirements.
◦◦ The St Peter’s Basilica project was built to be the
center of Christianity.
◦◦ The Palace of Versailles project had to over shadow
any palace already built.
• Similarities in projects
◦◦ The Crystal Palace project delivered 24-foot bays or
modules, and repeated this 77 times. The approach
very similar to the repeating arches of the Colosseum
project. This allowed relatively unskilled workers to
construct quickly, and with a high level of quality
control.
The Influence and Evolution of Selected Project

There is little question that projects influence other projects.
For example, ancient masterpieces like the Giza Pyramid, and
the Parthenon had huge impacts on projects and architecture.
The Giza Pyramid was stupendous in every aspect and was a
catalyst for millennia to follow. The Parthenon project showed it
497
was possible to deliver esthetically pleasing buildings within the

scope of a modest project budget, great beauty at an affordable
price. The Colosseum project delivered a beautiful building but
also a practical one of great importance in daily Roman life. It
symbolized the practicalities of Roman project management
using the arch (process – repeated through the design), concrete
with a veneer of marble (technology), and the system of guilds
(people). The Pantheon project was influenced by the Parthenon
project. It then influenced many other significant projects
because it created a dome that was inspirational. It was copied
by the Emperor Justinian with the Hagia Sophia project, and by
Brunelleschi with the Florence Duomo project.
Magellan was influenced by Columbus and both their proj-
ects were influenced by Marco Polo and other explorers like
Alexander, or Leif Ericsson. Hardwick Hall’s use of glass influ-
enced the Palace of Versailles project which was a catastrophe
for France but remained widely copied across Europe.
With the Industrial Revolution new business models had to
arise to support projects like the Iron Bridge project or the First
Railway project which integrated many pieces of technology
together (steam engines, rails, wheel systems, locomotives,
bridges). The Transcontinental Railroad project, influenced by
these, showed how a mega industrial project could be delivered
under schedule and under budget. This influenced other national
railways worldwide but also other mega projects like the
Panama Canal, Hoover Dam, and the Empire State Building.
Great Project Managers through History

Through the book a number of key individuals are named as
project leads that assumed or took on the role of the project
manager.
Project Managers and Sponsors

The following examines the characteristics or traits of these
individuals.
• Hemienu (architect of Giza and overseer of work), as a
royal prince his duty was to deliver a project that was
going to take him the rest of his life. For this he required
498
great patience and a depth of understanding of the

project. He fully understood the totality of the project, the
logistics and technical challenges in the building of the
ramps, and the complexity of king’s burial chamber at
the core of the structure.
• Pericles was a victorious Greek general who took the
initiative to restore the destroyed parts of the City of
Athens. He provided a vision to rebuild the city and
created a public works project, the Parthenon, which not
only created employment but reinvigorated a peace time
economy.
• Although the Colosseum architect is unknown the
Roman architect Vitruvius provides a vivid description
of traits required by an architect in his book (Treatise on
Architecture). This included understanding the complex
procurement process that was an integral part of the
Colosseum project.
• Hagia Sophia was built by the Emperor Justinian to put
the Eastern Roman Empire on the map for which he
employed two architects (Anthemius and Isidorus). Both
were academics the equivalent of university professors
with strong theoretical backgrounds.
• Villard de Honnecourt provided insights on a wide
range of topics that were part of a tool kit of a cathedral
master-builder. Together with the chapter the master-
builder ran the Gothic cathedral project. Some of the
required traits to be successful with these projects
included sheer persistence, faith in completion, and
resoluteness to cause. It was common to have a turnover
of master-builders through the life time of the project.
• The Renaissance Architect, as exemplified by
Brunelleschi, pushed materials technology to its limits,
and recreated classic architecture 1300 years old. He
had to continuously manage different and difficult
stakeholders, in this challenging project.
• The Renaissance explorer, as exemplified by Columbus or
Magellan, had to bide their time and skillfully manipu-
late their projects to get the all important sponsorship
499
so to get the projects started. They personally sacrificed

everything to get the projects off the ground.
• The Victorian (Industrial age) engineer, as exemplified
by Darby or Stephenson, took great personal financial
risks. They had to personally underwrite their projects
to prove the value of the new technologies that they were
developing.
• Edward Pease and Cyrus Field were two Victorian
sponsors, directors, and entrepreneurs who played a
significant role not just in the funding but organizing
the momentum behind their projects, the First
Railway (Stockton and Darlington Railway), and the
Transatlantic Cable.
• Theodore Judah, as the Chief Engineer at the
Central Pacific Railroad, was very persistent in the
Transcontinental Railroad project. He was successful in
lobbying the Federal Government to pass the act, and
then finding sponsors for the project.
• Frank Crowe had a very good understanding of the
estimation process for a dam and was able to very
accurately come up with estimates for the Hoover Dam.
He also developed mechanical devices and technologies
that when used accelerated certain activities in the
project. As a result, the project came in two years ahead
of its schedule.
Advent of Knowledge Areas

The book presents the idea that the nine PMBoK® Guide
Knowledge Areas (KAs) were instictively known and followed
in the earliest ancient projects. The notion that these concepts
were not practiced until modern times does not hold up well. For
example, ancient projects, exemplified by the Giza Pyramid, or
Colosseum, were pushing the limits of:
• The heights of the structures and their stability.
• The available technologies.
• The engineering complexity of the design.
500
• The volume of materials, provisions, tools, and

equipment in the supply chain.
• The size of the vast project workforce that had to be
organized.
Across history architects or master-builders required a

comprehensive grasp of the totality of their projects, including
all the major activities and the nine Knowledge Areas.
Integration Management
This was all important to ancient projects. The concept of a
written project plan was probably not developed until the 20th
Century although through history the master-builder would
have been very familiar with the totality of the project. Many
projects (Giza Pyramid and Colosseum) were targeting a project
end date, often for political reasons. So, the concept of a simple
schedule and plan was required and this ties back to the military
where operations were carefully planned and finalized to a
closure through a confrontation or battle. As one of the oldest
professions the military has always dealt with major scope,
complexity, and a great number of dependencies. The aspects of
the military that have come into project management include:
• Planning.
• Execution.
• Scheduling.
• Logistics1 and supplies.
• Organizing vast numbers of people.
The other aspect of Integration Management, change control,

manifests itself through most of the significant historical
projects. In construction projects it was in the hands of the
overseer of works to monitor the project and control the budget.
Project overruns, and overspends were as problematic then as
they are today.
501
Although cost-benefit analysis is perceived to be new to

projects, throughout history projects either had to have a
sponsor with the political will to see it through to completion, or
at least to see a return on investment. For example, the Gothic
cathedrals drew in pilgrims into the towns and boosted the
economy; the Parthenon project costs were high but the business
justification was based on stimulating the local economy and
incorporating local small businesses and unemployed workers;
the voyages of exploration were based on attaining a significant
financial return based on valuable cargo (spices) brought back.
Through the centuries, projects have become somewhat more
complex with the introduction of new materials, or techniques,
and therefore have required more discipline, with time sensitive
impacts becoming more predominant and more costly. The
ability to manage these became essential through the 19th
Century with the Industrial Revolution.
Projects using new and untested technologies, like the rail-
roads, tended to justify the investment through similar business
models like the canal. Although a transportation infrastructure
this proved to be a completely inadequate model in execution.
Railroads could meet both freight and passenger commerce.
To successfully deliver a project in a short time frame
required a project charter, or clear project objective. For
example, the Hagia Sophia project took 5 years. Even with
a project stakeholder who had access to wealth and power, a
business justification for the project was important no matter
how self serving the project was to the stakeholder. This project
was an important symbol of power of the emerging Eastern
Roman Empire. In addition, a project plan may not have been
formally defined but many of the ancient projects followed a
simple work breakdown structure (see Appendix E).
Scope Management
From the earliest ancient projects scope management had to
have been understood and used then as it is used today, with
little difference. The notion that scope management was a
concept not understood until the 17th Century does not hold up
very well. There is strong evidence that the master-builders
on ancient projects (the Giza Pyramid, the Colosseum, and the
502
Gothic cathedrals) had a comprehensive and intuitive grasp

of the totality of their projects, the entire building operation,
including all the major activities, and the concept of a work
breakdown structure. From the earliest ancient projects, scope
had to have been understood and practiced with very little
difference from how we practice it today. Otherwise projects
would have been very difficult to manage and deliver in an
acceptable time frame. The main exceptions to this were projects
which were clearly out of control, like the Palace of Versailles
where scope changed continuously and dramatically when whole
buildings were torn down right after construction.
Ancient projects followed a simple work breakdown structure
where the sequence of activities was well understood by the
master-builder. It would not be that different to the example
in Appendix A for the Colosseum. This would have been very
intuitive to the master-builder.
Ancient projects did not just consist of assembly and erec-
tion activities. A great deal of planning had to take place and
this is not very visible when examining many ancient projects
with sketchy details. For example, the ancient projects had to go
through extensive planning with preparation and logistics, but
little evidence survives today to show this.
Preparation requires the physical planning of the site
including surveys, site selection, layout, and initial steps in
the planning process. Surveying skills were required, and the
Egyptians had established these due to the annual flooding
(inundations) of the Nile. For the Romans, land surveying was
fundamental to the creation of the vast empire and the building
of the road network and cities.
The Egyptians tracked building projects and created a very
formulated approach to new projects which listed complicated
and ever-present ritualistic formulas of tasks. Conceptually,
this was similar to a work breakdown structure. They had
several centuries of experience with pyramids before the Giza
Pyramid project. Similarly, by the time of the Colosseum project,
the erection sequence of construction and listed tasks was
well known for projects of this type but not size. In parallel,
the Romans built up and refined estimation techniques.
For example, the Colosseum project was a scale up of other
503
amphitheaters like Capua (built under Augustus 63 BCE to 14),

Pompey (built in 14), and Verona (built in 30).
The complexity of many of these ancient construction
projects provides strong evidence that through a good
understanding of the scope, a work breakdown structure was
followed through the project phases by the Egyptians at Giza,
the Romans with the Colosseum, and the master-builders of the
Gothic cathedral projects.
The long term nature of the Gothic cathedral projects
required paying special attention to Scope Management. Villard
de Honnecourt kept a model book which included his plans
for defining project scope. The unparalleled commitment and
the extremely lengthy time frames measured in decades and
centuries required a very well defined scope of what was being
built as it was passed through the ever-changing project team.
They could not afford too many deviations from the initial
design. Also, with the lengthy time spans, there was no single
master-builder responsible for a project from beginning to end,
so new masters had to be introduced in each new generation.
They had to adapt their plans to what was already constructed.
At Chartres, up to nine different master-builders were employed
through the term of the 75-year project.
Sometimes the scope of the project changed dramatically and
unexpectedly. Like for Columbus, when one of the ships was lost
which made the return much more difficult. Men were forced
into making a landed settlement which they were not prepared
for and this ultimately failed. Although the initial scope seemed
straightforward, the inaccuracies in the estimates could have
been catastrophic had the American Continent been further
away.
The Palace of Versailles project is a good example were
scope continuously changed and was not effectively managed.
The main problem was the project was under the control of the
principal stakeholder, the King of France. The schedule and
costs were impacted dramatically but not much could be done
about the King’s changing whims.
504
Time Management
This Knowledge Area was important with ancient projects
as time costs money, the same then as it does today. Ancient
projects did not have inordinate amounts of time, and the
time pressures were very similar in keeping to a deadline. For
example, the Roman Colosseum was built by the government
as a political gesture to highlight its generosity back to the
people. Similarly, the Parthenon project was a high-profile
project and had to be completed in a single lifetime as it was a
showcase building built for political purposes, and to put Athens
on the map as the center of an empire. Any delays would have
been problematic. The time pressures were very similar to
today. Even the Gothic cathedral projects were under the same
constraints, as longer project cycles cost more, and only when
completed would attract the pilgrims who would bring prosperity
to the town.
The leaders on ancient project required a comprehensive
grasp of the complete project for all the major activities
undertaken by the various guilds, and all their ramifying
complexities. With this understanding they could plan and
coordinate the sequence of activities most efficiently and with
the least disruption. A good example was the quarrying of the
granite for Giza Pyramid and scheduling its delivery.
For many projects the scheduling of activities in a
substantial building was significant. The order and sequence of
activities in the erection had to be worked out and adhered to.
Constraints like the physical limitations of the area of site, and
the amount of available space dictated the access to materials
to work with. For example, with the Gothic cathedral projects
only small hand carts could be used to move materials around
in the nave as the width between the bases of the pillars was as
narrow as 1.2 meters (4 feet), insufficient for large loads or even
the ordinary traffic of a building.2 These tight confines typical to
Gothic cathedrals demanded a highly orchestrated schedule of
activities which had to be carefully thought through.
Gothic cathedral projects are a very good example of long-
range planning and scheduling. The final project output built
with painstaking precision and incredibly complex detail, in
some cases took over a hundred years to complete.
505
Logistics is a military term for the procurement, distribution,

maintenance, and replacement of materials and personnel. In
a building project, equipment, materials, and subassemblies
required shipment to a construction site. The timing of these
activities needed to be carefully planned and coordinated
through the project phases.3
The voyages of exploration were wholly dependent on
carrying adequate supplies of food and water on board the
vessels. As a result, time overrode both the cost and scope
on these projects in importance. The challenge for Columbus
and Magellan was that the scope (the destination point) was
fixed. The only flexibility they had was turning back before
the objective was reached. As a result, they had to accurately
measure distance so that they could balance the time and the
remaining supplies to survive the return leg of the journey.
In many projects the completion of the project would dra-
matically enhance the sponsors as in the case of the Roman
Emperors responsible for the Colosseum, Pantheon, and Hagia
Sophia. The main exceptions were projects that were clearly out
of control, like the Palace of Versailles and St Peter’s Basilica.
The Gothic cathedral projects had extremely long time-lines, but
this was planned for and the completed building segments were
used as soon as they were built. In the industrial age delivering
a project in a specific time frame became more critical as tech-
nology was rapidly evolving and any advantages would be lost to
a competitor. For example, with the First Railway project there
was much competition to be the first with a working railway.
The Transcontinental Railroad project approach was to build
first and improve later, as the railroad became operational. This
approach established a revenue flow early and kept the project
on schedule by focusing on the critical path activities. Quite
remarkably the project was completed eight years ahead of
schedule.
Cost Management
This was significant for ancient projects as they relied on
investments and loans as do projects today. The workforce
required some sort of a regular payment. Finding additional
funds for failing projects was no different to today.
506
There were some exceptions, projects that were almost

oblivious to cost overruns. For example, St. Peter’s Basilica
(Rome) was to be the largest church ever built and the center of
the Catholic Church unrivaled and unparalleled by anything.
It also marked the return of the Papacy to Rome from its exile
in Avignon. It was ostentatious in every detail and cost a
staggering $48,000,000. It was also a likely contributing factor to
the Protestant Reformation movement.
The challenge of funding mega projects is exemplified by
the Transatlantic Cable and Transcontinental Railroad. Both
incorporated new technologies and materials, and required
vast funding, that could only be supported by a share issue,
government bonds, and land grants. Little different to Julius
Caesar’s initiative for funding massive construction projects
when he took back from money changers the power to coin
money, and then created a plentiful supply of money.
Ancient projects were very much aware of the impact of costs
on projects and effectively managed costs by employing different
strategies. For example, the Romans exploited local materials
(tufa, bricks, stones), and then used varying types of concrete
for the core, over which a veneer of marble was attached. This
approach provided a low cost way of constructing buildings of
high quality. Other examples were the incorporation of labor
saving devices (cranes), or material saving techniques like the
arch.
The Greeks and Romans evolved their systems for keeping
accounts which had developed from simple systems used for
keeping family records, and making public transactions visible.
They used these in managing project budgets.
The Romans refined their estimation techniques with
experience. For example, with the Colosseum a level of
parametric estimating was available aggregated from previous
amphitheater projects (like Capua, Pompey, and Verona).
Generally, the projects that successfully managed and
controlled their budgets had very effective governance structures
in place. For example, this was very much a part of the Gothic
cathedral projects with chapters and overseers of works.
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The development of machines (based on the six simple

machines defined by the Renaissance scientists as the lever,
wheel and axel, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw)
reduced the unskilled labor required as did the introduction of
animal muscle power. For example, the Egyptians used wooden
sleds on tracks, cranes and lifting devices; the Greeks used
yardarms of sailing vessels with pulleys and ropes; the Romans
used a great wheel, with a treadmill within, as a hoisting device
that could raise loads of considerable weight. The use of beasts of
burden evolved with the Gothic cathedral projects which used ox
and cart to transport stone from quarry to site. In Laon (in the
Picardy region of France) ox were considered so important they
were immortalized as sculptures in the towers.
By the 20th Century projects like the Empire State Building
aggressively managed the project budget and pro-actively re-
duced costs by introducing just-in-time logistics, and innovative
new technologies like the mini railroads and carts on each floor,
and the ability to hoist these carts to each floor.
Quality Management
Ancient projects relied on quality management as do projects
today. The theories of Quality Management may not have been
developed and formulized until the mid 20th Century, but neither
had mathematics and engineering until the 18th Century when
calculating stresses and loads on structures was introduced
into projects. All ancient projects took a non-empirical approach
and as a result far greater attention had to be paid during the
project to the integrity of the construction and structure. This
did not restrict ancient projects in their approach to quality
management. There is much evidence that many elements of
today’s quality management existed in ancient projects. The first
great project the Giza Pyramid required incredible accuracy over
distance where if the base was off by one inch and not perfectly
level it would mean being off by yards at the top, a lesson they
learned from the Bent Pyramid. Quality planning had to be at
the forefront to avoid costly mistakes later on.
“…the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate
and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the
entire 13.1-acre (5.3 hectares) base. This is comparable to the
accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser
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leveling. That’s astounding. With their rudimentary tools, the

pyramid builders of ancient Egypt were about as accurate as we
are today with 20th Century technology!”
—Craig B. Smith, P.E., Ph.D., Chief Operating Officer, Daniel,
Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall (DMJM)
In the ancient building projects quality management played

a significant role in a number of ways driven primarily by safety.
First, the quality of materials selected for a project had to pass
an inspection. For example, knots and shakes in the timber, and
fissures or pockets of weakness in stone, could cause premature
disintegration. Stone was only supplied from local quarries after
it had been inspected and passed by the master-builder. Second,
the precision with which the building materials were assembled.
For example, the Greeks used a number of tools like red clay,
in copying stone pieces, the Pantograph in recording the shape
of an object, and ingenious axial dowels to align the massive
column drums of the Parthenon. Near perfect alignment was
not just there for esthetic purposes but safety as well. Accuracy
of structural judgment was integral were thrust had to be
balanced by opposing thrust. With the ancient projects, master-
builders lacked the scientific testing of materials and structures.
They had to rely on experience and judgment, to determine the
level of precision and deviation that was acceptable. They also
employed scale models as well as precise assessment of failures
in buildings that had collapsed or were in imminent danger of
collapse.4 They also had to track the state of the construction.
In these projects quality was incorporated so there was quality
control at a local level.
In ancient building projects inspections led to the estab-
lishment of building codes in urban civilizations like ancient
Egypt, that were adopted by the Romans and later in medieval
London that assured good practices in building construction.
Poor construction practices were penalized with legal sanctions.5
Building codes forced projects into securing permits before con-
struction and submitting plans to building inspectors.
There are certain quality patterns that thread through
the historical projects of time. The Gothic cathedral projects
had much in common with the Parthenon project in the
refinement, sophistication, and meeting of specifications of the
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project so precisely. Likewise the guilds, at the heart of ancient

construction projects, (Colosseum, Pantheon, Gothic cathedrals)
used their governance frameworks to pass the responsibility of
tight quality control with the skilled local workforce to maintain
at an individual level. Guilds, going as far back as the Roman
era, prided themselves on their work and a system of inspections
was predominant through these projects. This was also due to
the non-empirical approach to projects were great attention had
to be paid to the integrity of the construction and structure.
Similarly, mason’s marks were another important technique
used in stone construction projects, like the Gothic cathedrals,
with requirements for accurately cut and closely fitting blocks.
These helped the stone-setters more accurately set individually
“hewn to shape” blocks into place without errors. The marks also
introduced “traceability” so if a block didn’t pass an inspection
these would identify the stonecutter so he could be held
accountable for its craftsmanship.6
Guilds existed as far back as the Roman era. During the
Middle Ages, these guilds took the responsibility for quality
control, policed the quality of their member’s workmanship, and
localized this responsibility. There is also evidence that guilds in
the 15th Century started to standardize.
“In 1459 … master stonecutters from such cities as Strasbourg,
Vienna and Salzburg met at Regensburg to standardize the stat-
utes of their lodges. Among other things, they declared that no
one (“no workman, no master, no journeyman”) should reveal to
the outside world the art of taking an elevation from a plan.”7
—On the Correct Building of Pinnacles, Wenzel Roriczer
Roriczer (15th Century Architect)
Prior to the extensive division of labor and the mechaniza-

tion resulting from the Industrial Revolution, it was possible for
workers to control the quality of their own products. Working
conditions then were more conducive to professional pride.
The Japanese used religious ritual as a form of quality
control in their production of steel specifically for its renowned
Samurai swords that required the highest of quality standards.
The Japanese reliance on this sword was high as they had
abandoned firearms for 300 years in favor of these weapons.8
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The Industrial Revolution incorporated quality improve-

ments that saw the cleanup of industrial processes and the re-
moval of impurities which led to new materials like glass and
Bessemer steel. These were catalysts in significant projects like
the Crystal Palace project, and the Transcontinental Railroad
project. Industrial technologies like the steam engine, and rail-
roads required high tolerances to be effective and efficient.
Human Resource Management

The management of people and the ability to organize a vast
workforce has been fundamental to all projects ancient and
modern. Practically all the early projects took a note from the
military and were organized on these lines and the system of
guilds. The Romans who ran a long line of projects, very much
exemplify this, and the guilds (defined by Theodosian Code) were
fundamental to the success of their projects.
The concept of the guilds continued through into the Middle
Ages and underpinned the Gothic cathedral projects. The guilds
incorporated quality management, maintained a highly skilled
workforce, with a system of apprenticeships, and took care of its
members providing meals and lodgings. In ancient projects the
numbers involved and the size of the project workforce (in excess
of 10,000) far outweighed numbers in modern projects.
Even though slaves existed in ancient times, there were
21 million in the Roman Empire.9 These were mainly owned
by private families and individuals, like household servants or
concubines. Major projects tended to contract companies and
local workers (citizens) rather than slave labor.
The Giza Pyramid was constructed over a 20 year period
entirely by humans and with no animal muscle power. There
is little evidence that in the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty hordes
of ill fed slaves existed. The precision of the building and
the efficiency needed to erect it swiftly required the skills of
craftsmen.10 The workforce was organized according to the
skills of the workers. Two hundred years of experience with
Pyramid projects helped identify workforce size, and the mix of
trades, and skills needed. The skilled workforce was made up of
surveyors, stonecutters, mason, mortar makers, and carpenters.
They worked all year around either on site or in the quarries.
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They benefited from a system of privileges. The unskilled

workforce (mostly farmers) worked between July and November
when their fields were flooded. At Giza they were organized into
gangs of 25 men to transport the stone from quarries to site with
a soldier for a foreman.11 Typically, 10 men would pull one block.
Early projects that required the management of large work
forces (human resources) relied on a quasi-military structure.
Lessons from the military were used, very evidently with the
Romans, whose society was based on an empire driven by
military conquest and creating the necessary infrastructure to
keep possession of these conquered lands.
In the large scale government projects of the Roman era the
main construction force was made up of contractors, who used
the guilds for their workforce. Aside from these, the employment
of soldiers from the Legion and some government slaves (Servi
Caesaris were the most renowned12) were used. Roman projects
came under the authority of the architect who individually had
broad training and experience which incorporated the skills of
an engineer, artist and craftsman.
With the Gothic cathedrals (the 12th to 14th Century) the
more ambitious the project, the further it extended plans into
the future and grew more distant from the planners themselves.
The commitment and time frames involved are unparalleled
in the field of human endeavors. Thus, it required tremendous
assurances in the ability to train and pass off the project to the
next generation.
The 15th/16th centuries voyages of exploration provided a
contrast in styles of management. Magellan took a more heavy
handed approach with his crew than did Columbus. Where
Columbus avoided mutiny and conflict, Magellan dealt with
mutiny heavy handily. They both had serious challenges in get-
ting the funding in place for their voyages, and had to bide their
time. They also had to carefully manage their fickle sponsors
and stakeholders. Finally, acquiring a team was very difficult
because of the perceived dangers, even with a reward system in
place. Columbus carefully planned the trip to East Asia right
down to determining the different skills needed to complete the
project. The sponsors swapped out Magellan’s Portuguese crew
out for Spaniards a few weeks before the voyage.
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Through the Industrial Revolutions a more empathetic view

of the worker gradually emerged, as an expanding workforce of
thousands needed to be taken care of in terms of housing, health,
welfare, and education.
Many of the mega projects of the 19th and 20th Century were
contractually structured to incorporate penalty and reward
systems. The Transcontinental Railroad project offered parcels
of land next to the completed railroad as an incentive for the
railroad companies to race each other. The Hoover Dam project
was based on a penalty ($3,000 for every day late) and reward
system.
With the Hoover Dam project a large transitory workforce
had to be taken care of, and this included transportation to site,
living quarters, and kitchens. As workers poured in looking for
work a tent shantytown known as Ragtown grew up which was
eventually resolved through the development of Boulder City.
In the Empire State Building the project’s general
contractors improved the work-site environment when they
recognized the importance of feeding the workforce. Restaurants
were located on the 3rd, 9th, 24th, 47th, and 64th floors of the
construction site. These were high-class lunch counters that
operated at lower-than-average prices, and discouraged the
project workforce from leaving the site. A more satisfied
workforce translated into a greater return were time is money.
The increased concern for the welfare (and safety conditions)
of the project workforce continued into the 20th Century and
became more evident with all four U.S. mega-projects. For
example, with the Golden Gate project, the bridge had a safety
net fitted at the employer’s expense which saved the lives of 19
workers, known as the “half way to hell club”. This improved the
relationship between the project workforce, management, and
stakeholders.
Communications Management
Ancient projects with an extremely large workforce (in excess
of 10,000) needed very effective communications management
across the project site facilities like quarries, workshops,
and construction sites, as well as the offices, and the workers
villages.
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There are several different types of communications13 to

consider in ancient projects, from oral/verbal (face to face), to
written (clay tablets, and parchment), to visual (Heliographs)
or audio (horns) signals. Alarm signals were available and
used when there was danger, an emergency, or a threat. With
the scale of the projects there were so many different things
going on around the construction site, it was important that
all communications were necessary (not a distraction), clear,
succinct, accurate, and addressed to the relevant persons.
The first recorded use of the Heliograph, an instrument for
instantaneous optical communication of over 50 kilometers, was
in 490 BCE when the ancient Greeks used polished shields to
signal in battle. The Romans used mirrors to send messages
over considerable distances. For example, the Roman army used
these along established lines, like Hadrian’s Wall where the forts
were located a mile apart.
The hierarchy of the trade guilds and master-builder
provided a logical way to organize, and hence communicate
along. Project communication tended to be face to face (verbal),
primarily to keep knowledge “in house” within the guilds. Other
forms communicated ideas and design through templates and
models to all project areas. This reduced the need for lots of
documentation.
In Europe during the Dark Age the network of churches grew
and communications improved through initiatives undertaken
by the church. The medieval communities grew into towns and
started to trade with each other. The Gothic cathedral projects
became the centre pieces to this revitalization.
With certain projects like the Gothic cathedrals
communications management was also critical with sponsors,
as these projects were dependent on their generosity and
continuous donations. Several stakeholders existed first, the
town and the inhabitants, second, various benefactors, the
bishop and chapter. The chapter (at the centre of the project)
had to determine other stakeholders, plan communications, set
expectations, distribute information, report performance, and
manage these stakeholders.
Communication changed in the 15th Century with
Guttenberg’s moveable typeface printing press which made
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books widely available in Europe. This provided subject

expertise at the finger tips of the project manager. It was now a
lot easier and less expensive to have a book over an expert. With
time printing would have a massive impact on communications.
Columbus had great difficulty in acquiring a crew for his
voyage of discovery, as there was a fear and reluctance on the
part of potential crew-members to go. Columbus used one of his
key stakeholders, a well respected and local Captain Pinzon,
to communicate and convince a potential crew that the journey
could be completed safely. For many it required a leap of faith.
Once underway, the crew was very trepid and lacked confidence
in the voyage. It was important that Columbus was consistent in
his communication about reaching his objective and resolute to
the cause of completing it. He could not waver, and had to build
up confidence along the journey. He also had to show a lot of
empathy to the crew.
In contrast Magellan’s voyage around the world fell into
trouble because he mishandled his communications. Magellan
had incomplete maps of the Americas, and an inaccurate
estimate of the circumference of the earth. He claimed he knew
where the passage to the Spice Islands was. He didn’t and lied
to his sponsor (the King of Spain) and to the crew. During the
voyage Magellan didn’t communicate constantly or effectively,
which was vital in heading off mutinies. When the crew realized
that Magellan had lied he had a full scale mutiny on his hands
which he only overcame with the use of brute force. In addition,
by drawing and quartering the mutineers, Magellan was sending
a very powerful message to the rest of his team relative to his
limited tolerance.
With the Palace of Versailles, King Louis XIV’s hands-on role
in the project disrupted the hierarchy of communications flow,
so it went through him. There was also a major communications
breakdown between the King and his Treasurer Colbert.
In the Industrial Revolution projects grew in scale and scope
and were seldom concentrated in one location. For example, the
Transcontinental Railroad project had teams working across the
continent and project materials were sourced even further out
and shipped around South America. So, the communication ef-
forts had to quickly adopt new methods and technologies like the
515
telegraph. This project along with other mega projects, like the
Transatlantic Cable, required constant and proactive commu-
nications to keep them in the public eye so investors and public
funding could be found. In both cases many reputable engineers
testified that the projects were impracticable and unfeasible.
With the London Sewer project the publication of statistics
pointed to the root causes of the problem. This provided a
catalyst in getting interest in the project and was the first step
in getting public acceptance.
Risk Management
This is probably the oldest of the PMBoK® Guide knowledge
areas. The earliest form of risk management was through insur-
ance, primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent
loss. It was also a financial tool to reduce risk by sharing finan-
cial burdens with others, compensated for taking the added risk.
This was seen as early as 1800 BCE in its use to help finance
ship voyages. The craft guilds in ancient Greece and Rome pro-
vided life insurance by trade. During the Middle Ages, as trade
expanded, new forms of insurance were used to protect farmers
and traders from droughts, floods, and other disasters.
In ancient construction projects risk management played a
big part in how the projects were delivered as the primary con-
cern was safety. Injuries and deaths were very bad for project
morale. The risks most commonly identified where environmen-
tal (weather, earthquakes), defective (poor quality) materials,
and the degree of stresses in the structures. All these had to be
considered throughout the project.
A simple examination of ancient projects shows that over
time civilizations took on projects with increasing amounts of
risk, knowingly. For example, Romans over time quickly pushed
concrete technology in their buildings to the limit with extensive
arches, barrel vaults, and domes as seen in the Colosseum and
Pantheon. Project architects became more comfortable with the
increased level of risk and more effective in managing it. Ancient
projects used a trial and error approach to construction based on
experimental construction knowledge that was not theoretical.
For example, the Egyptians built with limited mathematics, as
516
they didn’t know the structural strength of stone and based their
know-how on trial and error.
The ancient construction projects (Giza Pyramid, Parthenon,
Colosseum, Gothic cathedrals) were fraught with danger
primarily because of the handling of vast quantities of materials,
across quarries, workshops, and the construction sites. These
projects had extensive supply chains with many dangers and
risks to the project workforce because of the quantities of
materials being moved with relatively simple equipment (sleds,
ropes, levers). Huge blocks had to be pulled out of quarries and
up ramps into position in a confined space. Some areas were
very dangerous like the king’s burial chamber which had to be
reinforced with massive 30 ton marble blocks to prevent collapse.
There were also risks in the large size of the workforce, some
projects were in excess of 10,000, and the dangerous aspects of
the construction work across the project site. Typically, many
unskilled laborers were employed with differing experience
in projects and needed to be apprised of the dangers. Roman
architect Vitruvius laid out in his treatise specific dangers;
everything from erecting roof vaulting, to digging wells
(working in confined spaces), to working with large construction
equipment, and to the dangers of fire to certain materials.14
Overtime these types of best practices were incorporated into the
building codes of municipalities like Rome and medieval London
that assured good practices in building construction.15
With the Hagia Sophia project some environmental risks
were mitigated when the workforce discovered and applied ce-
ment with earthquake-resistant properties withstanding earth-
quakes of up to 7.5 on the Richter scale. They made the building
light and flexible using crushed brick in the mortar to give it a
high tensile strength. The thick mortar joints, thicker than the
bricks made the material more like reinforced concrete. They
added windows into the dome to avoid cracking. They created
shock absorbers by using lead at the foundation of the major col-
umns carrying the dome. In addition, to secure the building from
fire no wood was used in its construction except for the doors.
In terms of managing risks some specific examples involve
the Gothic cathedral projects. Medieval towns were gripped in a
world record fever as they tried to create the tallest and largest
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cathedrals. As the choir rose to a stunning height and the ratio

of glass to stone increased in the walls there was an increased
risk of collapse. The workforce had to be sensitive in every step
to the degrees of stress as they worked within stringent struc-
tural tolerances. To mitigate the risk new support techniques
developed like flying buttresses that transferred the weight off
the walls. Pressures were directed and channeled to areas where
they could most effectively and securely be received and ground-
ed. The cathedrals were stone skeletons and never before had
such accuracy of structural judgment been required in building.
In addition, this period also saw the greatest advances in scaf-
folding practices.16 The sites were hazardous and at risk were
the lives of the project team as well as having to redo years of
work. A cautious and safe approach was required daily.
Risk management is based on a repository of knowledge.
That is to say the more knowledge that is available the better
the ability to solve problems in hand. The term ‘risk’ came into
the English language through the Spanish or Portuguese, where
it was used to refer to sailing into uncharted waters. The me-
dieval voyages of exploration carried tremendous risks for the
crews. For example, the risk of the unknown (not having maps),
or carrying enough food and water to survive the journey, or ex-
treme weather conditions. Columbus estimated the distance to
Japan about 2,000 miles which fortuitously was somewhat simi-
lar to the distance to the Americas.
The voyages of exploration further evolved risk management
in projects as the scale of and breadth of potential risks
increased, and the need to identify and respond to these during
planning. During these voyages, risks had to be monitored
and controlled, so it is little wonder that modern insurance
companies like Lloyds of London were started to protect
shipping, a century later, as the volume of shipping expanded.
Columbus and Magellan were both proactive with risk
management in identifying the potential risks ahead of time and
then preparing themselves to deal with them, like losing ships
in a storm or a mutiny. They mitigated risks by taking a fleet of
ships, a sound contingency. Columbus lost one ship and returned
with two, Magellan lost four out of five ships. Columbus also
took provisions for one year which gave him a lot more flexibility.
In contrast, Magellan took risk management to another level.
518
By sailing south along the coast of South America in search of a

passage to the Pacific he was forced to explore every inlet, river,
and bay. The risks included those of the unknown, foul weather
and storms, running out of provisions, leading to starvation
and mutiny. The unknown included incomplete maps of the
Americas, and an inaccurate estimate of the circumference of
the earth. When a full blown mutiny broke he heavy handedly
quelled it. Magellan was impetuous and when he finally cleared
the passage to the Pacific he pushed ahead without taking
adequate provisions on board which proved disastrous. Only 18
of the 246 crew returned safely back to Portugal on board two of
the five ships that initially set out. Magellan never returned as
he was killed in a skirmish in the Philippines.
With the Taj Mahal the architects were aware of environ-
mental risks and took into consideration the possibility of an
earthquake. The four Minarets at the four corners of the plinth
were deliberately erected leaning outwards so that in the un-
likely event of an earthquake in case of collapse they would fall
away from the tomb. This is a good example of how architects
identified a risk and responded to it with a mitigation strategy.
The Industrial Revolution saw the development of new
technologies and materials. This led to far more ambitious and
risky projects that increased in scale. It also led to the evolution
of limited liability that shielded the board of a company. Risk
management had to further mature in all areas with the need to
protect the workforce and stakeholders from these risks.
In 1906 the San Francisco earthquake challenged
perceptions about risk and its management, and raised many
questions about coverage, exclusions, causes of loss, loss
adjusting, and loss wordings. Many losses could have been
avoided such as the fires that arose. The insurance industry
embraced these changes leading to more sophisticated building
and risk modeling practices used to protect against the effects
of a severe earthquake. Today buildings in San Francisco are
largely earthquake resistant.
Procurement Management
This PMBoK® Guide knowledge area has been constantly critical
from ancient to more recent projects. It is not surprising with
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the volume of materials required for some of the projects. For

example, both the Giza Pyramid and the Colosseum projects
were located within or close to quarries as materials had to be
procured for the project. The Giza Pyramid project was central to
an extensive supply chain of many millions of tons of materials.
Ancient projects leaders were very much aware of the impact of
costs on projects and effectively managed these by employing
different strategies. The Colosseum project was delivered by four
contractors.17 Their contracts detailed specifications of the work,
requirements for guarantees, and the methods of payment and
time. The Governments of the Roman Empire mandated that
public works projects went through a procurement process.
As to construction contracts the Romans employed highly
sophisticated oral and written contracts that “were explicit
in assigning detailed responsibilities” for all parts of the job,
including labor and materials—and there were even arbitration
clauses...they possessed the same basic function of our modern
contractors.18
Procurement played an active part through the Middle Ages
with the great cathedral projects (Chartres, Florence, St Peters).
The scale of procurement with these projects was so great that
they could secure very advantageous arrangements for obtaining
materials, like timber and marble. These could be then supplied
to other builders in the public or private sectors. Evidence of
procurement exists in the Fabric Rolls19, early public records
that give accounts of expenditure on buildings like the English
Cathedrals. These list the nature and quantities of materials
purchased, who supplied them, what was paid for them, as well
as the names and wages assigned to each category, and the
grade of the workforce.
Another aspect of procurement is not just products but
services. The discovery of gold in California in 1840 created
immense labor shortages in the whole region. When the first
Transcontinental Railroad project got underway finding a
workforce on the West Coast became extremely difficult.
The U.S. Government initiated a scheme with the Chinese
Government were a substantial Chinese workforce of 10,000 was
procured for the project. This became a substantial logistical
problem for the project alongside the shipment of materials and
equipment. Some materials like the rails were shipped from the
520
East Coast via Panama or around Cape Horn at the tip of South
America a distance of 30,000 kilometers (18,000 miles).
The Industrial Revolution influenced procurement
management with its specialist requirements for materials
to be prefabricated for assembly. The mega projects required
massive supply chains. The most notable and influential was the
Transcontinental Railroad project which extended around Cape
Horn. In addition, the use of materials, like iron and glass, on
such an unprecedented scale required massive share issues to
fund these projects. For example, the Crystal Palace Company
was formed and issued shares that raised £1.3 million. Similarly,
the first Transcontinental Railroad project was funded with
U.S. Government issued bonds as was the First Transatlantic
Telegraph Cable project.
A lack of diligence with procurement management had been
a significant factor for problems encountered with the French
attempt of the Panama Canal project. Into the 20th Century
procurement management was critical to mega projects, like the
Hoover Dam and the Empire State Building, that required an
increase in contractors and their specializations.
The contract for the Hoover Dam was tendered out and the
eventual winner was a consortium of six companies. The use
of contractors in all mega projects required good planning and
maturity of procurement processes to execute the project. The
contract was driven by bonuses and penalties, attached to the
delivery. This refocused the approach dramatically increasing
the pace of the project.
The Empire State Building project required a high degree of
cooperation between the suppliers who were shipping material
notably steel beams, and bricks. The small city-block site, with
very little room to move, required a just-in-time approach.
Procurement management was taken to further heights in
the UK and U.S. during World War II when the huge military
buildup required the rapid procurement of vast amounts of
munitions and supplies.
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Project Success versus Failure

Two projects covered from a project management perspective
appear ruinous namely, St. Peter’s Basilica and the Palace of
Versailles. The ostentatiousness of St. Peter’s Basilica was likely
a contributing factor to the Protestant Reformation. Yet the
buildings were successfully used and copied, and the Basilica is
probably the most famous church in Christian history.
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Chapter 16
Conclusion to the Book
T
his book has covered one of most important disciplines that
is available to us in today’s world. Imagine a world without
project management. Most of our modern and material
world would not exist or function without it.
There has never been a time in history when project
management was not important but it has never been more
important than now based on how pervasive it is, and how much
of the world’s economy depends on it.
Today, project management is everywhere, in every industry
and every field, and it is still continually growing into the
foreseeable future. Yet, this should not be unexpected as for
thousands of years humans have run projects. Projects have
been at the heart of human civilization and its progress.
The evidence is overwhelming that today’s project
management is a steady evolution and built on projects from the
past. The basic approach is the same. Only the materials and
technologies used in the projects differ significantly.
The main conclusion of the book is that there is little new
in the principles of successful project management. The same
practices that were prescribed and followed by Vitruvius, Villard
de Honnecourt, and Brunelleschi are very relevant in today’s
modern projects.
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Key Findings
Some of the key findings gained in the examination of the 25
significant historical projects are:
• Project management is not a new 20th Century discipline
but has existed and been practiced since the beginning of
civilization. The main justification for the development
and existence of project management is the need to create
order and to provide deliverables.
• Supposedly-recent management disciplines, first fully
articulated in 1983 as the nine knowledge areas in the
Project Management Body of Knowledge or PMBoK®
Guide, were actively used in all of these projects.
• These projects were delivered in similar time frames to
today’s projects, simply because people initiate projects
so they can realize the benefits of the project.
• Project management has continually evolved, adopted
and absorbed developments in new materials,
technologies, ideas, and practices.
• The history of projects is littered with the repeated use
of good ideas, some many centuries apart. For example,
Brunelleschi provided the Duomo project workforce
with amenities like on-site cafeterias at elevated levels
so as to minimize travel at meal breaks. The idea was
repeated with the Empire State Building project with
great success and this helped boost the morale of the
workforce, and improved productivity.
• Projects from the past had very similar characteristics
to today’s projects. For example, the use of elements we
consider modern like repeating patterns, penalties and
rewards, standards and measures, procurements and
contracts, and an on-site and off-site project workforce
organized through the guilds.
• The Gothic cathedral projects were initiated with a very
limited budget, and a timeline running into decades,
something unheard of in today’s projects. There was a
faith within the project team that the project governance
would carry the project through, even if took a hundred
years to complete and the master-builder and project
524
16 - Conclusion to the Book
team changed several times over. With a lifespan which

is unacceptable by today’s standards these projects were
executed with a high degree of confidence.
Learning’s for Today

What can we learn and take forward from this analysis. One
of the most significant learning’s is that yesterday’s projects
were successfully completed without today’s technologies, tools,
knowledge, or published processes. For example, the scientific
and mathematical calculations for determining solutions, like
the stresses through a building, were only available in the last
300 hundred years. Before then a purely non-empirical approach
was used which was based on observations and experience with
materials and construction. Yet, surprisingly the complexity of
many of these early historical projects rivals any project today in
terms of the enormity of the deliverables, their quality, or speed
of execution. Projects like Giza Pyramid, Colosseum, and Gothic
cathedrals exemplify this.
Dispelling Myths
The analysis provides an opportunity to dispel some of the
common myths related to historical projects. For example,
these projects were driven by overbearing leaders, had a slave
workforce, unlimited budgets, and extended time lines. Many
of these misperceptions were propagated through the work of
fiction, books and movies, like those by Cecil B. DeMille. More
recent research through the work of Egyptologists like Mark
Lehner has painted a far more realistic picture of a well looked
after project workforce that had decent food, accommodation,
and health care. The workforce had to be motivated, somewhat
difficult to do with slaves. Hence the bulk of the workforce came
off the farms and villages during the inundation (flooding) of
the River Nile. The project had to be delivered in the pharaoh’s
lifetime of 20 years, and was used as an economic stimulus for
unifying the nation, one of the earliest examples in history.
Similarly, research work by Ahmet Çakmak, a professor
emeritus in earthquake engineering at Princeton University has
provided new insights into the project at Hagia Sophia.
525
What Made Yesterday’s Projects So

Successful?
Success was based on a few simple things:
• The project started with a clear project vision and an
effective project governance structure, best exemplified
by those associated with the Roman Colosseum, or Gothic
cathedral projects.
• A conducive, surrounding environment, to support and
allow the project to proceed successfully without getting
caught up in red-tape or morale sapping politics. This
was established by leaders, particularly sponsors, who
could provide the project a sharp focus like for example
Emperor Justinian with the Hagia Sophia project.
• Motivated sponsors and leaders, who had a specific goal
to keep the project on track and could work well with
their project team. Good examples are the Crystal Palace
project, with its 8.5 month time line, and the London
Sewer project which had to solve a desperate public
health issue.
• A system of guilds, based on quasi military lines,
provided an organizational structure for different trades
that brought in a localized scrutiny and quality control,
and looked after their workforce, best shown by the
Parthenon project, or by Roman or medieval projects.
• The simplicity of communication, for example, design
ideas were transferred to all areas of the project team
through templates and miniature models. This reduced
the need for lots of documentation as with the Giza
Pyramid and the Gothic cathedral projects.
• A pragmatism within the project for quick and simple
solutions so that the project continued, without grinding
to a halt. A good example is with the Transcontinental
Railroad project which faced very severe challenges.
These included an inhospitable environment and terrain
(mountain range and desert). It required a continuous
30,000 kilometers (18,000 miles) supply chain of
materials, and procuring a large enough workforce
throughout the project.
526
16 - Conclusion to the Book
Final statement
The most important thing to gain from this book is that project
management has progressively evolved through time and across
history.
Where does this lead us to today? It is an error in judgement
to dissociate these historical projects from modern project
management. Across history, the methods and practices of
project management are little different from what is done today.
Much can be learned from these historical projects that could
be used as a baseline for measuring today’s projects and putting
them into perspective.
Going Forward and Future Research

For this book many ancient projects were not included as their
documentation is sparse and sporadic, or nonexistent, or there
are no archaeological records or ethno history. Only the final
output of these projects, the notable structure or edifice, is still
with us today. Over time astute researchers (like Francis Price
1753, Frederick Schwatska 1883, Thomas Lennox Watson 1901)
have turned to sleuthing to assess these structures and derive
early building practices and methods. This has provided us
with unique insights to compare to modern practices. Similarly,
author and architect John Fitchen investigated historical
construction practices by synthesizing a large body of literature
on past methods scattered and fragmented. He diagnosed,
evaluated, and interpreted clues to provide meaningful insights
into the Gothic cathedral projects.
Other types of analysis like the use of computer models of
significant buildings can produce valuable insights and establish
how a building was constructed, and insights on the project. For
example, Jean-Pierre Houdin used the computer modeling of the
Giza Pyramid to establish the internal ramp theory, now gaining
wide acceptance in the archeological community. Internal
ramps reduced projections of the workforce size. Similarly, the
investigation of the Hagia Sophia Cathedral by Ahmet Çakmak,
a professor emeritus in earthquake engineering at Princeton
University, provides insights on the project.
527
This book suggests that all significant historical projects

should be reinterpreted again but from a project management
perspective using today’s knowledge and concepts, and available
technologies like Internet based communities and interest
groups. This will help dispel the myths surrounding these
projects and establish the continuum of project management.
Future Plans
The next planned book to follow this is The History of Modern
Project Management which covers projects after the start
of the Second World War. It looks at the many significant
developments from 1940 onward up to present day.
528
Appendix A
Sample Colosseum Work

Breakdown Structure
Project Walkthrough by Karen Frecker
a. Design structure.
b. Measure and lay guidelines for site and structures
(dimensions, angles, checking for level).
c. Harvest and transport lumber; prepare scaffolding and
centering.
d. Assemble, disassemble, and move cranes around the site.
e. Forge and build metal structures (pipes, iron connecting
joints for stones).
f. Plan, administer and manage the building project.
g. Support the workers, for instance the work required to
house, clothe and prepare food for them.
h. Excavate the earth for the foundation.
i. Transport the materials.
j. Load and unload materials from carts.
k. Hoist the materials into place.
l. Move the materials around on-site.
529
m. Quarry the travertine and tufa, based on DeLaine.

n. Produce the bricks.
o. Quarry/excavate the rubble.
a. Excavate the lime.
b. Slake the lime.
c. Quarry the pozzolano.
d. Shore the foundations.
e. Lay the foundations.
f. Lay the brick and core for brick-faced walls; lay the
brick for the floors of levels 2, 3 and 4.
g. Mix the mortar.
h. Erect scaffolding.
i. Prepare and erect centering.
j. Load various materials into baskets.
k. Lay vaults.
l. Jimmy and adjust stonework, check for level and
plumb.
530
Appendix B
Bibliography
1
Building Construction Before Mechanization, John Fitchen,
ISBN-10: 0-262-56047-X, ISBN-13: 978-0-262-56047-4.
2
Technology in World Civilization, Arnold Pacey.
3
Science and Technology in World History, James E.
McClellan and Harold Dorn.
4
The Day the Universe Changed, James Burke, 1985.
5
A History of Warfare, John Keegan, 1994.
6
1986.
6
The Secrets of the Great Pyramid, Bob Brier, Jean-Pierre
Houdin.
7
The Cathedral Builders, Jean Gimpel.
8
A History of Accounting Thought, Michael Chatfield, 1977.
9
Architecture, Jonathon Glancey, Eyewitness companions DK.
10
Pyramid, David Macauley, 1975.
531
11
The True Story of Christopher Columbus Called The Great
Admiral, Elbridge S. Brooks.
12
The Life of Christopher Columbus From His Own Letters
and Journals and Other Documents Of His Time, Edward
Everett Hale, The Explorers, Richard Humble (Time-Life
Books).
13
Treatise on Architecture, De architectura, known today as
The Ten Books on Architecture, Roman architect
Vitruvius.
14
Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental
Railroad (Paperback), David Haward Bain, 2000.
532
Appendix C
Measurement Conversions
Converting inches to centimeters ...

1 = 2.54
2 = 5.08
5 = 12.7
Converting feet to meters ...

1 = 0.3048
2 = 0.6096
5 = 1.524
Converting meters to feet ...

1 = 3.28
2 = 6.56
5 = 16.4
533
Converting kilometers to miles ...

1 = 0.6214
2 = 1.2428
5 = 3.107
Converting miles to kilometers ...

1 = 1.61
2 = 3.22
5 = 8.05
Some other associated conversions - 1 mile = 5280 feet, 1 yard

(yd ) = 3 feet
Converting kilometers to yards ...

1 = 1094
2 = 2188
5 = 5470
Converting knots to statute miles/hour ...

1 = 1.151
2 = 2.302
5 = 5.755
10 = 11.51
Converting liters to US gallons ...

1 = 0.26
2 = 0.52
5 = 1.3
534
Appendix C - Measurement Converisons
Converting tonnes to tons ...

1 = 0.9842
2 = 1.9684
5 = 4.921
Converting degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit ...

1 = 33.8
2 = 35.6
5 = 41
Converting degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius ...

1 = -17.22205
2 = -16.6665
5 = -14.99985
535
536
Appendix D
Mapping the Projects to

PMBoK® Guide
Knowledge Areas
T
he table below outlines the mapping for the projects to
each of nine knowledge areas so as the reader can identify
how predominant this knowledge area was to the project
and the degree of fit. The table uses the Harvey Ball diagram
notation.

Significant Integra- Procure-
Scope Time Cost Quality HR Comms Risk
Projects tion ment
        
Giza
Pyramid
Parthenon
        
Colosseum
        
        
The
Pantheon
537
        
Cathedral
Hagia Sophia
        
Gothic
Cathedrals
Florence
Cathedral
Duomo         
Columbus
        
Magellan
        
        
St. Peter’s
Rome
Taj Mahal
        
        
Palace of
Versailles
        
The Iron
Bridge
        
First
Railway
        
Crystal
Palace
Trans-
continental
Railroad         
        
Transatlantic
Cable
        
London
Sewers
        
Mechanical
Computer
        
Panama
Canal
        
Hoover
Dam
        
Empire
State
        
Golden
Gate
538
Appendix E
Relationship to Other
Project Management
Methods
A
lthough the primary focus has been on the PMBoK®
Guide, it is very important to expand this to other
leading methods. PRojects IN Controlled Environments
(PRINCE2®) is a structured approach to project management
and provides a method for managing projects within a clearly
defined framework.
Overview of the method

PRINCE2® is organized into the following processes with
separate key activities for each (40 in total):
1. Starting up a project
a. Appointing an executive and a project manager,
designing and appointing a project management
team, preparing a project brief, defining the project
approach, and planning the next stage (initiation).
2. Initiating a project
a. Planning quality, planning a project, refining the
business case and risks, setting up project controls,
setting up project files, and assembling a Project
Initiation Document.
539
2. Directing a project
a. Authorizing initiation, authorizing a project,
authorizing a stage or exception plan, giving ad-hoc
direction, and confirming project closure.
2. Controlling a stage
a. Authorizing work package, assessing progress,
capturing and examining project issues, reviewing
stage status, reporting highlights, taking corrective
action, escalating project issues, and receiving a
completed work package.
2. Managing stage boundaries
a. Planning a stage, updating a project plan, updating a
project business case, updating the risk log, reporting
stage end, and producing an exception plan.
2. Closing a project
a. Decommissioning a project, identifying follow-on
actions, and project evaluation review.
Mapping PRINCE2® to the PMBoK® Guide

PRINCE2® has processes at both the Project Level and Stage
Level (“phase-by-phase”). These can be matching up to the
PMBoK® Guide:
PMBoK® P2: Project Level P2: Stage Level (“phase-by-phase”)
Initiating Starting Up; Directing Managing Stage Boundaries; Directing
Planning Initiating, Planning Managing Stage Boundaries; Planning
Executing/ Managed stage Controlling a Stage; Managing Product

Controlling by stage Delivery; Directing
Closing Closing a Project Managing Stage Boundaries
540
Appendix E - Relationship to Other Project Management Methods
Matching up the Knowledge Areas to Components:
PMBoK®`Guide
PRINCE2® Components
Knowledge Areas
Combined Processes and Components,

Integration
Change Control
Scope, Time, Cost Plans, Business Case
Quality Quality, Configuration Management
Risk Risk
Communications Controls
HR Organization (limited)
Procurement Not covered
Source: http://www.pmiwestchester.org/downloads/
Prince2PMBoK.pdf and thanks to Jay M. Siegelaub PMP, MBA.
Overview of the method
Starting up a Project
In this process the project team is appointed and a project brief
(with what the project is attempting to achieve and the business
justification) is prepared. The overall approach is determined
and the next stage planned. The project board is then asked to
authorize the next stage.
Initiating a Project
The project brief is augmented to form a Business case which
ensures that quality is agreed with the overall approach to
controlling the project itself. Project files are created with the
overall project plan, and a plan for the next stage that is put
before the project board for authorization.
541
Directing a Project
This process dictates how the Project Board (the executive and
project sponsor) should control the overall project and authorize
the initiation. It also dictates how the project board should
authorize a stage plan, provide ad hoc direction, and how the
project is closed down.
Controlling a Stage
This process dictates how each individual stage is controlled and
includes how work packages are authorized and received, and
the way progress is monitored and reported to the project board.
A means for capturing and assessing project issues is determined
with how corrective actions are taken, and how project issues are
escalated to the project board.
Managing Stage Boundaries

This dictates what is done towards the end of a stage, how the
next stage is planned and the overall project plan, risk log and
business case are amended. It also covers what has gone outside
the tolerance levels of a stage, and how it is reported.
Closing a Project
This covers the end of a project, the formal de-commissioning
(resource free up), follow on actions and formal evaluation of the
project.
542
Appendix F
Project Management
Organizations
I
n 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed
to serve the interest of the project management industry.
The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of
project management are common even among the widespread
application of projects from the software industry to the
construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors
authorized the development of what has become A Guide to
the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK® Guide),
containing the standards and guidelines of practice that are
widely used throughout the profession.
The International Project Management Association (IPMA),
founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development
and instituted the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB). The focus
of the ICB also begins with knowledge as a foundation, and adds
considerations about relevant experience, interpersonal skills,
and competence. Both organizations are now participating in the
development of an ISO project management standard.
543
544
End Notes
Chapter One
1
The Farther Reaches of Human Nature.
2
Technics and Civilization, Lewis Mumford, 1963.
3
The first North American explorers, Stone Age, http://www.pbs.
org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3116_stoneage.html.
4
Dates, definitions and examples of the earliest known usage of
these words can be found in the Merriam-Webster
Dictionary.
5
According to David Nye, Jacob Bigelow, who was a Harvard
professor of medicine, formulated the word ‘technology’
in 1828. In his Elements of Technology, Bigelow
“encouraged the fusion of science and art, which he felt
was characteristic of industrial society”, Nye, 1994, p.46.
6
“Upon the request of the poet Coleridge in 1833 Whewell
invented the English word “scientist;” before this time
the only terms in use were “natural philosopher” and
“man of science.”” See Snyder, Laura J., “William
Whewell”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.
stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/whewell/.
545
7
History of engineering, http://www.creatingtechnology.org/
history.htm#1.
8
Paul Allen History of PM, http://members.aol.com/
AllenWeb/history.html.
9
Based on a portfolio of 33 sheets of parchment with 250
drawings from the 1230s, which is in the Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris (MS Fr 19093).
10
Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt. This image (or other
media file) is in the public domain because its copyright
has expired.
11
Technology in World Civilization, Arnold Pacey, p.42.
12
Science and Technology in World History, James E.McClellan
and Harold Dorn, p.118.
13
The Day the Universe Changed, James Burke, 1985, p.113.
14
Derived from experiment and observation rather than theory.
15
Project Lessons from the Great Escape, Multi-Media
Publications Inc..
Chapter Two
1
Project Management Body of Knowledge.
Chapter Three
1
Architecture, Jonathon Glancey, Eyewitness Companions DK.
2
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp
?groupid=1431&HistoryID=ab23.
3
The Development of Double Entry Bookkeeping and its
Relevance in Today’s Business Environment, Regina
Libina, Pace University, 2005.
546
End Notes
4
Based on the six simple machines defined by Renaissance
Scientists as the lever, wheel and axel, pulley, inclined
plane, wedge, and screw.
5
A History of Accounting Thought, Michael Chatfield, Chapter 6,
New York: Dryden Press, 1977.
6
The Secret of the Great Pyramid, Bob Brier and Jean-Pierre
Houdin, p.23-24.
7
This image (or other media file) is in the public domain
because its copyright has expired. http://pymd.com/
Saqqara-Pyramids-Djoser.htm.
8
because its copyright has expired. http://www.guardians.
net/egypt/pyramids/dahshur/Sneferu/TheBentPyramid.
htm#about.
9
1986, p.4.
10
Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for
women. For a Pharaoh it would have been between 60 to
70. Source: Filer, Joyce (1996). Disease, Austin, Texas,
University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-72498-5.
11
Science and Technology in World History, James E. McClellan
and Harold Dorn.
12
Pyramid, David Macauley, 1975, p.13.
13
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramidworkforce.htm.
14
A New Pyramid Age, Philip Coppens.
15
Who Built the Pyramids? Not slaves. Archeaologist Mark
Lehner, digging deeper, discovers a city of privileged
workers, by Jonathan Shaw, http://harvardmagazine.
com/2003/07/who-built-the-pyramids.html.
547
16
A team of construction managers from international
architectural, engineering, and construction management
firm DMJM performed a forensic analysis to determine
the construction methods and management techniques
that were employed by the ancient Egyptians in
constructing the Great Pyramid. “Project Management,
Pyramids.” By Craig Smith, Civil Engineering Magazine,
June 1999.
17
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/pyramid.
html?c=y&page=2; http://www.archaeology.org/0705/
etc/pyramid.html; http://www.usatoday.com/tech/
science/2007-05-16-pyramid-theory_N.htm.
18
This image is a computer generated image in the public
domain.
19
This image is not copyrighted. Shepp’s Photographs of the
World, James W. Shepp, Daniel B. Shepp.
20
The Secret of the Great Pyramid, p.14.
21
The Great Wall of China, William Edgar Geil.
22
because its copyright has expired. http://bygones.ebaypix.
net/china1805map.jpg.
23
because its copyright has expired. Photograph of
The Great Wall of China from 1907, Herbert George
Ponting. http://www.geocities.com/blackinkal4/
RoyalGeographicalSociety_Asia_2.html.
24
Technology in World Civilization, Arnold Pacey p.42.
25
26
548
End Notes

Stonehenge 1910, http://www.oldukphotos.com/wiltshire-
salisbury.htm.
27
http://www.mystae.com/restricted/streams/thera/Phoenicians.
html.
28
National Geographic: Visual History of the World, p.37.
29
because its copyright has expired. http://www.crystalinks.
com/meso.html.
30
Houdin, p.69.
31
Houdin, p.69.
32
Pyramid, David Macauley 1975.
33
1986, p.4.
34
http://www.all-art.org/Visual%20History/3.htm.
35
and Harold Dorn.
36
Egypt the Black Land, Paul Jordan, 2000, p.151.
37
Ancient Labor’s Untold Story: Evidence of Workers’
Organization from 3000 BCE to 550 CE in the
Mediterranean World, Dr. Charles Micallef, 2008.
38
Building Construction Before Mechanization, John Fitchen p.6.
39
40
Book-keeping system in which a person charges themselves
549
with receipts and credits themselves with payments.

Used extensively prior the advent of double-entry book-
keeping.
Chapter Four
1
Architecture – Jonathon Glancey, Eyewitness companions DK.
2
Battle, R.R. Grant, 2005.
3
A History of Warfare, John Keegan, 1994, p.169.
4
because its copyright has expired. The Ten Books on
Architecture, Vitruvius Pollio.
5
A History of Accounting Thought, Michael Chatfield, Chapter 9,
New York: Dryden Press, 1977.
6
Chatfield, Michael. A History of Accounting Thought, Chapter
6, New York: Dryden Press, 1977.
7
A black siliceous stone used to ascertain the purity of gold
and silver. The streaks of metal left behind on the
touchstone are treated with nitric acid, which dissolves
impurities, and thus, when the streaks are compared, the
contrast between pure and impure metal is heightened.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/600649/
touchstone.
8
A History of Accounting Thought, Chatfield, Michael, Chapter
9
because its copyright has expired. “Historical Atlas”,
William R. Shepherd, New York, Henry Holt and
Company, 1923. University of Texas Perry-Casteneda
Map Collection, http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/
historical/history_shepherd_1923.html.
10
Jeffrey Hurwit a professor of art history at the University of
550
End Notes
Oregon and expert on the architecture of the Acropolis,

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/parthenon/hurwit.html.
11
“Pericles”, The World Book Encyclopedia, 1968, volume 15,
p.255. The funding of the project seems to have been
quite complex. Aside from these sources of revenue there
were many others including public moneys, tax revenues,
harbor fees, boards of commissioners and judges
contributing as well.
12
The Acropolis in the Age of Pericles, Jeffrey M. Hurwit,
University of Oregon.
13
http://faculty.frostburg.edu/phil/forum/Athens.htm.
14
Chisel marks from about 200 different stonemasons have
been identified. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/
parthenon.
15
Plutarch’s Life of Pericles.
16
A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, Seventh Edition,
revised, Hamlin, A. D. F. (Alfred Dwight Foster), 1855-
1926, Not copyrighted.
17
18
19
because its copyright has expired. http://www.mcah.
columbia.edu/arthum/publicportfolio.cgi?view=1960.
20
551
21
Secrets of the Parthenon, PBS Airdate: January 29, 2008,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3502_
partheno.html.
22
Secrets of the Parthenon, PBS Airdate: January 29, 2008,
partheno.html.
23
Plutarch’s Life of Pericles, http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/
pericles.html.
Chapter Five
1
De architectura (Latin: “On architecture”).
2
because its copyright has expired. “Historical Atlas”,
3
A History of Accounting Thought, Chapter 12, Michael
Chatfield, New York: Dryden Press, 1977.
4
Title: Manners, Custom and Dress During the Middle Ages and
During the Renaissance Period, Paul Lacroix,
5
6
Ancient and Medieval Banking and Business in the Roman
World, Jean Andreau, Translated by Janey Lloyd,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
7
8
The Roman Army, Pat Southern, p.103.
9
552
End Notes

10
11
12
The Flavian Amphitheatre, Commonly Called The Colosseum
at Rome: Its History and Substructures Compared with
Other Amphitheatres, John Henry Parker, C.B. Hon.
M.A. Oxon., F.S.A. London.
13
1986, p.51.
14
Origins of Modern PM, Patrick Weever, December
2007, http://www.mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF_Papers/
P050_Origins_of_Modern_PM.pdf.
15
The Roman Pantheon—The Triumph of Concrete, written by
David Moore, P.E.
16
The Common People of Ancient Rome Studies of Roman Life
and Literature, Frank Frost Abbott.
17
Manumission is the act of freeing a slave, done at the will of
the owner. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2009.
18
19
The earliest permanent amphitheatre would appear to be
that built c.80 BC by Marcus Porcius at Pompeii,
which in plan differs very little from that of the flavian
amphitheatre.
20
The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal
553
of Civilization, Thomas Homer-Dixon, and Ms. Karen

Frecker, an energy analyst based in Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
21
The Colosseum measures 48 meters (157 feet / 165 Roman
feet) high, 189 meters (615feet) long, and 165 meters (510
feet) wide, and Covers an area of 6 acres.
22
http://www.roman-colosseum.info/colosseum/index.htm.
23
This image (or other media file) is in the public domain.
Source: Profile of Colosseum with seating areas named in
english. Created by Ningyou. http://commons.wikimedia.
org/.
24
The Colosseum, Keith Hopkins and Mary Beard, 2006.
25
26
because its copyright has expired. Postcard circa 1960.
27
because its copyright has expired.
28
This image is not copyrighted.
29
Roman Architecture from Augustus To Hadrian The
Colosseum: An Analysis Of The Inherent Political And
Architectural Significance. C.J Lyes.
30
31
32
554
End Notes

33
Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the
Classical World, John Peter Oleson.
34
If the dome was treated as a series of arch segments, then
the weight of the step rings near the base had a beneficial
structural effect, acting somewhat like a buttress.
35
An Elementary History of Art, N. D’Anvers (New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1895), p. 47, not copyrighted.
36
because its copyright has expired.18th Century, painted
by Giovanni Paolo Panini.
37
38
because its copyright has expired. http://
worldheritagesite.org/sites/pontdugard.html.
39
According to Liber IV.
40
because its copyright has expired. Painting by John
Soane (1814).
41
because its copyright has expired. Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3, p.585.
42
because its copyright has expired. Painting by William
Bell Scott (1857).
43
Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3, p.586, Fig 3.
44
http://www.aboutscotland.co.uk/hadrian/wall.html.
555
45
The Roman Pantheon—The Triumph of Concrete, David
Moore, P.E..
46
1986, p.51.
47
The Colosseum, Keith Hopkins and Mary Bend, p.144.
48
The population of the world circa 1 was 200-300 million
people and in the Roman Empire under Augustus about
45 million (15% of the world’s population) with 4 million
Roman citizens.
49
50
Roman Builders – A Study in Architectural Process, p.27,
Rabun Taylor, 2004, Harvard University.
51
Vitruvius The Ten Books On Architecture, Vitruvius Pollio.
52
1986, p.40.
53
Moore, P.E..
54
Rabun Taylor, 2004,Harvard University.
55
of Civilization by Thomas Homer-Dixon.
Chapter Six
1
because its copyright has expired. “Historical Atlas”
by William R. Shepherd, New York, Henry Holt and
2
The History of Money, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/moolah/
556
End Notes
history.html.
3
Nature, Vol 443, 28 September 2006, by Virginia Hughes.
Incorporates the investigation of the Hagia Sophia
Project by Ahmet Çakmak, a professor emeritus in
earthquake engineering at Princeton University.
4
1926, this image (or other media file) is in the public
domain because its copyright has expired.
5
1926, this image (or other media file) is in the public
6
Master-builders of Byzantium, Robert Ousterhout, University
of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology.
7
Shepp’s Photographs of the World, James W. Shepp, Daniel B.
Shepp, not copyrighted.
8
Shepp’s Photographs of the World, James W. Shepp, Daniel B.
Shepp, not copyrighted.
9
because its copyright has expired. http://www.
philographikon.com/printsmexico.html.
10
1986, p.49.
11
because its copyright has expired. University of Texas
Libraries, http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/
history_europe.html.
12
Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics, Carl Benjamin
Boyer, 1991.
557
13
Research using computer models and chemical analyses
by Ahmet S. Cakmak, a professor of Civil Engineering at
Princeton and a specialist on the Haghia Sophia.
14
For the weight of the gold used for the mosaics in Hagia
Sophia, cf. A. Cutler, “The Industries of Art,” EHB
557–558.
Chapter Seven
1
Technology in World Civilization, p.7, Arnold Pacey.
2
because its copyright has expired. Manners, Custom
and Dress During the Middle Ages and During the
Renaissance Period, Paul Lacroix. http://www.gutenberg.
org/files/10940/10940-h/images/fig250.png.
3
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vikings/ships.html.
4
5
because its copyright has expired. Taken from the 14th
Century treatise Nong Shu, written by Wang Zhen in
1313, during the Chinese Yuan Dynasty.
6
The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle
Ages, Jean Gimpel, Pimlico 1992.
7
Renaissance Period, Paul Lacroix, http://www.gutenberg.
8
Science and Technology in Medieval European Life, Jeffrey R.
Wigelsworth.
9
558
End Notes
Wigelsworth, p.14.
10
Source: Technics and Civilization, Lewis Mumford, 1963, p.439.
11
http://www.archnet.org/library/dictionary/entry.
jsp?entryid=DIA0025&mode=full.
12
Practical Reference Library, Volume II, L. Brent Vaughan
Hill. (New York: Dixon, Hanson and Company, 1906), not
copyrighted.
13
Classical World, John Peter Oleson, p.296.
14
1926, not copyrighted.
15
The Cathedral Builders by Jean Gimpel, p.4.
16
The Cathedral Builders by Jean Gimpel, p.1.
17
Outline of Universal History, Fisher, George Park.
18
19
Image (or other media file) is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired. Jost Amman, professional wood
engravers in Germany during the latter half of the 16th
Century. “Eygentliche Beschreibung Aller” (“Description
of All Professions”) which was published in Frankfurt in
1568.
20
The Cathedral Builders, Jean Gimpel, p.60.
21
The Builder, John Harvey, p.47, 1973.
22
The Cathedral Builders, Jean Gimpel, p.69, accounts between
559
1278-1281.
23
because its copyright has expired. G. Dehio and G.
von Bezold, Die Kirchliche Baukunst des abendlandes,
Stuttgart, 1887-1902, plate 383.
24
The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals: A Study of Medieval
Vault Erection, John Fitchen.
25
Drawing of A. M. Beloqui in Corton de las Heras, 1997, p.275.
26
because its copyright has expired. G. Dehio (died 1932)
and G. von Bezold (died 1934), Die Kirchliche Baukunst
des abendlandes, Stuttgart, 1887-1902.
27
1986, p.8.
28
Cathedral, David Macauley, 1985.
29
James, John, Chartres, The Masons Who Built a Legend,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1982.
30
because its copyright has expired. Arts and Crafts in the
Middle Ages, Julia De Wolf Addison, p.238, http://www.
gutenberg.org/files/18212/18212-h/18212-h.htm.
31
because its copyright has expired. Georg Agricola, Zwölf
Bücher vom Berg-und Hüttenwesen, übers. v. Carl
Schiffner, Berlin 1928.
32
33
Guo, Qinghua, “Yingzao Fashi: Twelfth-Century Chinese
560
End Notes
Building Manual,” Architectural History: Journal of

the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain,
Volume 41, 1998, p.1-13.
34
A Text-Book of the History of Architecture Seventh Edition,
35
Shepp’s Photographs of the World, James W. Shepp, Daniel
B. Shepp, Not copyrighted.
36
37
because its copyright has expired. Plan, from A.
Hamilton Thompson, Military architecture in England
during the middle ages, London, New York, 1912, p.68.
38
59
because its copyright has expired. 19th Century photo.
60
61
World History, Jeremy Black, p.123.
62
This image is from Commons: GNU Free Documentation
License. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
Commons:GNU_Free_Documentation_License.
63
64
1986, p.49.
65
1986, p.49.
561
66
1986, p.247 #6.
67
1986, p.51.
68
Source: Building Construction Before Mechanization, John
Fitchen, 1986, p.17.
69
70
71
72
The Cathedral Builders, Jean Gimpel, p.41,47.
73
Building Construction Before Mechanization, John Fitchen:
p.247 #6.
74
p.50.
75
Source: The Cathedral Builders, Jean Gimpel, p.52.
76
Source: The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals, John Fitchen,
p.276.
Chapter Eight
1
2
According to medieval historian Philip Daileader in 2007.
3
Source: The Day the Universe Changed, James Burke, 1985.
4
The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle
Ages, Jean Gimpel, Pimlico 1992.
5
562
End Notes
6
According to Brunelleschi’s biographer Antonio Manetti.
7
An old Italian unit of length, usually about 26 or 27 in. (66
or 68 cm).
8
9
10
11
From an order in the book of Migliore di Tommaso, dated
October 3, 1419.
12
13
B. Shepp, Not Copyrighted.
14
B. Shepp, Not Copyrighted.
15
16
Dreyer (2006): p.122–124.
17
because its copyright has expired. 17th Century Chinese
woodblock print.
18
Brunelleschi’s Cupola: Past and Present of an Architectural
Masterpiece, by Giovanni Fanelli, Giovanni Fanelli and
Michele Fanelli, p.28.
563
19
20
Lives of the Most Eminent Painters Sculptors & Architects,
Giorgio Vasari, 1912.
21
22
Lives of The Most Eminent Painters Sculptors & Architects,
1912, by Giorgio Vasari.
23
24
25
26
27
Masterpiece, Giovanni Fanelli, Giovanni Fanelli and
28
29
564
End Notes
Chapter Nine
1
2
because its copyright has expired. The image comes from
an early 16th-Century book called Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas.
3
A newspaper with pages of a size larger than those of a
tabloid, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
broadsheets.
4
because its copyright has expired. Prince Henry the
Navigator, the Hero of Portugal and of Modern Discovery,
1394-1460, C. Raymond Beazley.
5
Spanish currency of one million Maravedis (one cuentos) in
1490 is equivalent to about 308 English Pounds in 1860,
or US$ 48,000 in 2005.
6
because its copyright has expired. United States Library
of Congress’s Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID cph.3c05453. http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/
list/080_columbus.html.
7
8
This is according to Peter Martyr who kept a special account
of the voyage.
9
565
10
Renaissance Period, Paul Lacroix. http://www.gutenberg.
11
because its copyright has expired. Source based upon
the map in Bourne’s Spain in America, American Nation
Series, Volume III, New York, 1904, Harper.
12
The Americas received wheat, rice, coffee, bananas, and
olives, and horses, cows, pigs, and chickens. They
contributed a virulent form of syphilis as well as corn,
potatoes, tomatoes, lima beans, squash, peanuts, cassava,
cacao, and pineapple.
Chapter Ten
1
2
A short history of progress, Ronald Wright, p.114.
3
A good example is ‘The Richard II’ horary quadrant found in
the British Museum, London, UK.
4
The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803, Emma Helen Blair, http://
www.gutenberg.org/files/13255/13255-8.txt.
5
because its copyright has expired. http://www.helmink.
com/Antique_Maps_of_America.html.
6
magellanacademies.com/Strait_of_Magellan.jpg.
7
because its copyright has expired. 1507, G3200 1507,
W3 Vault, Library of Congress Rare Book and Special
566
End Notes
Collections Division Washington, D.C. 20540-4650, http://

hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3200.ct000725.
8
because its copyright has expired. 1581, G3201.S12
1581 .S9, Library of Congress Rare Book and Special
Collections Division Washington, D.C. 20540-4650,
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3201s.rb000011(Library of
Congress).
9
Architecture, Jonathon Glancey, Eyewitness Companions DK.
10
http://www.the-tudors.org.uk/hardwick-hall.htm.
11
oldukphotos.com/graphics/England%20Photos/
Nottinghamshire,%20Mansfield,%20Hardwick%20
Hall%201900’s.jpg.
12
13
Painting of the interior of St. Peter’s in Rome, George Cooke,
1840. (This work of art is in the public domain.) http://chapel.
myweb.uga/edu/images/paintingbig.jpg
14
Pre-revolutionary (1917) Russian postcard of Sait Basil’s

15
Cathedral. It’s copyright has expired.
Chapter Eleven
1
Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money, 2007.
2
because its copyright has expired. Glashütte
Weibersbrunn Im Spessart, gegründet 1706.
567
3
http://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/taj_mahal/tlevel_2/
t3build_design.html.
4
http://www.howstuffworks.com/taj-mahal-landmark.htm.
5
http://www.agraindia.org.uk/taj-mahal/architecture/
building-materials-used.html.
6
http://www.thetajmahalindia.com/tajmahalinformation.html.
7
http://www.tce.co.in/Downloads/bro_pdf/tce_world/july06.pdf.
8
9
because its copyright has expired. Jackson, William
Henry, 1843-1942, World’s Transportation Commission
photograph collection (Library of Congress).
10
because its copyright has expired. Plan and layout of
the Taj Mahal and Gardens of the Great Mughals, C.M.
Villiers Stuart, 1913.
11
1926, Not copyrighted, Photo by Samuel Bourne, 1860.
12
The Story Of Versailles, Francis Loring Payne, 1919.
13
because its copyright has expired. Francis Loring Payne,
The Story of Versailles.
14
Francis Loring Payne, The Story of Versailles.
15
because its copyright has expired. View of Versailles from
the Avenue de Paris, ca. 1668, Pierre Patel.
568
End Notes
16
17
New Glass Architecture, Brent Richards, Dennis Gilbert.
18
19
Historian A.P.J. Taylor wrote that the Palace of Versailles
was one of the fundamental causes.
20
because its copyright has expired. French National
Tourist Collection.
21
Taj Mahal, Giles Tillotson, p.73.
Chapter Twelve
1
http://www.accel-team.com, 2004.
2
Such as the Combination Acts of 1799/1800 in the UK.
3
The Fatal Shore, Robert Hughes.
4
The History of Money http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/
nova/moolah/history.html.
5
because its copyright has expired. http://www.mspong.
org/cyclopedia/metallurgy_pics.html.
6
because its copyright has expired. Map of 1811, G3200
1811, V2 Vault, Library of Congress Rare Book and
Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. 20540-
4650, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3200.awh00011 (Library
of Congress).
7
http://www.ironbridge.org.uk/our_attractions/
569
the_iron_bridge_and_tollhouse/history/.
8
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/
journeys/voyage_html/iron.htm.
9
because its copyright has expired. Acc No: AE185.762
Lowry, Wilson (engraver) Robertson, George (artist),
http://www.ironbridge.org.uk/about_us/the_iron_bridge/.
10
because its copyright has expired. Acc No: 1972.90.
11
because its copyright has expired. Acc No: 1973.200,
Ellis, William (engraver), Rooker, Michael Angelo
(artist), http://www.ironbridge.org.uk/about_us/
the_iron_bridge/.
12
The New Popular Educator, Volume V, John Lossing Benson,
ed. (London: Cassell & Company Limited, 1891) 5:129, not
copyrighted
.
13
Dubourg, M. (engraver), http://www.ironbridge.org.uk/
about_us/the_iron_bridge/.
14
Walker, W. (engraver), Walker, J. (engraver), Burney,
T.F. (artist), http://www.ironbridge.org.uk/about_us/
the_iron_bridge/.
15
16
because its copyright has expired. York Railway
Museum.
17
http://www.tynelives.org.uk/stephenson/wagon.htm.
570
End Notes
18
Museum.
19
Museum.
20
because its copyright has expired. Lives Of The
Engineers, The Locomotive, George and Robert
Stephenson, Samuel Smiles, http://www.gutenberg.org/
files/27710/27710-h/27710-h.htm.
21
Lives Of The Engineers, The Locomotive. George and Robert
Stephenson, Samuel Smiles, p.125, http://www.
22
because its copyright has expired. An Introduction to
the Industrial and Social History of England, Edward
P. Cheyney, (Smiles: Life of George Stephenson), http://
www.gutenberg.org/files/21660/21660-h/21660-h.
htm#page031.
23
because its copyright has expired. Darlington Borough
Council.
24
Stockton and Darlington Railway opening, J.R. Brown, Science
Museum.
25
because its copyright has expired. An Introduction to the
Industrial and Social History of England, Edward P.
Cheyney, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21660/21660-
h/21660-h.htm#page031.
26
571
because its copyright has expired. Scientific American

Supplement, No. 460, October 25, 1884. http://www.
27
28
because its copyright has expired. Etching of the Menai
Bridge ca: 1825, http://www.anglesey-history.co.uk/
places/bridges/menai.gif.
29
The First in the World, John Wall, according to Francis
Mewburn p.11.
30
Energy and society: An Introduction, Harold H. Schobert,
p.263.
Chapter Thirteen
1
Christopher Latham Sholes (1819-1890) was a U.S. mechanical
engineer who invented the first practical modern
typewriter, patented in 1868.
2
3
because its copyright has expired. Sir Henry Bessemer,
F.R.S, An Autobiography, 1st edition published in London,
1905, http://www.history.rochester.edu/ehp-book/shb/
hb11.htm.
4
because its copyright has expired. Agricultural
Implements and Machines in the Collection of
the National Museum of History and Technology,
Smithsonian, Studies in History and Technology, No. 17,
Schlebecker, John T.
5
572
End Notes
because its copyright has expired. Frank Leslie’s

Illustrated Newspaper, August 21, 1858.
6
The British Government gave Field a subsidy of £1,400 a
year and loaned the ships to lay the cable.
7
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14091/14091-h/14091-h.htm.
8
because its copyright has expired. Telegraph Connections
(Telegraphen Verbindungen), 1891 Stielers Hand-Atlas,
Plate No. 5, Weltkarte in Mercator projection.
9
The Pacific tourist, Author: Williams, Henry T. Collection:
Making of America Books.
10
A Practical Plan For Building The Pacific Railroad, T.D.
Judah, Civil Engineer, San Francisco, January 1, 1857,
Washington, D.C., Henry Polkinhorn, Printer. 1857.
11
The Big Four consisted of Mark Hopkins, Collis P.
Huntington, [Gov.] Leland Stanford, and Charles
Crocker. These men were merchants drawn to the west
by prospects of finding riches in California.
12
http://cprr.org/Museum/Eastward, http://
www.#Construction%20of%20the%20CPRR.
13
The First Transcontinental Railroad, John Debo Galloway, C.
E. (1869-1943), Dorset Press, New York, 1989.
14
because its copyright has expired. This image is available
from the Archival Research Catalog of the National
Archives and Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 594940.
15
The Pacific Tourist Williams’ Illustrated Trans-Continental
Guide, Henry T. Williams, Editor, http://cprr.org/Museum/
Books/Williams_Pacific_Tourist.html.
16
573
because its copyright has expired. General view of the

works in progress, Acc No: AE185.3165.69, Berlyn, Peter
(author), Fowler, Charles (author).
17
18
19
because its copyright has expired. Tallis’ History and
Criticism of the Crystal Palace, 1852.
20
21
http://www.lib.umd.edu/digital/worldsfairs/essay.
jsp?pid=umd:1014.
22
because its copyright has expired. Published by C.F.
Cheffins, Lithographers, Southhampton Buildings,
London, England, 1854 in Snow, John.
23
http://www.swopnet.com/engr/londonsewers/londontext1.html.
24
Ancient Transportation, Michael Woods, Mary B. Woods, p.44.
25
because its copyright has expired. Published 1881 in
Young Persons’ Cyclopedia of Persons and Places.
26
because its copyright has expired. Scanned from
engraving in “Appleton’s Journal of Popular Literature,
Science, and Art”, 1869.
27
Avery, Ralph E. (1913). “The French Failure”. America’s
Triumph in Panama, Chicago, IL: L.W. Walter Company.
574
End Notes
28
because its copyright has expired. Paris, exposition
universelle 1889, “74. Paris. Tour Eiffel (juillet 1888)”
BnF, Estampes et Photographie, Qe Mat 1 http://
expositions.bnf.fr/universelles/.
29
He was awarded the prestigious Elliot Cresson Medal by
the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1890; Gold
Medal of the Paris Exposition and the Bronze Medal of
the World’s Fair in 1893. He was awarded a doctorate for
his work in 1890.
30
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/
Hollerith.html.
31
http://www.greatwestern.org.uk/m_in_gwr.htm.
32
A Practical Plan for Building The Pacific Railroad, T.D.
Washington, D.C. Henry Polkinhorn, Printer. 1857.
33
Source: Railroad Commissioners’ Reports (Central Pacific
Railroad), http://cprr.org/Museum/NARA/index.html.
Chapter Fourteen
1
Called an auto-typist, it stores and reproduces simple form
letters and certain paragraphs using punched paper tape
as the storage medium.
2
The Guns of August, Barbara Tuchman, 1962.
3
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/Anthro/Anth101/
taylorism_and_fordism.htm.
4
Ground breaking experiments conducted at the Western
Electric plant in Chicago from 1927-1932.
5
Further reading on the Human Relations movement
575
includes: Kurt Lewin, one of the first researchers to study

group dynamics and evolve organizational development;
Abraham Maslow presented “The Hierarchy of Needs” in
“The U.S. Psychology Review” in 1943; Douglas McGregor
published “Theory X and Theory Y” in “The Human Side
of Enterprise” in 1960; Frederick Herzberg published the
Hygiene-Motivation Theory in “The Motivation to Work”
in 1959. (http://www.accel-team.com, 2004).
6
Source: http://www.economicprincipals.com/issues/02.11.10.
html.
7
Source: http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/Anthro/Anth101/
taylorism_and_fordism.htm.
8
Source: http://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/project-
Planning-tools/overview/pdca-cycle.html.
9
because its copyright has expired. “Illustrated History of
the Panama Railroad” , Fessenden Nott Otis, Harper &
Brothers, New York, 1861.
10
because its copyright has expired. “Illustrated History of
the Panama Railroad”, Fessenden Nott Otis, Harper &
11
Source: Avery, Ralph E. (1913), “The French Failure”.
America’s Triumph in Panama. Chicago, IL: L.W. Walter
Company.
12
The Panama Canal, José Carlos Rodrigues.
13
Otis, Fessenden Nott; llustrated History of the Panama
Railroad, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1861.
14
because its copyright has expired. “Historical Atlas”
Company, 1923. Online source: University of Texas Perry-
576
End Notes
Casteneda Map Collection, http://www.lib.utexas.edu/

maps/historical/history_shepherd_1923.html.
15
because its copyright has expired. Culebra Cut of the
Panama Canal, 1907.
16
because its copyright has expired. From The Panama
Canal, an address to the National Geographic Society,
Colonel Goethals, February 10, 1911.
17
because its copyright has expired. Book source:
“Historical Atlas”, William R. Shepherd, New York,
Henry Holt and Company, 1923. Online source:
University of Texas Perry-Casteneda Map Collection,
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_
shepherd_1923.html.
18
http://www.canalmuseum.com/documents/
panamacanalhistory023.htm.
19
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=
1&res=9A03E1DC1638E233A25756C2A9649D94639ED
7CF.
20
http://www.generalcontractor.com/resources/
articles/hoover-dam.asp.
21
In today’s dollars the bid would be worth more than $577
Million.
22
because its copyright has expired. The U.S. Bureau of
reclamation.
23
577

reclamation.
24
Building the Empire State, Carol Willis and Donald Friedman.
25
because its copyright has expired. Gottscho, Samuel H.,
photographer. Architecture and Interior Design for 20th
Century America, 1935-1955, Library of Congress.
26
Image courtesy of National Archives and Records
Administration.
Chapter Fifteen
1
Logistics is defined by the modern British Army as: The
science of planning and carrying out the movement and
maintenance of forces. Infantry Tactical Doctrine Volume
1, Pamphlet No.1, The Infantry Company Group, The
Fundamentals (1998) p.6-2.
2
1986, p.59.
3
1986, p.51.
4
1986, p.76, p.249 #7.
5
p.40.
6
1986, p.247 #6.
7
8
9
578
End Notes

Roman citizens.
10
Pyramid Quest, Robert M Schoch, 2005, p.90.
11
12
A Social Study of the Emperor’s Freedmen and Slaves. P.R.C.
Weaver, Familia Caesaris. Cambridge, University Press,
1972.
13
History of Communications, http://www.nathan.
com/projects/current/comtimeline.html.
14
15
1986, p.40.
16
1986, p.86.
17
Origins of Modern PM, Patrick Weever, December
2007, http://www.mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF_Papers/
P050_Origins_of_Modern_PM.pdf.
18
Moore, P.E..
19
Fabric Rolls and Documents Of York Minster (Paperback),
illustrated by John Browne, James Raine (Author).
579
580
References
1
The International Project Management Association (IPMA)
was founded in 1967 and the Project Management
Institute was founded in 1969.
2
Houdin, 2008, HarperCollins, p.69.
3
The Farther Reaches of Human Nature.
4
Technics and Civilization, Lewis Mumford, 1963.
5
The first North American explorers, Stone Age, http://www.pbs.
org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3116_stoneage.html.
6
Dates, definitions and examples of the earliest known usage of
these words can be found in the Merriam-Webster
Dictionary.
7
According to David Nye, Jacob Bigelow, who was a Harvard
professor of medicine, formulated the word ‘technology’
in 1828. In his Elements of Technology, Bigelow
“encouraged the fusion of science and art, which he felt
was characteristic of industrial society” (Nye, 1994, p.46).
581
8
“Upon the request of the poet Coleridge in 1833, Whewell
invented the English word “scientist”. Before this
time the only terms in use were “natural philosopher”
and “man of science.”” See Snyder, Laura J., “William
Whewell”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.
stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/whewell/.
9
History of engineering, http://www.creatingtechnology.org/
history.htm#1.
10
Paul Allen, History of PM, http://members.aol.com/AllenWeb/
history.html.
11
12
Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt. This image (or other
media file) is in the public domain because its copyright
has expired.
13
14
15
The Day the Universe Changed, James Burke, 1985, p.113.
16
Derived from experiment and observation rather than theory.
17
Project Lessons from the Great Escape, Multi-Media
Publications Inc.
18
Project Management Body of Knowledge.
19
20
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?gr
oupid=1431&HistoryID=ab23.
582
References
21
22
Based on the six simple machines defined by Renaissance
scientists as the lever, wheel and axel, pulley, inclined
plane, wedge, and screw.
23
A History of Accounting Thought, Michael Chatfield, Chapter
24
Source: The Secret of the Great Pyramid, Bob Brier and
Jean-Pierre Houdin, p.23-24.
25
because its copyright has expired. http://pymd.com/
Saqqara-Pyramids-Djoser.htm.
26
because its copyright has expired. http://www.guardians.
net/egypt/pyramids/dahshur/Sneferu/TheBentPyramid.
htm#about.
27
1986, p.4.
28
Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women.
For a Pharaoh it would have been between 60 to 70.
Source: Filer, Joyce (1996). Disease, Austin, Texas:
University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72498-5.
29
and Harold Dorn.
30
Source: Pyramid, David Macauley, 1975.
31
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramidworkforce.htm.
32
A New Pyramid Age, Philip Coppens.
583
33
Who Built the Pyramids? Not slaves. Archeaologist Mark
Lehner, digging deeper, discovers a city of privileged
workers, by Jonathan Shaw, http://harvardmagazine.
com/2003/07/who-built-the-pyramids.html.
34
A team of construction managers from international
architectural, engineering, and construction management
firm DMJM performed a forensic analysis to determine
the construction methods and management techniques
that were employed by the ancient Egyptians in
constructing the Great Pyramid.
35
Source: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/
pyramid.html?c=y&page=2; http://www.archaeology.
org/0705/etc/pyramid.html; http://www.usatoday.com/
tech/science/2007-05-16-pyramid-theory_N.htm.
36
This image is a computer generated image in the public
domain.
37
This image is not copyrighted. Shepp’s Photographs of the
World, James W. Shepp, Daniel B. Shepp.
38
The Secret of the Great Pyramid, p.14.
39
The Great Wall of China, William Edgar Geil.
40
because its copyright has expired. http://bygones.ebaypix.
net/china1805map.jpg.
41
This image (or other media file) is in the public
domain because its copyright has expired. Photograph
of The Great Wall of China from 1907, Herbert
George Ponting. http://www.geocities.com/blackinkal4/
RoyalGeographicalSociety_Asia_2.html.
42
Technology in World Civilization, Arnold Pacey p.42.
43
584
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Stonehenge 1910. http://www.oldukphotos.com/wiltshire-
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45
http://www.mystae.com/restricted/streams/thera/phoenicians.
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46
National Geographic: Visual History of the World, p.37.
47
because its copyright has expired. http://www.crystalinks.
com/meso.html.
48
Houdin, p.69.
49
Houdin, p.69.
50
51
1986, p.4.
52
http://www.all-art.org/Visual%20History/3.htm.
53
and Harold Dorn.
54
Egypt the Black Land, Paul Jordan, 2000, p.151.
55
56
Building Construction Before Mechanization, John Fitchen, p.6.
57
Source: The Development of Double Entry Bookkeeping
and its Relevance in Today’s Business Environment,
Regina Libina, Pace University, 2005.
585
58
Book-keeping system in which a person charges themselves
with receipts and credits themselves with payments.
Used extensively prior the advent of double-entry book-
keeping.
59
60
Battle, R.R. Grant, 2005.
61
A History of Warfare by John Keegan, 1994, p.169.
62
because its copyright has expired. The Ten Books on
Architecture, Vitruvius Pollio.
63
A History of Accounting Thought, Michael Chatfield, Chapter
9. New York: Dryden Press, 1977.
64
Chatfield, Michael. A History of Accounting Thought, Chapter
6. New York: Dryden Press, 1977.
65
A black siliceous stone used to ascertain the purity of gold
and silver. The streaks of metal left behind on the
touchstone are treated with nitric acid, which dissolves
impurities, and thus, when the streaks are compared, the
contrast between pure and impure metal is heightened.
Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/
topic/600649/touchstone.
66
A History of Accounting Thought, Chatfield, Michael, Chapter
67
because its copyright has expired. Historical Atlas
68
Jeffrey Hurwit, a professor of art history at the University of
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586
References
69
Pericles, The World Book Encyclopedia, 1968, vol. 15, p.255.
The funding of the project seems to have been quite
complex. Aside from these sources of revenue there were
many others including public moneys, tax revenues,
harbor fees, boards of commissioners and judges
contributing as well.
70
The Acropolis in the Age of Pericles, Jeffrey M. Hurwit,
University of Oregon.
71
http://faculty.frostburg.edu/phil/forum/Athens.htm.
72
Chisel marks from about 200 different stonemasons have
been identified. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/
parthenon.
73
Plutarch’s Life of Pericles.
74
75
76
77
78
79
Secrets of the Parthenon, PBS Airdate: January 29, 2008.
partheno.html.
587
80
Secrets of the Parthenon, PBS Airdate: January 29, 2008.
partheno.html.
81
Plutarch’s Life of Pericles. http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/
pericles.html.
82
De architectura (Latin: On architecture).
83
84
85
Title: Manners, Custom and Dress During the Middle Ages and
During the Renaissance Period, Paul Lacroix.
86
87
Ancient and Medieval Banking and Business in the Roman
World, by Jean Andreau, Translated by Janey Lloyd,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
88
89
The Roman Army, by Pat Southern, p.103.
90
91
588
References
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93
The Flavian Amphitheatre, Commonly Called The Colosseum
at Rome: Its History and Substructures Compared with
Other Amphitheatres, John Henry Parker, C.B. Hon.
M.A. Oxon., F.S.A. London.
94
1986, p.51.
95
Origins of Modern PM, Patrick Weever, December 2007, http://
www.mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF_Papers/P050_Origins_
of_Modern_PM.pdf.
96
The Roman Pantheon—The Triumph of Concrete, written by
David Moore, P.E.
97
98
Manumission is the act of freeing a slave, done at the will of
the owner. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2009.
99
100
The earliest permanent amphitheatre would appear to be
that built c.80 BC by Marcus Porcius at Pompeii,
which in plan differs very little from that of the flavian
amphitheatre.
101
of Civilization, Thomas Homer-Dixon, and Ms. Karen
Frecker, an energy analyst based in Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
102
The Colosseum measures 48 meters (157 feet/165 Roman
feet) high, 189 meters (615feet) long, and 165 meters (510
feet) wide, and covers an area of 6 acres.
589
103
http://www.roman-colosseum.info/colosseum/index.htm.
104
Source: Profile of Colosseum with seating areas named in
english. Created by Ningyou. http://commons.wikimedia.
org/.
105
The Colosseum, by Keith Hopkins and Mary Beard, 2006.
106
107
because its copyright has expired. Postcard circa 1960.
108
109
110
Roman Architecture from Augustus To Hadrian The
Colosseum: An Analysis Of The Inherent Political And
Architectural Significance. C.J Lyes.
111
112
113
114
Classical World, John Peter Oleson.
115
If the dome was treated as a series of arch segments, then
the weight of the step rings near the base had a beneficial
structural effect, acting somewhat like a buttress.
590
References
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118
119
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120
According to Liber IV.
121
because its copyright has expired. Painting by John
Soane, 1814.
122
123
because its copyright has expired. Painting by William
Bell Scott, 1857. This image (or other media file) is in the
public domain because its copyright has expired.
124
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3,
p.586, Figure 3.
125
http://www.aboutscotland.co.uk/hadrian/wall.html.
126
Moore, P.E..
127
1986, p.51.
128
The Colosseum, Keith Hopkins and Mary Bend, p.144.
591
129
Roman citizens.
130
131
132
133
1986, p.40.
134
Moore, P.E..
135
136
of Civilization, Thomas Homer-Dixon.
137
138
history.html.
139
Nature, Volume 443, p.28, September 2006, Virginia Hughes.
Incorporates the investigation of the Hagia Sophia
Project by Ahmet Çakmak, a professor emeritus in
earthquake engineering at Princeton University.
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1926. This image (or other media file) is in the public
141
1926. This image (or other media file) is in the public
142
Master-builders of Byzantium, Robert Ousterhout, University
of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology.
143
Shepp’s Photographs of the World, James W. Shepp Daniel,
144
Shepp’s Photographs of the World, James W. Shepp Daniel,
145
philographikon.com/printsmexico.html.
146
Building Construction Before Mechanization. John Fitchen,
1986, p.49.
147
because its copyright has expired. University of Texas
Libraries, http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/
history_europe.html.
148
Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics. Carl Benjamin
Boyer, 1991.
149
Research using computer models and chemical analyses
by Ahmet S. Cakmak, a professor of Civil Engineering at
Princeton and a specialist on the Haghia Sophia.
150
For the weight of the gold used for the mosaics in Hagia
Sophia, cf. A. Cutler, “The Industries of Art,” EHB 557–
58.
593
151
Technology in World Civilization, p.7. Arnold Pacey.
152
153
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vikings/ships.html.
154
155
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156
The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the
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157
158
Wigelsworth.
159
Wigelsworth, p.14.
160
Technics and Civilization, Lewis Mumford, 1963, p.439.
161
http://www.archnet.org/library/dictionary/entry.jsp?entry_
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revised. Hamlin, A. D. F. (Alfred Dwight Foster), 1855-
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revised. Hamlin, A. D. F. (Alfred Dwight Foster), 1855-
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Outline of Universal History, Fisher, George Park.
168
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because its copyright has expired. Jost Amman,
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The Builder, John Harvey, p.47, 1973.
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The Cathedral Builders, Jean Gimpel, p.69,
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173
because its copyright has expired. G. Dehio and G. von
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The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals: A Study of Medieval
Vault Erection, John Fitchen.
595
175
Drawing of A. M. Beloqui in Corton de las Heras 1997, p.275.
176
because its copyright has expired. G. Dehio (died 1932)
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Building Construction Before Mechanization by John Fitchen,
1986, p.8.
178
Cathedral, David Macauley, 1985.
179
James, John, Chartres, The Masons Who Built a Legend,
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180
because its copyright has expired. Arts and Crafts in the
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because its copyright has expired. Georg Agricola, Zwölf
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Schiffner, Berlin 1928.
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Guo, Qinghua. "Yingzao Fashi: Twelfth-Century Chinese
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because its copyright has expired. Plan, from A.
Hamilton Thompson, Military Architecture in England
During the Middle Ages, (London, New York, 1912), p.68.
188
189
190
191
192
This image is from Commons: GNU Free Documentation
License, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
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193
194
1986, p.49.
195
1986, p.49.
196
1986, p.247 #6.
197
1986, p.51.
198
1986, p.17.
199
200
597
201
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The Cathedral Builders, Jean Gimpel, p41 & 47.
203
p.247 #6.
204
p.50.
205
206
The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals, John Fitchen, p.276.
207
208
According to medieval historian Philip Daileader in 2007.
209
The Day the Universe Changed, James Burke, 1985.
210
The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the
Middle Ages, Jean Gimpel, Pimlico 1992.
211
212
According to Brunelleschi’s biographer Antonio Manetti.
213
An old Italian unit of length, usually about 26 or 27 in. (66
or 68 cm).
214
215
216
217
From an order in the book of Migliore di Tommaso, dated
October 3, 1419.
598
References
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219
220
221
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Dreyer (2006): 122–124.
223
because its copyright has expired. 17th Century Chinese
woodblock print.
224
225
Source: Brunelleschi’s Cupola: Past and Present of an
Architectural Masterpiece, Giovanni Fanelli, Giovanni
Fanelli and Michele Fanelli, p.23.
226
Lives of the Most Eminent Painters Sculptors & Architects,
Giorgio Vasari, 1912.
227
228
Lives of The Most Eminent Painters Sculptors & Architects,
1912, Giorgio Vasari.
229
599
230
231
232
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234
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because its copyright has expired. The image comes from
an early 16th Century book titled: Livro das Fortalezas de
Duarte Damas.
238
A newspaper with pages of a size larger than those of a
tabloid. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
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239
because its copyright has expired. Prince Henry the
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1394-1460, C. Raymond Beazley.
600
References
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Spanish currency of one million Maravedis (one cuentos)
in 1490 is equivalent to about 308 English Pounds in
1860, or US$ 48,000 in 2005.
241
the digital ID cph.3c05453, http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/
242
243
This is according to Peter Martyr who kept a special
account of the voyage.
244
245
246
because its copyright has expired. Source based upon
the map in Bourne’s Spain in America, American Nation
Series, Volume III, New York, 1904, Harper.
247
The Americas received wheat, rice, coffee, bananas, and
olives, and horses, cows, pigs, and chickens. They
contributed a virulent form of syphilis as well as corn,
potatoes, tomatoes, lima beans, squash, peanuts, cassava,
cacao, and pineapple.
601
248
249
A Short History of Progress, Ronald Wright, p.114.
250
A good example is ‘The Richard II’ horary quadrant found
in the British Museum, London, UK.
251
The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803, Emma Helen Blair, http://
www.gutenberg.org/files/13255/13255-8.txt.
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because its copyright has expired. http://www.helmink.
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255
because its copyright has expired. 1581, G3201.S12
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http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3201s.rb000011 (Library of
Congress).
256
257
http://www.the-tudors.org.uk/hardwick-hall.htm.
258
oldukphotos.com/graphics/England%20Photos/
Nottinghamshire,%20Mansfield,%20Hardwick%20
Hall%201900’s.jpg.
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Shepp’s Photographs of the World, James W. Shepp Daniel
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Niall Ferguson the Ascent of Money, 2007.
264
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because its copyright has expired. Jackson, William
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1926, Not copyrighted. Photo by Samuel Bourne, 1860.
274
The Story Of Versailles, Francis Loring Payne, 1919.
275
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Francis Loring Payne, The Story of Versailles.
277
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278
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New Glass Architecture, Brent Richards, Dennis
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280
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Historian A.P.J. Taylor wrote that the Palace of Versailles
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283
Taj Mahal, Giles Tillotson, p.73.
284
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The Fatal Shore, Robert Hughes.
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291
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/
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Lowry, Wilson (engraver) Robertson, George (artist),.
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Ellis, William (engraver), Rooker, Michael Angelo
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301
Museum.
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because its copyright has expired. Etching of the Menai
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The First in the World, John Wall, according to Francis
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607
313
Energy and society: an Introduction, Harold H. Schobert, p.263.
314
Christopher Latham Sholes (1819-1890) was a U.S.
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315
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because its copyright has expired. Sir Henry Bessemer,
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because its copyright has expired. Agricultural
Implements and Machines in the Collection of
the National Museum of History and Technology
Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology, No. 17,
Schlebecker, John T.
318
because its copyright has expired. Frank Leslie’s
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319
The British Government gave Field a subsidy of £1,400 a
year and loaned the ships to lay the cable.
320
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322
The Pacific tourist, Williams, Henry T. Collection: Making of
America Books.
323
A Practical Plan For Building The Pacific Railroad, T.D.
Washington, D.C. Henry Polkinhorn, Printer 1857.
608
References
324
The Big Four consisted of Mark Hopkins, Collis P.
Huntington, [Gov.] Leland Stanford, and Charles
Crocker. These men were merchants drawn to the west
by prospects of finding riches in California.
325
http://cprr.org/Museum/Eastward. html#Construction%20
of%20the%20CPRR.
326
The First Transcontinental Railroad, John Debo Galloway, C.
E. (1869-1943) Dorset Press, New York, 1989.
327
because its copyright has expired. This image is available
from the Archival Research Catalog of the National
Archives and Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 594940.
328
The Pacific Tourist Williams’ Illustrated Trans-Continental
Guide, Henry T. Williams, Editor, http://cprr.org/
Museum/Books/Williams_Pacific_Tourist.html.
329
330
331
332
because its copyright has expired. Tallis’ History and
criticism of the Crystal Palace, 1852.
333
334
http://www.lib.umd.edu/digital/worldsfairs/essay.
jsp?pid=umd:1014.
609
335
because its copyright has expired. Published by C.F.
Cheffins, Lithographers, South Hampton Buildings,
London, England, 1854 in Snow, John.
336
http://www.swopnet.com/engr/londonsewers/londontext1.html.
337
Ancient Transportation, Michael Woods, Mary B. Woods, p.44.
338
because its copyright has expired. Published 1881 in
Young Persons’ Cyclopedia of Persons and Places.
339
because its copyright has expired. Scanned from
engraving in “Appleton’s Journal of Popular Literature,
Science, and Art”, 1869.
340
Avery, Ralph E. (1913). “The French Failure”. America’s
Triumph in Panama. Chicago, IL: L.W. Walter Company.
341
because its copyright has expired. Paris, Exposition
Universelle, 1889. “74. Paris. Tour Eiffel (juillet 1888)”
BnF, Estampes et Photographie, Qe Mat 1, http://
expositions.bnf.fr/universelles/.
342
He was awarded the prestigious Elliot Cresson Medal by
the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1890; Gold
Medal of the Paris Exposition and the Bronze Medal of
the World’s Fair in 1893. He was awarded a doctorate for
his work in 1890.
343
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/
Hollerith.html.
344
http://www.greatwestern.org.uk/m_in_gwr.htm.
345
A Practical Plan for Building The Pacific Railroad, T.D.
Washington, D.C. Henry Polkinhorn, Printer. 1857.
610
References
346
Railroad Commissioners’ Reports (Central Pacific Railroad),
http://cprr.org/Museum/NARA/index.html.
347
Called an autotypist, it stores and reproduces simple form
letters and certain paragraphs using punched paper tape
as the storage medium.
348
The Guns of August, Barbara Tuchman, 1962.
349
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/Anthro/Anth101/taylorism_
and_fordism.htm.
350
Groundbreaking experiments conducted at the Western
Electric plant in Chicago from 1927 to 1932.
351
Further reading on the Human Relations movement
includes: Kurt Lewin, one of the first researchers to study
group dynamics and evolve organizational development;
Abraham Maslow presented “The Hierarchy of Needs” in
“The U.S. Psychology Review” in 1943; Douglas McGregor
published “Theory X and Theory Y” in “The Human Side
of Enterprise” in 1960; Frederick Herzberg published the
Hygiene-Motivation Theory in “The Motivation to Work”
in 1959. (www.accel-team.com, 2004).
352
http://www.economicprincipals.com/issues/02.11.10.html.
353
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/Anthro/Anth101/taylorism_
and_fordism.htm.
354
www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/project-planning-tools/
overview/pdca-cycle.html.
355
because its copyright has expired. Illustrated History of
the Panama Railroad by Fessenden Nott Otis, Harper &
356
because its copyright has expired. Illustrated History of
the Panama Railroad, Fessenden Nott Otis, Harper &
611
357
Avery, Ralph E. (1913). The French Failure, America’s
Triumph in Panama, Chicago, IL: L.W. Walter Company.
358
The Panama Canal, José Carlos Rodrigues.
359
Otis, Fessenden Nott; llustrated History of the Panama
Railroad, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1861.
360
Company, 1923, University of Texas Perry-Casteneda
361
because its copyright has expired. Culebra Cut of the
Panama Canal, 1907.
362
because its copyright has expired. From The Panama
Canal, an Address to the National Geographic Society,
Colonel Goethals, February 10, 1911.
363
because its copyright has expired. Historical Atlas,
Company, 1923, University of Texas Perry-Casteneda
364
http://www.canalmuseum.com/documentspanamacanal
history023.htm.
365
http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=
1&res=9A03E1DC1638E233A25756C2A9649D94639ED
7CF.
366
http://www.generalcontractor.com/resources/articles/hoover-
dam.asp.
612
References
367
In today’s dollars the bid would be worth more than $577
million.
368
reclamation.
369
reclamation.
370
Building the Empire State, Carol Willis and Donald Friedman.
371
because its copyright has expired. Gottscho, Samuel H.,
photographer. Architecture and Interior Design for 20th
Century America, 1935 - 1955, Library of Congress.
372
Image courtesy of National Archives and Records
Administration.
373
Logistics is defined by the modern British Army as: The
science of planning and carrying out the movement and
maintenance of forces. Infantry Tactical Doctrine Volume
1, Pamphlet No.1, The Infantry Company Group, The
Fundamentals (1998) pp.6-2.
374
1986, p.59.
375
1986, p.51.
376
1986, p.76, p.249 #7.
377
p.40.
378
1986, p.247 #6.
613
379
380
381
Roman citizens.
382
Pyramid Quest, Robert M Schoch, 2005, p.90.
383
Pyramid, David Macauley 1975.
384
A Social Study of the Emperor’s Freedmen and Slaves. P.R.C.
Weaver, Familia Caesaris. Cambridge, University Press,
1972.
385
History of Communications, http://www.nathan.com/projects/
current/comtimeline.html.
386
387
1986, p.40.
388
1986, p.86.
389
Origins of Modern PM, Patrick Weever, December 2007, http://
www.mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF_Papers/P050_Origins_
of_Modern_PM.pdf.
390
Moore, P.E..
391
Fabric Rolls and Documents Of York Minster (Paperback),
illustrated By John Browne, James Raine (Author).
392
Colosseum Calculation Assumptions continued.. The Upside of
Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of
Civilization, Thomas Homer-Dixon.
614
Index
A Hemienu 21, 25, 71-78, 87-

90, 498; see also Giza
Accounting, management
pyramid project
techniques for projects
Iktinos 107; see also
20th Century 456-457
Parthenon project
Ancient Egypt 89
Imhotep 68, 85; see also
Ancient Greece 103, 117 First Pyramid project
China 90 Le Vau, Louis 343-346; see
also Palace of Versailles
Medieval 205, 207, 228, 235
project
Romans 127, 129, 163
Leonardo da Vinci 38, 270,
Victorian 405 290
Architects, project 37; skills Michelangelo 38, 313-317
and traits 38; see also Best
Paxton, Joseph 418, 421,
practices
431, 441-444; see also
Afandi, Ismail 334; see also Crystal Palace project
Taj Mahal project
Postnik and Barma 316; see
Anthemius and Isidorus 178, also St Basil’s Cathedral
187, 190, 499; see also project
Hagia Sophia project
Villard de Honnecourt 38-39
Brunelleschi, Fillipo 152,
Assembly Line see also
243-268, 498-499, 523-
Techniques, construction
524; see also Florence
Cathedral Duomo project Authority, of sponsor (king)
224; of architect 512
Ghiberti, Lorenzo 248; see
also Florence Cathedral
Duomo project
615
B Çakmak, Ahmet, professor

emeritus in earthquake
Baseline 51, 527; competence
engineering see also Hagia
543; Performance
Sophia project 525
Measurement 457
Canal Du Midi project 349, 355
Best practices, 21; poor/shoddy
230, 509; see also Architects Cathedral at Hagia Sophia
project 177, 192, 494, 498,
Ancient Egypt 71, 91
502, 517, 526
Building codes (Rome and
Chatsworth, Great Conservatory
medieval London) 167,
418, 431, 444; see also
517
Crystal Palace project
Gothic 233, 509
Cities (related to projects)
Industrial Revolution 368,
Babylon 62, 64, 66, 95, 113
482
Constantinople 25, 44, 173,
Project Management 21, 456
177-178, 184, 187, 256,
Villard de Honnecourt, 269, 271, 276, 328, 348
writings of medieval
Florence 24, 43, 152, 240-
architect 38-39, 46, 48,
266, 337, 492, 494, 498,
195, 213, 223, 499, 504,
520
523, 546, 582
London 30, 31, 34, 43-44,
Vitruvius, Treatise on
183, 328-329, 356, 375,
Architecture 37, 46, 48,
386, 399, 409, 418-424,
124-125, 128-129, 139,
430, 435-445, 493-494,
147, 158, 166, 168, 499,
517-518, 526
517, 523
New York, Manhattan 375,
Blue Mosque project 328, 348,
415-417, 428, 457-459,
386
472-478
Bridgewater Canal project 184
Moscow 316-318
Business model 390-391, 395,
Paris 43, 159, 195,
396, 498, 502; steam-drawn
198, 205, 209, 213,
versus horse-drawn traffic
228,231,235,242,342-348,
382
418, 421, 427-428, 460
Petra 31, 112
C
Rome 43, 63, 99-100, 104,
Caesar’s Rhine Bridge projects 123, 125-143, 149, 151,
154 154, 159-160, 166-168,
172-173, 175, 178, 180,
616
Index
190, 193, 245-246, 252, Papyrus, documents 66;

255, 259, 300, 312-314, courier service 94
317, 321, 344, 353, 507,
Plaster, pieces of 209
516, 517
Radio 25, 403, 448;
San Francisco 415-7, 448,
Television 25, 448
451, 458, 472, 479, 517,
519 Telephone 25, 400
City-states 99 Templates 44, 57, 120, 161,
230, 514, 526; miniature
Athens 101, 116
models 57, 526; scale
Colossus of Rhodes, ancient models 56, 120,129, 161,
wonder 113 249, 263, 509; see also
Prototypes
Colosseum project 134-145
Typewriter 400, 572
Amphitheaters (Capua,
Pompey, Verona) 504 Communication Management in
projects 57
Project Walkthrough by
Karen Frecker 137, 529 Colosseum project 166
Commerce see Drivers for project Crystal Palace project 441
Communication Management, Empire State Building
distribute information project 488
(methods and tools, media
First Railway project 393
and channels) 57, 233, 514-
515 Florence Cathedral Duomo
project 256, 266-267
Books 275, 300-302, 400; see
also Knowledge, spread Giza Pyramid project 93
through printing
Gothic Cathedral projects
Broadsheets and 232; long scale projects
Newspapers 275, 332 233
Mason’s marks 94, 230, 234, Hagia Sophia project 190
510; see also Quality
Hoover Dam project 488
Management, other,
traceability Iron Bridge project 393
Morse telegraph 399-406 London City Sewer project
441
Paper, documents 133,
176; dispatchers 166; Palace of Versailles project
parchment 209 355
Panama Canal project 488
617
Parthenon project 119 Charles V, King of Spain

305; see also Voyage of
Taj Mahal project 355
Magellan
Transcontinental Railroad
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 349;
project 441
see also Canal Du Midi
Voyages of Columbus 294 project
Voyage of Magellan 323; Consuls of the Guild of
mishandled 318, 515 Wool 244-255; see also
Florence Cathedral
Communication Management,
Duomo project
other
Ferdinand V, King of Spain
Morale, in projects 94, 218,
279; see also Voyages of
231, 263, 267, 308, 321,
Columbus
488, 516, 524
Field, Cyrus 406, 431; see
Public visibility of project
also Transatlantic Cable
488; marketing 228, 388,
project
441, 467, 516; adoption
294 Hadrian, Emperor 145; see
also Pantheon
Report performance 233, 514
Ivan IV, Tsar 316; see also St
Requirements 57, 190, 233,
Basil’s Cathedral project
514
Jehan, Mughal Emperor
Stakeholder influence 226,
Shah 333-335; see also
260, 393; interest in
Taj Mahal project
project 279, 346, 366,
377, 458, 461, 516 Justinian, Emperor 177;
see also Hagia Sophia
Stakeholder management
project
166, 233, 259, 260, 294,
394, 499; conflicts with Lincoln, President
260, 512; expectations Abraham 411; see
226, 230, 233, 450, 514; also Transcontinental
strategies 284, 295, 441 Railroad project
Communication Management, Louis XIV, King of France
stakeholder management, 342; see also Palace of
project sponsors Versailles project
Caesar, Julius 154, 158; Necno, Pharoah 84
see also Caesar’s Rhine
Pease, Edward 377; see also
Bridge projects
First Railway project
618
Index
Pericles, 105, 114, 116-120, St. Peter’s Basilica project

499; see also Parthenon 321
project
Qin Shi Huang, Emperor 79,
Transatlantic Cable project
111; see also Great Wall
437
of China project
Roosevelt, President
project 437
Franklin, New Deal 450
Voyages of Columbus 292
Vespasian, Emperor 135; see
also Colosseum project Voyage of Magellan 321
William of Normandy Cost Management, other
(Medieval building boom)
Budget 20, 41, 44, 55, 78, 89,
223
90, 114-115, 117, 163,
Cost Management in projects 55 201, 205, 207, 228, 292,
321, 351, 353, 356, 371,
Colosseum project 162
407, 411, 417, 434, 438,
Crystal Palace project 437 478, 480, 483-486, 489,
495-498, 501, 507-508,
Empire State Building
524; tracking 489
project 486
Contract 437; see
also Procurement
Florence Cathedral Duomo management
project 262
Control, costs 213, 228;
Giza Pyramid project 89 cost control techniques
162, 189, 210, 229, 262,
337, 353, 379, 392, 417,
228
438, 485; earned value
Hagia Sophia project 189 management 457
Hoover Dam project 469, 485 Cost performance, over
budget 321, 351, 353-
Iron Bridge project 392
356, 371, 407, 435; under
London City Sewer project budget 114-115, 478,
423 480, 483, 489, 498
Palace of Versailles project Estimating 367, 392, 485;
353 analogous 88, 321;
inaccuracies 503;
parametric 437, 486;
Parthenon project 116 levels of accuracy 89,
485-490; revised 460;
619
under or poor 306, 320, Commerce 31, 237, 241, 271,

390,392, 395 302, 304, 357, 397, 479;
first limited company
Funding 44, 71, 86, 106, 127,
330; see also Finance
135, 146, 158-160, 178,
225, 234, 276, 278, 319, Crown 269, 285, 299, 302,
321, 342, 372, 377, 407, 318, 327, 357, 397, 447
411, 437, 441-445, 500,
Economy, boost of 24, 54, 84,
507, 512, 516
86, 106, 114-118, 268,
Schedule performance, 330, 499; agrarian 89,
ahead of schedule 417, 96, 175; global 361, 400;
436, 470-474, 478, 480, labor 357, 361; limits on
485, 495-496, 506 128; money vs. barter
32, 124, 238, 240, 244;
System of accounts 163, 205,
temple 61, 97
228
Religion, church 31, 171,
Crystal Palace project 418-421
175, 193, 195, 204-205,
219, 226, 237, 239, 269,
D 299, 302, 316, 327, 329,
357, 397, 507, 514, 522
Democracy, development of 99,
327, 329, 360 State 31, 67, 79, 104, 123,
127, 193, 237, 239, 270,
Design 272, 299, 302, 318, 327,
Considerations 23, 40-41, 329, 357, 361, 397, 447,
44, 86, 93, 128, 138, 141, 451; tax induced 158,
146, 187-191, 229, 244- 160, 197, 239
253, 257, 259, 260, 262,
294, 325, 332, 335, 347,
352, 369, 380, 385, 392, E
409, 418, 428, 439, 472, Eiffel Tower project 427-428
475, 480, 488
Empiricism 330; empirical
Esthetically pleasing 108, approach to project
115, 188, 498, 509 management 357, 389, 424,
432, 443
Over-designed 371
Empire State Building project
Preliminary 165-166, 177-
474-478
182, 205, 209, 312, 367,
441, 469; deviations from Engineer 37, 38; Renaissance
504 290
Drivers for project
620
Index
Babbage, Charles 361, 428, Newcomen, Thomas 387;

435; see also Babbage see also First Railway
System project project
Bazalgette, Joseph 423; Pritchard, Thomas 367;
see also London Sewer see also First Railway
project project
Bright, Charles, 406; see Savery, Thomas 387; see also
also Transatlantic Cable First Railway project
project
Smeaton, John 364 see
Brindley, James 377; see also concrete (Supply
also Bridgewater Canal chain, materials used in
project projects)
Brunel, Isambard Kingdom Stephenson, George 376,
387, 419, 430 387; see also First
Railway project
Darby III, Abraham 366,
387; see also Iron Bridge Telford, Thomas 385; see
project also Menai Suspension
Bridge project
De Vaubau, Sebastian
(military) 350 Trevithick, Richard 387;
see also First Railway
Eiffel, Gustave, 427; see also
project
Eiffel Tower project
Vitruvius 37; see also Best
Hollerith, Herman 428, 432;
practices
see also Hollerith System
project Watt, James 364, 387;
Jessop, William 375-376;
project
project Whitworth, Joseph 387
Judah, Theodore 413, 431; Engineering 40, 362
see also Transatlantic
Aeronautic 452
Continental Railroad
project Chemical 451
London, John Cladius 418; Civil 362
see also Crystal Palace
Control 452
project
Electrical 451
Losh, William 376; see also
First Railway project Ingeniators 37
Industrial 452
621
Marine 452 Winches 108, 140, 154, 158

Mechanical 362 Equipment, making materials
Precision 363 Blast furnaces 353, 366
Entrepreneurs Brass and glass furnaces
304, 333
Fields, Cyrus 406, 431, 500
Coke-fired furnace 193, 200,
Pease, Edward 377-396, 500
363-364, 387, 392
Equipment, exploration, ships
Kilns 164, 363, 387
Caravel 272; carrack 274,
Equipment, measuring and
282; knar 222; longship
aligning
199; nau 274
Abacus 201
Equipment, hand-tools
Egyptian, set squares 78;
Chisels, copper/bronze 72,
plum-bobs 78; a-frames
78; iron 119
78
Mallets, wooden 78; iron 108
Gothic, measuring
Saws, copper 78 instruments 212
Wedges 62, 65, 73, 78, 508 Greek, axial dowels and
pantograph 109
Equipment, lifting
Renaissance, quadrant and
Capstans, windlasses, gins
vernier 303
136, 168
Slide rule 331
Counterweights and wheels
255 Equipment, measuring time
Cranes 120, 132, 369, 394; Clock, falling weight 242;
steam 427 miniaturization 303;
public striking 202; Su
Derricks 369, 394, 476
Song’s astronomical
Elevators 40, 144, 159, 402, 200; water 66, 202; see
427 also Time Management,
calendar units
Great wheel 231, 508
Hour glass 273, 283
Hoists 211, 252, 477
Sundials 66, 202, 273
Lifting towers 132, 163
Equipment, navigation
Steam shovel 35, 463-465,
484, 492 Astrolabe 102, 272, 283
Treadmills 158, 214
622
Index
Cartography 273, 303; charts Electrical generators and

and maps 283, 303 motors 402
Compass 273, 275, 283- Inclined plane 65, 508
284,309
Lever 65, 94, 108
Cross-staffs 273
Pulley, yardarm 102, 108,
Log-line (dead reckoning) 119, 136, 312; counter
275 weights 136
Nautical almanacs 283 Screw, ratchet, water wheel
(aeolipile) 101
Nocturnal and traverse
boards 273 Equipment, transportation land
Marine chronometer 275 Cart 139, 158, 214, 379, 416,
476, 486
Portable sundials 272
Horse shoe, harness and
Telescope 331
collar 201; saddle 134;
Equipment, safety (Risk stirrup 133
mitigation) see also Human
Railroad 360, 400;
Resource Management,
locomotives 375-384,
workforce, safety of
388-398, 414-415, 463,
Hard hats 480 492, 498; Rocket 383
Hurdles 21 Rollers 72, 108
Protective parapets 267 Sled 72, 75, 78, 136, 151
Safety lines and net 480 Wagon 108, 136, 336, 373,
379
Scaffolding 72, 140, 182, 210,
337, 370; practices 518 Equipment, transportation
water
Ships, RMS Titanic 479
Barge 133, 151
Equipment, scientific
Boat 36, 76, 133, 151
Microscope 331
Junks 133
Telescope 331
Caravels 257, 273
Thermometer and barometer
331 Carrack 36, 273, 282
Equipment, simple machines Nau 273, 282
Chute and hopper 477 Steam ship, SS Great
Eastern 408
623
Treasure ships (Zheng He’s) Medieval Europe, financial

257 revolution 240
Expert judgment 233, 284, 293, National banks, England 330
302, 433, 469, 480, 483-484,
Mercantilism 302
489, 515
Roman 127-128; money
Explorers, project
supply for projects 160,
Age of 271 220
Columbus, Christopher Standardizing the quality of
36, 44, 256, 271-297, gold 103
319-324, 493-518, 532;
Finance, management
Captain Pinzón 281;
techniques
influence on Magellan
304 Cost Benefit Analysis 456
De Gama, Vasco 33, 270-271, Earned Value Management
302 456
Ericsson, Leif 194, 197, 222, Return on Investment 456
498
Financiers, project
Magellan, Ferdinand 25,
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste
256, 302, 304-311, 317-
342-345, 349, 350-356,
325, 493-519
515; see also Human
Polo, Marco 256; influence on Resource management,
Columbus 257, 278 project sponsors
Zheng He, Admiral 257 Mukrimat Khan and Mir
Abdul Karim 334; see
also Taj Mahal project
F
Santangel (court treasurer)
Factory System 404 295; see also Voyages of
Finance, banking system Columbus
Ancient Greek 104 First Railway project (Stockton
Darlington Railway) 373-
Bank notes, Chinese 176; 384, 387-396, 495-506
European 303
Fitchen, John, author and
Central bank, U.S. 362 architect 527; see also Gothic
Currency, coined money 103, Cathedral projects
125 Florence Cathedral Duomo
Gold Standard 362 project 243-256, 258-268
624
Index
Freedom of information 106, 115 First Railway project 393

Florence Cathedral Duomo
G project 264
Giza Pyramid project 67-79 Giza Pyramid project 92
Globalization 397, 401; see also Gothic Cathedral projects
Drivers for project, economy, 205
global Hadrian’s Wall project 155
Golden Gate Bridge project 479- Hagia Sophia project 189,
481 190
Gothic Cathedral projects 204- Hoover Dam project 473
218, 224-236
Iron Bridge project 393
Grand Canal of China project
112, 220-221 Palace of Versailles project
355
Great Wall of China project 79
Parthenon project 106, 118-
H 119
Hadrian’s Wall project 155
St. Peter’s Basilica project
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 322
ancient wonder 113
Hardwick Hall project 311-312
Herodotus, Greek historian 74, project 413, 415, 440;
84 influence on Canadian
Hollerith System project 429-430 and Trans-Siberian
Transcontinental
Human Resource Management Railroad 417
in projects 56
Caesar’s Rhine Bridge
projects 154 Voyage of Magellan 321
Canal Du Midi project 355 Human Resource Management,

team (acquire, develop,
Colosseum project 137 manage)
Crystal Palace project 419, Acquire, recruit 81, 100, 118,
440 205-209, 218, 224, 231,
Empire State Building 266, 281, 334, 443, 494;
project 477 negotiation 253
625
Develop team 93, 100, 165, Productivity improvements

230-232, 253, 280-281, 24, 263, 398, 452,
294, 322, 344, 360, 453; 454, 482, 524; mass
apprenticeship 207, 253, production 164
362, 387, 511; craftsman
Responsibilities, accountable
209; lodges 206, 231, 510
for 94, 230, 234, 351, 510
Manage 190; ruoli 264;
Reward system 56, 158, 164,
conflict management
232, 440, 444, 493, 512-
189, 235, 260, 512
513, 524
Human Resource Management,
Safety of 118, 267, 443, 452,
workforce
454, 474, 479-483, 487-
Black death, impact on 239, 489, 493, 509, 513, 516
244, 264
Scientifically analyze work
Character traits see also 453
Villard de Honnecourt
Skilled workforce 75, 88,
Contractors 37, 46, 58, 136- 187, 229, 262, 264, 441,
137, 158, 165, 167, 209, 511
353, 417, 444, 462, 474-
Specialization 38, 100, 322,
477, 489, 493, 495, 513,
360, 396, 483, 521;
520-521; guarantees 158
Mohawk iron workers
Guilds 137, 195, 207; 476, 487
life insurance by
Standardization of work 405,
trade 516; lodges (co-
452
location) 206, 231, 510;
Standardization 510; Trades 75, 92, 106, 119, 212,
Theodosian Code 511 225, 228, 413, 438, 475,
511, 526; education 158,
Imported or transitory
173, 207, 362
workforce 415, 486, 513
Training 100, 165, 186,
Labor shortages 242, 415,
362, 387, 512; by
442, 493, 520; skills 355
demonstration 231
Leadership, exemplary 37,
Turnover 461, 499
104, 114, 187, 195, 409,
469, 526 Unemployment 25, 54, 106,
114, 115, 118, 120, 121,
Living conditions 470, 488
138, 166, 449, 451, 470,
Manumit slaves 137, 165; 479, 484, 502
serfs 209
Personnel Programs 454
626
Index
Welfare of 401, 450, 470, Taj Mahal project 351

486-487, 513; sick days
355; vacation 232, 355
433
Work practices, existing 21,
29, 49, 59; new 43, 398,
project 433
440, 455
I Voyage of Magellan 319

Insurance 405 Integration Management, other
Integration Management in Business case 86, 115, 135,
projects 53 160, 225, 244, 260, 280,
291, 305, 319, 353, 411,
Colosseum project 136, 160 424-425, 428, 434- 435,
Crystal Palace project 434 458, 483-485, 502, 539-
542
project 484 Business Justification 23,
115, 160, 188, 257, 260,
First Railway project 390 285, 351, 366, 377, 390,
Florence Cathedral Duomo 396, 411, 418, 427, 445,
project 260 483 502, 524
Giza Pyramid project 86 Change control 188, 260,
343, 345, 351, 435
204 Deliverables 20, 51, 54, 112,
115, 189, 260, 323, 354,
Hagia Sophia project 177, 470, 494, 524-525; in the
188 contract 168
Hollerith System project 435 Charter 86, 105-106, 115,
Hoover Dam project 483 146, 160, 177, 276,
291, 304, 333, 351,
Iron Bridge project 390 377, 434; churchmen
London City Sewer project administrators 185
435 Financing projects 28, 103-
Palace of Versailles project 105, 115-117, 124-129,
342 134, 158, 205, 225-
226,244, 246, 278, 291,
Panama Canal project 483 304, 317,344, 388, 392-
Parthenon project 115 396, 411, 414, 434, 445,
457-458, 463, 516; see
Pantheon project 145
627
also Finance, banking L

system
Lessons learned, failure
Governance 86, 115, 205, assessments 56, 234-235,
225, 260, 351-352, 483 462, 509, 522
Project approval Lehner, Mark, Egyptologist at
requirements 68, 106, Giza 75
209, 225, 291, 319, 342-
Lighthouse of Alexandria,
343, 335, 342, 353, 436
ancient wonder 113
Prosperity, improve 204, 505
London City Sewer project 421
Transition plan 225
Internal ramp theory, Giza M
Pyramid project 76
Management techniques,
Iron Bridge project 365 developed by
Babbage, Charles 361
J Brown, F. Donaldson 456
Journey of Marco Polo 256
Dupuit, Jules 456
Follett, Mary Parker 468
K
Gantt, Henry 453, 475, 481
Knowledge, spread through
Gilbreths, Frank and Lillian
Books, dissemination 300 452
Crusades 193 Hawthorne Studies 454
European universities, first Marshall, Alfred 456
198
Maslow, Abraham 27
Paper 300
Smith, Adam 360
Printing 270, 300; moveable
typeface 275, 293; Taylor, Frederick Winslow
engraved copper plates 453, 481
300; see also Equipment, Master-builder 38, 93; skills
navigation, cartography of 212; turnover on single
Rediscovery of ancient Greek project 213, 499; tool kit 223
and Muslim 198 Anthemius 178, 180; see also
Hagia Sophia project
Callicrates 108; see also
Parthenon project
628
Index
Character traits 499 see also Francis Bacon and Rene

Villard de Honnecourt Descartes 330
New generations of 504 Pont du Gard Aqueduct project
153
Master-carpenter 129; Roman
129 Postal system, Egypt 66
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, PMBoK® 29
ancient wonder 113
PRINCE2® 539; mapping to
Menai Suspension Bridge project PMBoK® 541
385
Principles (architecture) 213
Middle Ages, definition 169
Process
Military, influence on projects
Repeating 435; arch 498
125, 129, 134; architects/
engineers 240; Hadrian’s Procurement Management in
Wall project 155 projects 58
Morale, on projects 94, 218, 231, Colosseum project 136
263, 267, 308, 321, 488, 516,
Crystal Palace project 444
524
project 474, 489
O
Object 29
project 252, 267
P Giza Pyramid project 95
Palace of Versailles project 341
Panama Canal project 457 207, 210, 235
Pantheon project 145 Hagia Sophia project 192
Parthenon project 104 Hoover Dam project 468-469,
Pharaohs 489
Djoser 68 Iron Bridge project 395
Khufu 71 Palace of Versailles project

356
Necno 84
Panama Canal project 452 ,
Sneferu 69, 71 489
Philosophers Parthenon project 121
629
St. Peter’s Basilica project Tender 438, 444; bid for

325 work 235; criteria 444;
request for proposals/
proposals 279, 305, 343
Transatlantic Cable project 423, 441, 468
445
Suppliers 488, 490; selection
Transcontinental Railroad of 487
project 444
Program 33, 36, 52, 86, 105-106,
Voyages of Columbus 296 118, 125, 158-159
Voyage of Magellan 325 Project 29, 51; alternatives 323;
failure 460, 462; life cycle
Procurement Management,
23, 29, 52, 54, 264; pilot 389,
Other
407, 435
Building codes 167, 509, 517
Project processes
Bidder conference 266
Initiating 68, 80, 82, 105,
Compulsory purchasing and 135, 177, 204,244, 276,
adjudication 228 304, 333, 342, 366, 376,
406, 411, 418, 423, 458,
Contracts 264, 297; fixed cost
468, 474, 480
434; fixed price 436; fixed
price with penalty 379; Planning 71, 80, 82, 106,
Roman 136 136, 146, 178, 209, 246,
257, 276, 305, 334, 343,
Contractors 137, 167-168,
367, 407, 411, 418, 423,
353
460, 468, 475, 480
Guidelines, Vitruvius 168;
Executing 76, 80, 83, 107,
see also Best practices
139, 147, 180, 209, 248,
Penalty and reward, bonus 281, 306, 337, 368, 379,
58, 232, 469, 473, 484, 414, 419, 423, 462, 469,
489, 513, 521, 524; legal 475, 480
sanctions 509; privileges
Monitoring and Controlling
92, 512; retainer 246
78, 81, 110, 143, 182,
Permits (Building) 509 252, 285, 310, 346, 371,
409, 417, 420, 424
Practices 329
Closing 78, 81, 83, 111, 144,
Process 499
184, 216, 256, 267, 288,
Service of worker 235 311, 338, 347, 372, 409,
417, 421, 424, 467, 473,
Seller 395
478, 480
630
Index
Project construction booms 160, 69; Meidum 69; Step

171, 204 Pyramid of Djoser 68
World record fever 204, 474 Public works projects, New Deal
(Roosevelt) 450, 451, 479
Project management 29
Project managers
Q
Crowe, Frank T. 468-473,
482-486; see also Hoover Quality Management in projects
Dam project 55
De Lesseps, Ferdinand Colosseum project 163

425, 460-462; see also Crystal Palace project 439
Suez Canal project and
Panama Canal project Eiffel Tower project 439
Early projects 47 First Railway project 393
Overseer 205, 225; see Florence Cathedral Duomo

also Gothic Cathedral project 263
projects Giza Pyramid project 90
Phidias 107; see also Gothic Cathedral project
Parthenon project 210
Starrett brothers & Eken Hagia Sophia 189
Inc. 474; see also Empire
State Building project Hoover Dam project 487
Straw, Joseph 480; see also Iron Bridge project 393

Golden Gate Bridge Palace of Versailles project
project 354
Prototypes, models; see Panama Canal project 487
also Project pilot,
and Communication Pantheon project 148
Management, distribute Parthenon project 110, 117,
information, templates 119
Crystal Palace project 495 St. Peter’s Basilica project
Florence Cathedral Duomo 323
project 253, 264 Sumerians 91
Hagia Sophia project 184 Taj Mahal project 354
Pyramids, Ancient Egyptian, Transatlantic Cable project
Bent Pyramid of Sneferu 407, 439
631
Transcontinental Railroad Tivoli 132, 168

project 439
Voyages of Columbus 293 R
Voyage of Magellan 322 Race to South Pole project 479
Quality Management, other Renaissance 137, 241, 269; most
Defects 56, 120, 456, 516; impressive project of period
prevention 439 256;
Inspections 56, 90-91, 230, Revolutions

263-264, 293, 323, 354, American and French 361
439, 510
Communications 400
Mason’s marks 94, 163-
164, 230, 234, 510; First Industrial (Phase 1)
provenance 164 357
Quality assurance, audit 110, First Industrial (Phase 2)

117 397
Quality control 56, 90, 117, 147, First Scientific 330

164, 189-190, 230, 263, 405, Political 358
440, 453, 487, 497, 509-510,
526; policing quality 510 Second Industrial 452
Quality planning 107, 117, 165; Second Scientific 402

accurately measure 292-293, Transportation 386, 388,
506; accuracy of maps 293, 398, 430
322; driven by safety 509
Risk Management 58; definitions
Quality requirements 110, 230 304; development of 329;
Quality standards 109, 118-119, origins of 103
148, 230, 439 Risk Management in projects
Traceability 230, 510; see Colosseum project 166
also Mason’s marks
Quarries 73, 133, 163, 210, 356,
373, 512-513, 517, 520 Empire State Building
project 488
Aswan 76
Campilgia 268
Brussleton 380 project 253, 267
Makrana mines (Rajasthan) Giza Pyramid project 94
336
632
Index
Golden Gate Bridge project Fire, risk of 116, 181, 184,

480, 488 187, 192, 330, 517, 519
Gothic Cathedral projects Financial risks 234, 355,
224, 234 394-395, 442-443, 488-
489, 500
Hagia Sophia 181, 191
Inaccuracies in materials or
Hoover Dam project 471, 488
parts 35, 72, 76,91, 109-
Iron Bridge project 388, 394 110, 118, 427, 439, 440,
508-509, 518
London City Sewer project,
443 Inaccuracies in tools 272,
397
Palace of Versailles project
355 Inaccuracies of maps 293,
322
Workforce, risks to see
also Human Resource
Parthenon project 120 Management, workforce,
safety of
325 Risk Management, other
Taj Mahal project 337, 355 Accept risk 267, 296, 389,
442
441 Contingency planning 52, 57,
442, 518
project 442 Mitigation 167, 191, 322,
516-519
Quantitative analysis 443
Voyage of Magellan 322
Roman
Risk Management, identify risks
166, 234, 255, 296, 322 Empire 123; split of 126;
Eastern Empire 171;
Defective (poor quality)
collapse 172
materials 516
Projects roads 132;
Environmental, risk
aqueducts 132
(weather, earthquakes)
113, 116, 121, 181, 184, Republic 101
187-191, 274, 307-308,
324, 338, 354-356, 409,
436, 448, 467, 516-519,
525
633
S Van Leeuwenhoek, A. 331

Science and math, Techniques Volta, Alessandro 451
37
Scope Management in projects
Copernicus, heliocentric 54
cosmology 300, 302
Colosseum project 136, 160
Empirical, calculating
stresses 508
Geometry, Egyptian 66;
project 484
Greek 105; Hagia
Sophia 179-180, 182; First Railway project 391
Roman 129, 135, 146;
Stonehenge 91; Gothic
project 261
212
Giza Pyramid project 87
Grids, maps 273; perspective
drawings 243, 259 Gothic Cathedral projects
226
Mathematics and physics,
rule of proportions 209; Hagia Sophia 188
Galileo 331; Newton
331; Pacioli, algebra and
arithmetic 240; Iron Bridge project 391
Statistical analysis 440, 443, London City Sewer project
455, 467; acceptance 436
sampling methods 455;
spatial analysis 440;
353
Scientists
Panama Canal project
Dodge and Romig 455
Faraday and Maxwell 402
Parthenon project 115
Farr, Wiliam 421, 425
Fisher, Ronald A. 467
Jenner, Edward 425 435
Kelvin, Lord 408-409 Transcontinental Railroad
project 435
Pasteur, Louis 425
Shewhart, Dr. Walter A. 455,
467 Voyage of Magellan 320
Snow, John 421 Scope Management, other
634
Index
Control scope 261, 352, 436; 142, 162, 165; see also
changes in 188, 292, 320, Techniques, construction,
322, 343, 352-353, 391, interchangeable
502-504; decreased 88, prefabricated parts; work
391, 484; increased 116, 452; within guilds 510;
161-162, 261, 291, 323,
Statue of Zeus at Olympia,
343, 345, 351, 484
ancient wonder 113
Define scope 21, 54, 76, 160,
Stonehenge project 82
210, 227,294, 391, 438,
468, 475, 484, 503; in Suez Canal project 425
terms of materials, and
Sumerians 84
equipment 87, 116, 161,
188, 227, 261, 291, 332 Supply chain in projects
Verify scope 292, 330; scope Colosseum project 168
creep 320; estimates 320,
391
project 475
Work breakdown structure
87, 116, 161, 188, 227,
project 268
261, 352, 502-504, 529;
decompose 88, 189 Giza Pyramid project 72, 88
Scope Management, Hagia Sophia 180
Requirements
Business 115, 160, 185-186,
227, 261, 291, 319-320,
343, 366, 418, 434, 468, Parthenon project 116
474, 479, 483, 484
Functional 87, 343, 433, 497 325
Non-functional 87 Taj Mahal project 333, 353
Scribe 38, 95 Transcontinental Railroad
project 415, 433
Significant projects, definition 45
Supply chain, materials used in
St Basil’s Cathedral project 316
projects
St Peter’s Basilica project 312
Basalt 148
Standards, systems of
Brass 299
measurement 118, 176, 213
Brick 135, 147, 167, 252,
Standardization, arch 141,
264, 268, 335, 437, 476;
165; master plan 185;
of parts 419, 437; stairs
635
Rhodian lightweight 181, Timber 154, 229, 268

187
Travertine limestone 132-
Cement 102, 130, 147; 133, 139
earthquake-resistant
Tufa (blocks) 139
181,187
Volcanic lava (pozzolana)
Concrete 123, 130, 135, 139,
130, 139, 147
141, 162, 168, 209, 252,
337, 358, 385, 398, 419, Supply chain, transportation of
437, 476; composition materials for projects
ratios 168; reinforced 475
Canal (Grand in China) 196
Copper 88, 93, 96, 192
Draft animals 123; horses
Glass 192, 299, 346, 419; low 416; mules 108; oxen
cost 303, 332, 358, 419, 139, 158, 214, 255, 336;
437; patent plate (J.T. elephants 336
Chance) 403; stained 203
Logistics 499
Iron 140, 142, 192, 199, 200,
Rivers, Nile stone-carrying
211, 268, 358, 366, 385,
boats 67; Severn 365;
419, 437
Siem Reap 219; Tiber
Cast 363, 380, 392, 419 barges 151
Pig 366 Railway (road) 415, 444, 463,
484; mini railroads 486
Puddled 427
Ship 415, 444,
Wrought 379, 380, 419
Wagon ways 373, 382; horse
Lead 113, 141, 182, 192, 212,
drawn 375, 382
214, 312, 370, 380, 517;
shock absorbers 517
Lime 102, 137, 139, 147, 209, T
229, 337, 364; quality Taj Mahal project 333
control 164
Technology 37, 369, 373, 388-
Marble veneer 141, 181, 268, 389, 419-420, 432, 448, 479;
336, 353, 356, 476 limits of 391, 393, 434, 499-
Pumice 148 500, 516
Steel, Bessmer (Henry) 403; Techniques, construction

476 Assembly Line 404, 477
Stone, red 336 Arch 130, 147, 182, 337, 369;
Tiles 142, 167 iron 388; pointed 202
636
Index
Buttress, flying 203, 229, 244 Florence Cathedral Duomo

project 261
Cast iron erection 369, 418
Giza Pyramid project 87
Dome 146, 178, 182, 256, 337
Double-vaulted wall 256
Hagia Sophia project 182,189
Fast track, Empire State
Building project 475 Hadrian’s Wall project 157
Interchangeable Hollerith System project 436
prefabricated parts
165, 419, 427, 440,
476, 486, 489; see also Iron Bridge project 391
standardization
London City Sewer project
Iron beam, India temples of 436
Puri and Konarak 199
Just-in-time materials 353
delivery 477, 484, 490,
508, 521
Pre-assembly of materials
427, 431, 484, 489 Parthenon project 116
Trial and error approach 516 St. Peter’s Basilica project
321
Vault, barrel and groined
131, 135, 140 Taj Mahal project 353
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, Transatlantic Cable project
ancient wonder 113
Terra Cotta Warriors project 111 project 436
Time Management in projects 54 Voyages of Columbus 292
Chrysler Building project Voyage of Magellan 320
474, 485
Time Management, other
Colosseum project 162
Calendars, Stonehenge 82;
Crystal Palace project, China 90
schedule 437
Calendar units, days 83,
Empire State Building 91-92, 232; hours 66-67,
project 474, 477 202, 242, 262
First Railway project 391 Estimate duration 292
637
Critical path 21, 414, 436, Vitruvius, Roman architect 158;

506 see also Best practices
Gantt charts 475 Voyages of Columbus 276
Imposed date 437 Voyage of Magellan 304
Milestones 164, 412, 442,
453, 481 W
Pace of work 262, 414, 469, Workforce see also Human
487, 489, 521; speed Resource Management
(rate) of construction
182, 187, 267, 478, 487
Schedule 88, 162, 437, 475,
Z
482, 484; crashing 89, Ziggurat at Ur project 85
187, 437 (with outside
labor 415); fast tracking
495; labor 228; schedule
showstopper 88
Sequence of activities 146,
157, 189, 210, 261
Sun Tzu, scheduling 55
Time dependencies 20, 292,
320, 485
Titanic project 450, 479
Toltec Pyramid at Cholula
project 184
Transatlantic Cable project 406
Trends 42, 63, 99, 125, 172, 195,
239, 270, 301, 328, 359, 400,
449
project 410
V
Villard de Honnecourt, Medieval
architect 38-39, 223;
Character traits of architects
499; tool kit 499
638
About the Author
As the author behind the “Lessons

from History” series, Mark Kozak-
Holland brings years of experience
as a consultant who helps Fortune-
500 companies formulate projects
that leverage emerging technologies.
Since 1985 he has been straddling the
business and IT worlds, making these
projects happen. He is a certified
business consultant, the author of
several books, and a noted speaker.
As a historian, Kozak-Holland seeks
out the wisdom of the past to help others avoid repeating
mistakes and to capture time-proven techniques. His lectures
have been very popular at gatherings of project managers and
CIOs.
Mark is very passionate about history and sees its potential
use as an educational tool in business today. As a result, he
has been developing the “Lessons from History” series for
organisations, applying today’s Information Technology (IT) to
common business problems. It is written for primarily business
and IT professionals looking for inspiration for their projects. It
uses relevant historical case studies to examine how historical
projects and emerging technologies of the past solved complex
problems.
For thousands of years people have been running projects
that leveraged emerging technologies of the time, to create
unique and wonderful structures like the pyramids, buildings,
or bridges. Similarly, people have gone on great expeditions
639
and journeys and have raced their rivals in striving to be first,

e.g., circumnavigating the world or conquering the poles. These
were all forms of projects that required initiation, planning and
design, production, implementation, and breakout.
The series looks at historical projects and then draws
comparisons to challenges encountered in today’s projects. It
outlines the stages involved in delivering a complex project,
providing a step-by-step guide to the project deliverables. It
vividly describes the crucial lessons from historical projects and
complements these with some of today’s best practices.
This makes the whole learning experience more memorable.
The series should inspire the reader, as these historical projects
were achieved with a less sophisticated emerging technology.
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: www.lessons-from-history.com
640
Lessons From
HISTORY
About the Series
This series is for primarily business and IT professionals

looking for inspiration for their projects. Specifically, business
managers responsible for solving business problems, or
Project Managers (PMs) responsible for delivering business
solutions through IT projects.
This series uses relevant historical case studies to examine
how historical projects and emerging technologies of the
past solved complex problems. It then draws comparisons to
challenges encountered in today’s IT projects.
This series benefits the reader in several ways:
• It outlines the stages involved in delivering a complex
IT project providing a step-by-step guide to the
project deliverables.
• It vividly describes the crucial lessons from historical
projects and complements these with some of today’s
best practices.
• It makes the whole learning experience more
memorable.
The series should inspire the reader as these historical projects were
achieved with a lesser (inferior) technology.
Website: http://www.lessons-from-history.com/
Did you like this book?
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Oshawa, Ontario, Canada

Avoiding Project Disaster:
Titanic Lessons for IT Executives
Imagine you are in one of Titanic’s

lifeboats. As you look back at the
wreckage site, you wonder what could
have happened. What were the causes?
How could things have gone so badly
wrong?
Titanic’s maiden voyage was a
disaster waiting to happen as a result of
the compromises made in the project that constructed the ship.
This book explores how modern executives can take lessons
from a nuts-and-bolts construction project like Titanic and use
those lessons to ensure the right approach to developing online
business solutions. Looking at this historical project as a model
will prove to be incisive as it cuts away the layers of IT jargon
and complexity.
Avoiding Project Disaster is about delivering IT projects
in a world where being on time and on budget is not enough.
You also need to be up and running around the clock for your
customers and partners. This book will help you successfully
maneuver through the ice floes of IT management in an industry
with a notoriously high project failure rate.
ISBN: 1-895186-73-0 (paperback)
http://www.mmpubs.com/disaster
Churchill’s Adaptive Enterprise:
Lessons for Business Today
This book analyzes a period of time from

World War II when Winston Churchill,
one of history’s most famous leaders,
faced near defeat for the British in the
face of sustained German attacks. The
book describes the strategies he used
to overcome incredible odds and turn
the tide on the impending invasion.
The historical analysis is done through
a modern business and information technology lens, describing
Churchill’s actions and strategy using modern business tools
and techniques. Aimed at business executives, IT managers, and
project managers, the book extracts learnings from Churchill’s
experiences that can be applied to business problems today.
Particular themes in the book are knowledge management,
information portals, adaptive enterprises, and organizational
agility.
ISBN: 1-895186-19-6 (paperback)
http://www.mmpubs.com/churchill
Project Lessons from The
Great Escape (Stalag Luft III)
While you might think your project

plan is perfect, would you bet
your life on it? In World War II, a
group of 220 captured airmen did
just that—they staked the lives of
everyone in the camp on the success
of a project to secretly build a series
of tunnels out of a prison camp their
captors thought was escape proof. The
prisoners formally structured their
work as a project, using the project
organization techniques of the day. This book analyzes their
efforts using modern project management methods and the nine
knowledge areas of the Guide to the Project Management Body
of Knowledge (PMBoK® Guide). Learn from the successes and
mistakes of a project where people really put their lives on the
line.
ISBN: 9781895186802 (paperback)
http://www.mmpubs.com/escape
Agile Leadership and the
Management of Change: Project
Lessons from Winston Churchill
and the Battle of Britain
Around the turn of the millennium,

there was a British poll that asked who
was the most influential person in all of
Britain’s history. The winner: Winston
Churchill. What distinguished him were
his leadership qualities: his ability to
create and share a powerful vision, his
ability to motivate the population in
the face of tremendous fear, and his ability to get others to rally
behind him and quickly turn his visions into reality. By any
measure, Winston Churchill was a powerful leader.
What many don’t know, however, was how Churchill used his
leadership skills to restructure the British military, government,
and even the British manufacturing sector to get ready for an
imminent enemy invasion in early 1940.
Learn how Churchill acted as the head project manager of a
massive change project that affected the daily lives of millions
of people. Learn about his change management and agile
management techniques and how they can be applied to today’s
projects.
Polaris: Lessons in Risk
Management
Risk management is one of the most

important practices that a manager
can employ to help drive a successful
outcome from a project. Good risk
management allows organizations to
proactively respond to risks.
Unfortunately, many managers
believe risk management to be too time
consuming or too complicated. Some
find it to be shrouded in mystery.
This book is designed to demystify risk management,
explaining introductory and advanced risk management
approaches in simple language. To illustrate the risk management
concepts and techniques, this book uses real-life examples from
a very influential project that helped change the course of world
history -- the project that designed and built the Polaris missile
and accompanying submarine launch system that became a key
deterrent to a Soviet nuclear attack during the Cold War. The
Polaris design and construction project employed many risk
management approaches, inventing one that is still widely used
today.
Containing a foreword by James R. Snyder, one of the
founders of the Project Management Institute (PMI), this book is
structured to align with the risk management approach described
in PMI’s Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge
(PMBOK® Guide).

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are some of the major topics covered in the book?

What are some of the major topics covered in the book?

Lessons From

Managing Editor: Kevin Aguanno

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in

Copyright © 2011 by Multi-Media Publications Inc.

Hardcover ISBN-13: 9781554890965

Published in Canada. Printed simultaneously in the United States of America

CIP data available from the publisher.

From Village to City (2550 - 510 BCE).........61

Roman Republic (510 - 100 BCE) ................97

The Roman Empire (1st Century BCE

The Early Middle Ages (350 - 1050) ..........171

The Central Middle Ages (1050 - 1300)......193

The Late Middle Ages (1300 - 1450)...........237

The 15th Century and Renaissance

The 16th Century ...........................................299

The 17th Century and the Modern Age

The 18th Century ...........................................357

The 19th Century ...........................................397

The 20th Century ...........................................447

Conclusion to the Book................................523

Appendix A: Sample Colosseum

Appendix E: Relationship to Other

Appendix F: Project Management

About the Author...........................................639

The publisher makes no claims to any trademarks used in this

book Project Lessons from the Great Escape, I purposely looked

Why the history of Project Management is

What Will This Book Help you Do?

What We Can Learn from the Past?

Finally, on finishing this book you will see that the

Other types of projects flourished with the development of

but they were also very important commercial successes as well.

Love and belonging

The Evolution of Project Management

The Term Project Management

What is Project Management?

Today’s Definition (post 1983)

What Makes up a Modern Project?

nine knowledge areas (project integration management, project

Different Types of Projects

Examples of these Types of Projects

Era/ Period Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

Great Pyramid of Giza,

Gothic cathedrals, Norman Invasion,

Table 1.1: The succession of historical projects selected.

Projects driven by Institutions versus

es and cathedrals although the latter became critical to the econ-

Different Views of Projects

distances for work, and lived in substandard conditions

Program vs. Project

The Evolution of Project Management in

The Industrial Revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries

The Role of Knowledge in the Evolution of

The Uneven Adoption of Technology

Basic Essentials to Projects

Ability to Measure a Catalyst for Projects