GENERAL ANATOMY 1 LAB

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Dermis

Epidermis - The hair follicles and nail roots are embedded in the
dermis.
- lacks blood vessels and depends on the diffusion of - Smooth muscles (piloerector muscles) associated
nutrients from the underlying connective tissue. with hair follicles contract in response to such stimuli
- It has sparse nerve endings for touch and pain, but as cold, fear, and touch. This makes the hair stand on
most sensations of the skin are due to nerve end, causes “goose bumps,” and wrinkles the skin in
endings in the dermis. areas such as the scrotum and areola.
- It is a Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
- The table below shows the stratification of the The boundary between the epidermis and dermis is
epidermis from the most superficial layer to the histologically conspicuous and usually wavy. The
deepest layer and their descriptions. upward waves are fingerlike extensions of the dermis
- called dermal papillae, and the downward waves are
extensions of the epidermis called epidermal ridges.
Layers of Epidermis Description
The table below shows the layer of the dermis and their
Stratum corneum Dead, keratinized cells of description.
the skin surface
Stratum lucidum Clear, featureless, narrow Layers of the Dermis Description
zone seen only in thick skin Papillary layer Superficial one-fifth of
dermis; composed of
Stratum granulosum Two to five layers of cells areolar tissue; often
with dark-staining extends upward as dermal
keratohyalin granules; papillae
scanty in thin skin
Reticular layer Deeper four-fifths of
Stratum spinosum Many layers of
dermis; dense irregular
keratinocytes, typically
connective tissue
shrunken in fixed tissues
but attached to each other
 
by desmosomes, which give
them a spiny look; Hypodermis
progressively flattened the
farther they are from the - Subcutaneous fat is hypodermis composed
dermis. Dendritic cells are predominantly of adipose tissue.
abundant here but are not - It serves as an energy reservoir and thermal
visible in routinely stained insulation. It is not uniformly distributed; for
preparations. example, it is virtually absent from the scalp but
relatively abundant in the breasts, abdomen, hips,
Stratum basale Single layer of cuboidal to
and thighs.
columnar cells resting on
- The subcutaneous fat averages about 8% thicker in
basement membrane; site
women than in men, and varies with age. Infants
of most mitosis; consists of
and elderly people have less subcutaneous fat than
stem cells, keratinocytes,
other people and are therefore more sensitive to
melanocytes, and tactile
cold.
cells, but these are difficult
to distinguish with routine Accessory Organs of the Skin
stains. Melanin is
conspicuous in Hair
keratinocytes of this layer in
black to brown skin. A hair is divisible into three zones along its length:

   the bulb, a swelling at the base where the hair

originates in the dermis or hypodermis;
GENERAL ANATOMY 1 LAB
 the root, which is the remainder of the hair exocytosis. These include the tear glands, pancreas,
within the follicle; and gastric glands, and many others.
 the shaft, which is the portion above the skin  In holocrine glands, cells accumulate a product
surface. The only living cells of a hair are in and and then the entire cell disintegrates, so the
near the bulb. secretion is a mixture of cell fragments and the
substance the cell had synthesized prior to its
The bulb grows around a bud of vascular disintegration.
connective tissue called the dermal papilla, which  Some glands, such as the axillary (armpit) sweat
provides the hair with its sole source of nutrition. glands and mammary glands, are named apocrine
Immediately above the papilla is a region of mitotically glands from a former belief that the secretion was
active cells, the hair matrix, which is the hair’s growth composed of bits of apical cytoplasm that broke
center. All cells higher up are dead.   away from the cell surface.

Burns
Nails Burn deaths result primarily from fluid loss, infection,
- The hard part of the nail is the nail plate, which and the toxic effects of eschar—the burned, dead
includes the free edge overhanging the tip of the tissue.
finger or toe; the nail body, which is the visible  First-degree burns involve only the epidermis
attached part of the nail and are marked by redness, slight edema, and
- The nail root, which extends proximally under the pain. They heal in a few days and seldom leave
overlying skin. The surrounding skin rises a bit scars. Most sunburns are first-degree burns.
above the nail as a nail fold, separated from the
margin of the nail plate by a nail groove.  A second-degree burn may be red, tan, or white
- The nail groove and space under the free edge and is blistered and very painful. It may take
accumulate dirt and bacteria and require special from 2 weeks to several months to heal and
attention when scrubbing for duty in an operating may leave scars. The epidermis regenerates by
room or nursery. division of epithelial cells in the hair follicles and
sweat glands and around the edges of the
 The skin underlying the nail plate is the nail bed. lesion. Some sunburns and many scalds are
 The epidermis of the nail bed is the hyponychium. second-degree burns.
 At the proximal end of the nail, its stratum basale
thickens to constitute a growth zone called the nail  Third-degree burns are also called full-thickness
matrix. Mitosis here in the matrix accounts for the burns. Since no dermis remains, the skin can
regenerate only from the edges of the wound.
growth of the nail.
Third-degree burns often require skin grafts. If a
 The thickness of this stratum basale obscures the
third-degree burn is left to itself to heal,
underlying dermal blood vessels and is the reason contracture (abnormal connective tissue
why an opaque white crescent, the lunule, often fibrosis) and severe disfigurement may result.
appears at the proximal end of a nail.
 A narrow zone of dead skin, the eponychium (cuticle),
also commonly overhangs this end of the nail.

Methods of Secretion of Cutaneous Glands

Glands are classified as merocrine or holocrine

depending on how they produce their secretions.

 Merocrine glands, also called eccrine glands,

have vesicles that release their secretion by
GENERAL ANATOMY 1 LAB
 The stratum lucidum consist of keratinocytes
are densely packed with a clear protein named
eleidin. This layer is only seen in thick skin.
 The stratum corneum consists of up to 30 layers
of dead, scaly, keratinized cells that form a durable
surface layer.

Dermis
4. Sensation. The skin is our most extensive sense
organ. It is equipped with a variety of nerve The Dermis beneath the epidermis is a connective tissue
endings that react to heat, cold, touch, texture, layer, the dermis. It is composed mainly of collagen, but
pressure, vibration, and tissue injury. These also contains elastic and reticular fibers, fibroblasts, and
sensory receptors are especially abundant on the other cells typical of fibrous connective tissue. It is
the face, palms, fingers, soles, nipples, and well supplied with blood vessels, sweat glands,
genitals. There are relatively few on the back sebaceous glands, and nerve endings.
and in skin overlying joints such as the knees
Hypodermis
and elbows.
Beneath the skin is a layer called the hypodermis or
5. Thermoregulation. In response to chilling, the subcutaneous tissue. The boundary between the dermis
skin helps to retain heat. The dermis has nerve and hypodermis is indistinct, but the hypodermis
endings called thermoreceptors that transmit generally has more areolar and adipose tissue. It pads
signals to the brain, and the brain sends signals the body and binds the skin to the underlying tissues.
back to the dermal blood vessels. Drugs are introduced into the hypodermis by injection
Vasoconstriction, or narrowing of these blood because the subcutaneous tissue is highly vascular and
vessels, reduces the flow of blood close to the absorbs them quickly.
skin surface and thus reduces heat loss. When
one is overheated, vasodilation, or widening of Accessory Organs of the Skin
the dermal blood vessels increases cutaneous
The hair, nails,  and  cutaneous glands are the accessory
blood flow and increases heat loss.
organs (appendages) of the skin. Hair and nails are
composed mostly of dead, keratinized cells. The stratum
Layers of the Skin corneum of the skin is made of pliable soft keratin, but
the hair and nails are composed mostly of hard keratin.
Epidermis Hard keratin is more compact than soft keratin and is
toughened by numerous cross-linkages between the
The epidermis is a keratinized stratified squamous keratin molecules.
epithelium. That is, its surface consists of dead cells
packed with the tough protein keratin. Hair

Layers of Epidermis: A hair is also known as a pilus; in the plural, pili. It is a

slender filament of keratinized cells that grows from an
 The stratum basale are the deepest layer of the oblique tube in the skin called a hair follicle.
epidermis and as stem cells of the stratum basale
Most hair of the human trunk and limbs is probably best
divide, they give rise to keratinocytes that migrate
interpreted as vestigial, with little present function.
toward the skin surface and replace lost epidermal
Body hair undoubtedly served to keep our ancestors
cells.
warm, but in modern humans it is too scanty for this
 The stratum spinosum consists of several layers
purpose. Stimulation of the hair receptors, however,
of keratinocytes. The deepest cells of the stratum
alerts us to parasites crawling on the skin, such as lice
spinosum remain capable of mitosis, but as they are
and fleas.
pushed farther upward, they cease dividing.
 The stratum granulosum consists of The scalp is normally the only place where the hair is
keratinocytes containaining coarse, dark-staining thick enough to retain heat. Heat loss from a bald scalp
keratohyalin granules that give the layer its name. can be substantial and quite uncomfortable. The brain
receives a rich supply of warm blood, and most of the
GENERAL ANATOMY 1 LAB
scalp lacks an insulating fat layer. Heat is easily contrast, are the milk-producing glands that
conducted through the bones of the skull and lost to the develop within the female breast only during
surrounding air. In addition, without hair there is pregnancy and lactation.
nothing to break the wind and stop it from carrying
away heat. Hair also protects the scalp from sunburn, Burns
since the scalp is otherwise most directly exposed to the
sun’s rays. These may be the reasons humans have Burns are the leading cause of accidental death. They
retained thick hair on their heads while losing most of it are usually caused by fires, kitchen spills, or excessively
from the rest of the body. hot bath water, but they also can be caused by sunlight,
ionizing radiation, strong acids and bases, or electrical
Nails shock.
Fingernails and toenails are clear, hard derivatives of Burns are classified according to the depth of tissue
the stratum corneum. They are composed of very thin, involvement. First-degree burns involve only the
dead, scaly cells, densely packed together and filled epidermis; Second-degree burns involve the epidermis
with parallel fibers of hard keratin. Most mammals have extending to a part of the dermis; Third-degree
claws, whereas flat nails are one of the distinguishing burns are also called full-thickness burns because the
characteristics of primates. Flat nails allow for more epidermis, all of the dermis, and often some deeper
fleshy and sensitive fingertips, while they also serve as tissues (muscle and bone) are destroyed.
strong keratinized “tools” that can be used for digging,
grooming, picking apart food, and other manipulations.

Cutaneous Glands

The skin has five types of glands: merocrine sweat

glands, apocrine sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
ceruminous glands,  and mammary glands.

 Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands, the most

numerous glands of the skin, produce watery
perspiration that serves primarily to cool the body.
Each day, the sweat glands secrete about 500 mL of
insensible perspiration, which does not produce
noticeable wetness of the skin. Sweating with
wetness of the skin is called diaphoresis. Under
conditions of exercise or heat, a person may lose as
much as a liter of perspiration in an hour.
 Apocrine sweat glands occur in the groin, anal
region, axilla, and areola, and in mature males, the
beard area. Apocrine sweat is thicker and milkier
than merocrine sweat because it has more fatty
acids in it.
 Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion
called sebum. Sebum keeps the skin and hair from
becoming dry, brittle, and cracked.
 Ceruminous glands are found only in the
external ear canal, where their secretion combines
with sebum and dead epidermal cells to form
earwax, or cerumen.
 The mammary glands and breasts (mammae)
are often mistakenly regarded as one and the same.
Breasts, however, are present in both sexes, and
even in females they rarely contain more than small
traces of mammary gland. The mammary glands, by