History of

the Filipino
People

Teodoro A. Agoncillo
Part I

Pre-Colonial Philippines

1. The Setting:
Volcanoes and Earthquakes- The Philippines lies within Pacific seismic belt and
has consequently experienced severe earthquakes, though these have been as
destructive as those that had rocked Japan.

- August 2, 1968, a violent earthquake occurred. Apartment buildings

collapsed, killing hundreds of people.
- June 3, 1868, the most destructive earthquake that occurred in the
Philippines that destroyed Manila Cathedral and hundreds of government
structures and residential houses collapsed and many people were killed.
- The famous Filipino priest Dr. Pedro Pablo Pelaez was also killed.
- April 1, 1955, another destructive earthquake occurred in Visayas and
Mindanao ranging from Intensity III to Intensity VIII.
- August 17, 1976, by far the most destructive earthquake in the Philippines
occurred in Mindanao. It triggered a tidal wave and rendered 90,000
persons homeless, 3,000 dead, and more than 3,000 missing or presumed
to be dead.

Coastline- Aside from the ruggedness of the land mass, the Philippine has an
irregular coastline that extends to about 10,850 statute miles, twice as long as
that of continental United States.

- Manila, Bay, which has an area of a little more than 700 square miles
and a circumference of 120 miles, is one of the finest natural harbors in
the world.
Products and Natural Resources- The Philippines in natural resources that are yet
largely undeveloped.

- The still primitive way of agriculture is one of the causes of the failure of
the Philippines to produce enough rice for export.
- However, a breakthrough in rice production was made during the first
four years of President Ferdinand Marcos administration when the so-
called “miracle rice” was developed.

The People- The Filipino belongs to a mixture of races, although basically he is a

Malay.

- Doubtless, the Filipino at the coming of the Spaniards was brown skinned
like his Malay forebears.
- The inter-marriage between the Filipino and the foreigner, particularly the
white, led to a class known as mestizo class, also humorously called the
“mestizos.”
- Negritos- first ancestors of the Filipinos
- Calao Cave- found the 1st remain of human.
- Mestizo- Spanish-Filipino
- American Mestizo- Filipino-American
- Chinese Mestizo- Filipino-Chinese
- Indian Mestizo- Filipino-Indian
- Mestizo- by virtue of his social and financial status, looked down upon the
“native” as a bore. E.g., pretentious, boastful, arrogant, etc.
- In the mind of the “native”, the mestizos were insolent.

Common Traits- It is difficult, if not impossible, to define what a Filipino is.

- Hospitable
- Respect for the elders- “po and opo” is a sign of good breeding.
- Filipino is naturally fatalistic.
- Fatalism is best symbolized in the phrase “Bahala na”
- Loyalty to a friend or to a benefactor is one trait that is very strong in the
Filipino.
- Lack of Initiative is a trait explained by a natural fear of competition.
- Helpful and cooperative, respectful, and generous even to a fault, the
Filipino is nevertheless individualistic.
- Jealousy is another trait of the Filipino.
- Regionalist
- May pakikisama

Regional Traits- That the milieu or environment exerts an influence in molding

the character of a people is proved in the Philippines where different regions
exhibit different and oftentimes, opposite traits.
2. Before the Conquest- The tradition of Philippine history writing,
which the Spanish chroniclers originated and which American and
Filipino writes followed later, had the Spaniard, more specifically
Ferdinand Magellan, discover the Philippines.
Peopling of the Philippines-

- Early 1970s, it had been assumed that Philippines was a part of mainland
China.
- In February 1976, however, his theory of the “land bridges” to Asia as
disputed by Dr. Fritjof Voss, a German scientist who studied the geology of
the Philippines.

Introduction of Islam-

- The foundation of Islam was laid in Malaysia by the Arabian scholar

Mudum, who arrived in the Malay Peninsula about the middle of the
14th century.
- Abu Bakr followed Mudum’s religious activities about 1450, left
Palebang for Sulu.
- Serif Kabungsuan, who had meanwhile arrived from Johore with his
men, immediately began laying the foundations of Islam in Mindanao.

Relations with the Orang Dampuans-

- Between 900 and 1200 A.D., another group of immigrants came to the
Philippines from southern Annam.
- Also known as “men from Champa,” they established trading posts in Sulu.

Relations with Banjarmasin-

- The fame of Sulu reached as far as northern Borneo and soon Banjarmasin
and Brunei.
Relations with China-

- Sung Dynasty (960-1127) in China, Chinese goods began to flow in a

continuous stream into the Philippines.
- They regained control of the Philippine trade when Ming emperor, Yung Lo
(1402-1424), came to the throne of China.

The Ten Bornean Datus-

- Sultan Makatunaw was mistreating his subjects, so that ten of the

chieftains (or datus) decided to leave for unknown parts in search of
freedom.
- Datus Puti, Bangkaya, Dumalugdog, Sumakwel, Lubay, Paiburong,
Dumangsil, Balensusa, Paduhinog, and Dumangsol secretly sailed in their
balangays.

The Alleged Code of Kalantiaw-

- It has been alleged that about 1433 the third chief of Panay, Datu
Kalantiaw, probably a descendant of Datu Sumakwel, issued orders for the
guidance of his people.
Article I
- Ye shall not kill, neither shall ye steal nor shall ye hurt the aged, lest ye incur the danger of
death. All those who this order shall infringe shall be tied to a stone and drowned in a river or in
boiling water.
Article II
- Ye shall punctually meet your debt with your headman. He who fulfills not, for the first time
shall be lashed a hundredfold, and If the obligation is great, his hand shall be dipped threefold in
boiling water. On conviction, he shall be flogged to death.
Article III
- Obey ye: no one shall have wives that are too young, nor shall they be more than what he can
take care of, nor spend much luxury. He who fulfils not, obeys not, shall be condemned to swim
three hours and, for the second time, shall be scourged with spines to death.
Article IV
- Observe and obey ye: Let not the peace of the graves be disturbed; due respect must have
accorded them on passing by caves and trees where they are. He who observes not shall die by
bites of ants or shall be flogged with spines till death.
Article V
- Obey ye: Exchange in food must be carried out faithfully. He who complies not shall be lashed
for an hour. He who repeats the act shall, for a day be exposed to the ants.

Article VI
- Ye shall revere respectable places, trees of known value, and other sites. He shall pay a month's
work, in gold or money, whoever fails to do this; and if twice committed, he shall be declared a
slave.
Article VII
- They shall die who kill trees of venerable aspect; who at night shoot with arrows the aged men
and the women; he who enters the house of the headman without permission; he who kills a
fish or shark or striped crocodile.
Article VIII
- They shall be slaves for a given time who steal away the women of the headmen; he who
possesses dogs that bite the headmen; he who burns another man's sown field.
Article IX
- They shall be slaves for a given time, who sing in their night errands, kill manual birds, tear
documents belonging to the headmen; who are evil-minded liars; who play with the dead.
Article X
- It shall be the obligation of every mother to show her daughter secretly the things that are
lascivious, and prepare them for womanhood; men shall not be cruel to their wives, nor should
they punish them when they catch them in the act of adultery. He who disobeys shall be torn to
pieces and thrown to the caymans.
Article XI
- They shall be burned, who by force or cunning have mocked at and eluded punishment, or who
have killed two young boys, or shall try to steal the women of the old men (agurangs).
Article XII
- They shall be drowned, all slaves who assault their superiors or their lords and masters; all those
who abuse their luxury; those who kill their anitos by breaking them or throwing them away.
Article XIII
- They shall be exposed to the ants for half a day, who kill a black cat during the new moon or
steal things belonging to the headmen.
Article XIV
- They shall be slaves for life, who having beautiful daughters shall deny them to the sons of the
headman or shall hide them in bad faith.
Article XV
- Concerning their beliefs and superstitions: they shall be scourged, who eat bad meat of
respected insects or herbs that are supposed to be good, who hurt or kill the young manual bird
and the white monkey.
Article XVI
- Their fingers shall be cut off, who break wooden or clay idols in their olangangs and places of
oblation; he who breaks Tagalan's daggers for hog killing, or breaks drinking vases.
Article XVII
- They shall be killed, who profane places where sacred objects of their diwatas or headmen are
buried. He who gives way to the call of nature at such places shall be burned.
Article XVIII
- Those who do not cause these rules to be observed, if they are headmen, shall be stoned and
crushed to death, and if they are old men, shall be placed in rivers to be eaten by sharks and
crocodiles.

Chinese Influences-

- The long contacts of the Filipinos with the Chinese, beginning with the
tenth century of the Christian era.
1. Bimpo: It is read as bin-po. Bin as in face, Po as in fabric.
2. Hikaw: Hee means ear and kaw means hook.
3. Susi: It is supposed to be pronounced as So-see, which means lock-key.
4. Bihon: It literally translates to rice flour, because it is noodle made of Bi as in rice, Hoon as in flour.
5. Pansit: It is originally read as Pien-sit. Literally translates to Pien meaning convenient and Sit meaning
food. I guess because noodles are so easy to cook, it has turned into what it means now.

Indian Influences-

- It is reflected in the Philippine languages, particularly in Filipino.

1. asa (hope) – asha in Sanskrit
2. salita (speak) – cerita in Sanskrit
3. balita (news) – berita in Sanskrit
4. karma (karma)
5. mukha (face)
6. guro (teacher) – guru in Sanskrit
7. dalita (suffering) – dharta in Sanskrit
3. Early Customs and Practices- Before the coming of the Spaniards the
Filipinos had a civilization of their own.
Clothing-

- Male attire is consisting of kanggan and bahag.

- Female attire is consisting of baro and saya.

Ornaments-

- The early Filipinos had a weakness for personal adornment, for women, as
well as men, burned themselves with such trappings an armlet called
kalumbiga, pendants, bracelets, gold rings, earrings, and even leglets.

Houses-

- Built to suit the tropical climate, the ancient house was made of wood,
bamboo, and nipa palm.

Social Classes-

- Philippine society was divided into three classes: the nobles, the freemen,
and the dependents.

The Position of Women-

- Women before the coming of the Spaniards enjoyed a unique position in

society and their descendants during the Spanish occupation did not.

Marriage-

- There was a custom, not so strictly followed, in which man belonging to

one class married a woman of the same class.
Mixed Marriage-

- If the married couple belonged to different classes, say, a freeman and a

dependent, their children were equally divided among the parents in so far
as social status was concerned.

Inheritance and Succession-

- Among the ancient Filipinos, the legitimate children automatically inherited

the property of their parents, even without a written will.

Government-

- The barangay was a unit of government and consisted of 30-100 families.

Laws-

- Laws were either customary or written.

How a Law was Made-

- When a chieftain of a barangay wanted a law enacted to prevent, say, the

commission of serious or minor crimes, he called in the elders of the
community and told them what he had in mind.
- A public announcer, called umalohokan, was summoned and ordered to go
around the barangay.

Judicial Process-

- Disputes are inevitable in any society, and Filipino society before the arrival
of the Spaniards was not an exception.

Trial by Ordeal-

- The medieval European had no monopoly of the trial by ordeal, for the
ancient Filipinos practiced it under certain circumstances to determine the
guilt of a person.
Religious Beliefs-

- The ancient Filipinos believed in the immortality of the soul and in life after
death.
- Bathalang Maykapal- equivalent of Dios in Spanish
- Idiyanale- God of Agriculture
- Sidapa- God of Death
- Balangaw- God of Rainbow
- Mandarangan- God of War
- Agni- God of Fire
- Anito in Filipino
- Diwata in Visayan

Burial-

- Belief in life after death and in the relation between the dead and the living
made the ancient Filipinos respectful of the dead.

Divinations and Magic Charms-

- The ancient Filipinos, like their contemporaries in many lands, put very
much stock in divination, auguries, and magic charms.

Economic Life-

- Economic life during pre-colonial days was not much different from that
found today in many remote barrios.
4. Pre-Colonial Culture- The ancient Filipinos had a culture that was
basically Malayan in structure and form.
Languages-

- There are more than a hundred languages and dialects in the Philippines,
eight of which may be considered major languages. They are Filipino, Iloko,
Pangasinense, Kapampangan, Sugbuhanon, Hiligaynon, Samarnon and
Mangidanao.

System of Writing-

- The Filipinos before the arrival of Spaniards had a syllabary which was
probably of Sanskrit or Arabic provenance.
- Baybayin- it consists of 17 symbols, or which three were vowels standing
for the present five vowels, and 14 consonants.
Literature-

- The literature of the Tagalog consisted of sabi (maxim), sawikain (saying),

bugtong (riddle), suliranin and indulanin (street songs), talindaw (boat
songs), diyuna (song of revelry), kumintang (war song which evolved into a
love song.

Music and the Dance-

- The Filipinos are born musicians, for they easily learn tunes by ear.
- Many Filipinos who play two or more musical instruments have never been
in music academies, nor have they knowledge of the music notations
except what they know by ear.

Art-

- The first glimpse of the artistic sense of the primitive inhabitants of the
Philippines can be had in the remains of their tools and weapons.
Part II- The Spanish Period

5. Under Imperial Spain- In the arduous and lengthy process of

maritime discovery in the late 15th century, new sea lanes to Southeast
Asia were charted which led to the spice trade route.
- The first expedition was led by Portugal by sailing via the southeastern
route which made breakthroughs into the Indian Ocean in 1488 and ended
with the fall of Malacca (1511) and the Maluku or Moluccas (1512).
- The second expedition was led by Spain by sailing via the western or
southwestern route which leads to “rediscover” of Philippines (1521).

East Meets West-

- Making the food more palatable to the most discriminating medieval tastes
trigged the search for the spices.

The Lusitanian-Hispanic Rivalry in Maritime Discoveries-

- Portuguese pursed the dream of reaching the East using a direct all-water
route.
- Two of their explorers reached the Southernmost end of Africa, and later,
to India, thus winning the race to the wealth and spices of the East.
- Spain, however, had earlier dispatched the first truly momentous
exploration in modern times.
- Inspired by the Florentine mapmaker Paolo Toscanelli to discover westward
sea route to India.
- Christopher Columbus instead made a landfall in Guanahani, 2 weeks later,
on the coast of Cuba. It generated a misapprehension and disputes
between Spain and Portugal.
The Magellan (Magalhaes) Expedition (1518-1521)-

- Ferdinand Magellan- Portuguese serving Spanish royalty.

- He started to sail from San Lucar, Spain, in 1519 with five ships with a crew
of 235 men.
- March 17, 1521, he reached Mactan.
- April 1521 he was defeated and killed in a battle between his me ad Lapu-
Lapu.
- Only the ship Victoria completed the voyage back to Spain.

Maluku and the Philippines-

- Sailing from Mexico

- Saavedra (1527-29)
- Villalobos (1541-46)
- Legazpi (1564), the most successful expedition.

Treaty of Zaragoza (1529)-

- King Charles V ceded his alleged rights to Maluku to John III of Portugal for
350,000 ducats, not knowing that they rightfully belonged to the
Portuguese as for Treaty of Tordesillas.

Villalobos Expedition (1542-1546)-

- Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, six ships and some 370 men, departed from Juan
Gallego, Mexico, in November 1542.
- By early 1543 they arrived in the eastern coast of Mindanao.
- Greatest contribution was naming Leyte in 1543 as Las Phelipinas in honor
of the crown prince Philip II.

Legazpi-Urdaneta Expedition (1564)-

- 22 years since Villalobos set sail from the same port of Juan Gallego, four
vessels of about 350 men sailed for the Philippines in 1564.
- By February 1565, Legazpi reached Cebu and contracted blood
- compacts with Si Katunaw and Si Gala at Bohol.
- In April of the same year, Villa de San Miguel, later changed to Ciudad del
- Santistmo Nombre de Jesús
- Santo Nino of Cebu, "the first Spanish town established in the Archipelago
and the pioneer permanent settlement in the Philippines.

The Making of the Spanish "Indio"-

- It was very easy, indeed, for Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who was granted by
King Philip II, the peerless and single title of Adelantado de Filipinas to
accomplish an almost "bloodless" conquest of the Philippines considering
its physical and human geography.

Political institutions-

- The hierarchical political set-up of the Philippines during the Spanish

regime may be seen in the political institutions established by the colonial
power.
- From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was a captaincy-general administered
by the Spanish king through the viceroyalty of Nueva Espana (Mexico).
- All Spanish possessions were governed by the Real y Supremo Consejo de
las Indias (Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies) established in 1524 by
Charles V.

The Filipino Bureaucrats-

- On the municipal level, the "little governor" or gobernadorcillo (later

replaced by the capitan municipal in 1894), headed the pueblo or
municipio.
- Any Pilipino or Chinese mestizo, 25 years old, literate in oral or written
Spanish, and who had been cabeza de barangay (barrio administrator) for
four years, could be a gobernadorcillo.

The Amalgamation of Church and State-

- It was in the exercise of political and economic powers of the Spanish clergy
that we can perceive very clearly the disunity between the Church and
State.
6. Institutional Impact of Spanish Rule- When the Spaniards settled
permanently in the Philippines in 1565, they found the Filipinos living in
either lineal or nucleated barangay settlements scattered along water
routes and riverbanks and mountain ridges.

I. ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS:
A. "Taxation Without Representation"

- Income-generating mechanisms were introduced by the Spanish colonial

government in the Philippines.
- Consisting of direct (personal tribute and income tax) and indirect (customs
duties and the bandala) taxes, monopolies (rentas estancadas) of special
crops and items as spirituous liquors (1712-1864), betel nut (1764), tobacco
(1782-1882), explosives (1805-1864), and opium (1847).

B. Polo y Servicio Personal or Prestación Personal-

- Polo is corruption and the Tagalog pulong, originally meaning "meeting of

persons and things" or "community labor."
- Drafted laborers (polistas) were either Filipino or Chinese male mestizos
ranging from 16 to 60 years old, who were obligated to give personal
service to community projects, like construction and repair of
infrastructure, church construction, or cutting logs in forests, for forty days
until 1884, when labor was reduced to fifteen days.
- However, one could be exempted by paying the falla (corruption of the
Spanish falta, "absence," corrupted into the contemporary palya, ("absence
from work,") which the polista paid daily at 1% real during the 40-day
period he was expected.
- The polo system was patterned after the Mexican to work.
C. Encomiendas: Royal and Private-

- The encomienda, from the word encomendar, meaning "to entrust,"

was another revenue-getting Hispanic institution introduced to the
Philippines via Mexico.
- Strictly speaking, it was a grant from the Spanish crown to a meritorious
Spaniard to exercise control over a specific place including its
inhabitants.
- It was not a land grant as most earlier scholars believed.

D. The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815)-

- Running the only regular fleet service in the huge stretch of the Pacific
Ocean for two hundred fifty years was the Acapulco galleon (known as
galleón de Manila or nao de China).
- Two vessels making the journey yearly one outgoing, the other incoming
between Manila and Acapulco de Juárez, reaching as far as Callao in Peru.
- The trip lasted approximately two hundred days, the return voyage alone
taking seventy days.
- Through the Manila galleons, the Amerasian worlds were linked by untold
- luxuries and wealth: spices and silk for the Americans and the Mexican and
Peruvian dos mundos (pillar dollars or "pieces of eight") for the Asians.

E. Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country (1780-ca. 1895)-

- Jose de Basco y Vargas represented the true example of Spain's despotismo

ilustrado.
- For nine years revamped the then existing antiquated economic system
which stagnated progress in the Philippines.
- Following the royal order "to form a society of learned and competent
persons capable of producing useful ideas," he formally organized
- In 1780, the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del Pais composed of
leading men in business, industry, and the professions.

D. Royal Philippine Company (1785-1814)-

- On March 10, 1785, Charles III created the Royal Philippine Company with
20-year charter for the main purpose of uniting American and Asian
commerce.
- It was granted exclusive monopoly of bringing to Manila, not only
Philippine but also Chinese and Indian goods, and shipping them directly to
Spain via the Cape of Good Hope.

G. Infrastructure, Telecommunications and Public Utilities Development-

- Modern ways of telecommunications developed in the nineteenth century.

- The Ferrocarril de Manila extended 120 miles long up to Dagupan
(Pangasinan) and it was the only railway line in the Archipelago,
constructed using mainly Filipino labor
- Regularly operated four years before the outbreak of the Philippine
Revolution in 1896.

II. EDUCATIONAL TRANSFORMATION.

A. "La Letra Con Sangre Entra" ("Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child")-

- The earliest schools in the Philippines were following Charles V's decree of
July 17, 1550, which provided that Indios in all the Spanish dominions were
to be as part of conversion, the taught the conqueror's language.

1. Boy's Colleges and Secondary Schools-

- The earliest colleges exclusively for sons of Spaniards were established in

the Philippines by the Society of Jesus: the Colegio Máximo de San Ignacio
(1589) which later became a university (1621).
- College of San Ildefonso (now the University of San Carlos), the sole
secondary school outside of Manila, ie., in Cebu (1599); College of San Jose,
opened with only thirteen students in 1601.
- In the College of San Ignacio, there were two kinds of training: one was for
the priesthood, and the other, for a general secondary education. The
curriculum included Latin, philosophy, canon and civil law, and rhetoric.
- The College of the Immaculate Conception (now the Ateneo de Manila
University) grew out of the Escuela Pa for poor boys in 1817 and was
founded by the Jesuits upon their return from expulsion in 1859. it was
subsequently converted in 1865 Municipal de Manila.
- the Escuela Normal de Maestros de Manila (1865-1901), ably administered
normal school to train male teachers for primary schools, established by
the decree of 1863. As Order of Preachers, the Dominicans also offered
tertiary education for boys and girls.
- The present University of Santo Tomas, originally called the Colegio de
Nuestra Señora del Santisimo Rosario, in 1611, was converted into a
Dominican University in 1645. It was not until the last quarter of the
nineteenth century when such courses as medicine and pharmacy (1871),
notary public (1878), philosophy and letters (1896), were included in the
curriculum of the University of Santo Tomas.
- Opened in 1620, the present College of San Juan de Letran was originally
founded as the Seminario de Niños Huérfanos de San Pedro y San Pablo "for
orphaned Spanish children." Since 1640 it was known by its present name
and is now considered oldest secondary school in the Philippines.

2. Girl's Schools-

- The first boarding schools for Spanish girls in the Philippines were the
Colegios (secondary schools) of Santa Potenciana (1591-1864) and Santa
Isabel (1632), now considered the oldest school for girls in the archipelago.
- They were originally founded for the benefit of orphan Spanish girls.
- Besides these, exclusive colegios for the daughters of upper-class Spaniards
were called beaterios, established for young girls called beatas who led a
secluded life. These beaterios included the Beaterio de la Compañia de
Jesus (now the Religious of the Virgin Mary) founded in 1684; Santa
Catalina de Sena (1696)
- San Sebastian de Calumpang (now Sta. Rita College, (1719)
- Santa Rita de Pasig (1740); and Santa Rosa (1750).
- Two of these beaterios were established to teach Spanish culture and
values to young Filipinas and were founded by Filipino women:
- The Religious of the Virgin Mary (RVM Sisters) and the Beaterio de San
Sebastián de Caiumpang of the Orden Terciarias de Recoletos.
- The nineteenth century saw the establishment of other colegios for
women: the Colegio de la Inmaculada Concepción Concordia, now
Concordia College (1868); Looban (1885),
- Assumption (1892), which supervised the Escuela Normal Superior de
Maestras to prepare Filipino women teachers for the primary schools.
- A primary school set up in 1864 by the ayuntamiento of Manila the
Municipal Girls' School was transformed into a normal school for women
teachers in girls' schools four years later, under the Sisters of Charity.

III-Social Transformation-

- Probably one of the indelible marks left by the Spanish conquest on the
Filipinos was the adoption of Hispanic names, as decreed by Governor
Narciso Claveria in 1849.
- Based on compiled names of saints, indigenous and Chinese patronymics,
flora and fauna, geographical names, and the arts, Filipinos were obligated
to adopt surnames like Rizal, Del Pilar or Luna, although some indigenous
surnames like Mabini, Malantic, Dandan and Panganiban, were retained.
- However, the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos contained some derogatory
names like "Utut," "Ung-goy," and even "Casillas." Not only were Filipinos
given family names as bases for census and statistics, but the surnames also
guaranteed exact tax collection, regular performance of polos y servicios
personales, and control of population movement, thereby avoiding
unauthorized migration, tax evasion, and other abuses in the eyes of the
Spaniards.
- Although strictly imposed in Bikolandia, some parts of Ilocandia and Panay,
the change of family names was almost completely ignored in some areas
of Laguna and Pampanga.

IV. Cultural Transformation.

- The precolonial baybayin (syllabic writing) was supplanted by the Latin

alphabet as part of the Hispanization of the Filipinos.
- By the mid-eighteenth century, it was observed that it was already rare to
find a Filipino "who still knew how to read them, much less write them. All
of them read and write our Castillan letters now, Wrote Fr. Sebastian
Totanes in 1745.
- However, Fr. Pedro Andres de Castro noted, as late as 1776, that he still
saw in the Augustinian archives of Lipa and Batangas many documents
written in the Tagalog syllabary to understand profound mysteries and
concepts."
- Before laying the ground for the successful Hispanization of the Philippines,
the Spanish missionaries relentlessly destroyed everything they considered
belonging to the devil and replacing them with their own theocentric
literature according to James Robertson.
7. From Indio to Filipino- The Filipinos began to fight the Spaniards the
moment they settled permanently in 1565 and continued this
resistance to the end of their rule in 1898. All these pockets of
resistance for various causes burst into a national struggle as the
Filipinos fought to liberate themselves from Spanish domination in the
Philippine Revolution of 1896-97. In October 1889, a group of
ilustrados in Paris, signing themselves as "The Filipinos," addressed the
following "To Our Dear Mother Country, Spain" Lapulapu of Mactan
(1521) and Dagami of Cebu (1567) were among the first Filipinos to
refuse to bow under Spanish yoke.
A. Personal Motives-

- As proved by official records, some revolts were personally led by former

barangay datus and maharlikas, as well as babaylans or katalonans, who
had lost their prestige and power in their communities with the coming of
the Spaniards, and were supplanted by leaders chosen by the Spaniards.
- Lakandula and Soliman, last of the Manila chieftains, revolted in 1574, the
same year Limahong attacked the poorly protected palisaded Intramuros.
- Before Legazpi's demise, Lakandula was baptized as "Carlos Lacandola,"
and he and his descendants (with Rajah Soliman), were justly compensated
with exemption from tribute and forced labor, which their families enjoyed
until 1884.
- Another fringe benefits the Lakandula and Soliman families.

B. Religious Motives-
- The continuous Hispanization of the Filipinos through religion was in line
with Spain's policy of Gospel, Gold and Glory."
- Various attempts were made to proselytize the various cultural
communities by employing a newly Christianized chieftain or his children
and family as shining models for the other barangay members to follow, or
by using a Christianized member of a converted ethnic community to
evangelize other neighboring unconverted groups.
- Some of the uncompromising or apostates among them, however, reverted
to their old beliefs instead of embracing the new religion.
- Among them were Miguel Lanab and Alababan (1625-27), Tapar (1663),
Francisco Rivera (1718), Ermano Apolinario de la Cruz (1840-41), and, of
course, the Muslims in the Southern Philippines, and the Igorots in the
Cordilleras.

C. Resistance to Spanish-

- Imposed Institutions. The Spanish institutions of taxation, forced labor,

galleon trade, indulto de comercio, and monopolies (on tobacco and
spirituous liquors among others) were persistent irritants that cause
Filipino to revolt.
- Among the major rebellions belonging to this class were those in the late
16th century led by Magalat; the Sumodoy (Sumoroy) and the Caraga
revolts in the 17th century.

D. Peasant Unrest-

- In April 1745, the Tagalog regions were marked by peasant unrest which
started in the hacienda town or Silang in Cavite, spreading blood to the
rice-growing provinces nearby.
- The maginoos of Silang disputed fraudulent land surveys which usurped a
large portion of the communal lands in Latag (now Carmona) and Lantic
which were unjustly awarded to the Chinese and mestizo tenants of the
Dominican-owned friar estate of Biñan (Laguna).
E. The Moro Resistance-

- The active resistance against the Spaniards heightened from 1718 to 1762,
and from 1850s to 1878, during the so-called "Moro Wars".
- Starting with the reestablishment of Fort Pilar in Zamboanga in 1718, the
Spaniards failed miserably to subjugate the Moros in the 1750s.
- This was the time that the Iranuns and the Maranaos of Lanao commenced
their relentless ravaging pillages in the Visayas which caused economic
stagnation in many parts of the islands under the sway of the Spanish rule.

Failure of the Revolts-

- All the earlier resistance which occurred almost in cyclical pattern were
failures.
- Because of the insular makeup of the Philippines, the early Filipinos were
conditioned to live and feel apart from each other for almost 333 years.
- There was no sense of national unity.

Filipino Nationalism: Decelerators.

- The ideas of nationalism, a product of the French Revolution in the

eighteenth century, filtered through the Philippines only in the nineteenth
century.
- Indeed, there was no national feeling during the precolonial times.
Although united in a geographical unit called Las Islas Filipinas during the
Spanish rule, the people called Filipinos applied only to the Spaniards born
in the Philippines (insulares).

Filipino Nationalism: Accelerators-

- The filtering through or progressive political ideologies and the transfer of

technology to the Philippines through liberal-minded men from Europe and
America, along with disenchantment with Madre España, catalyzed Filipino
nationalism in the nineteenth century.
- Tired... and not a member of a nation," the Filipino, particularly the social
elites, finally woke up to the realization that he must change.

A. The Philippines in World Commerce (1834-1898)-

- Manila proper and the suburban areas developed by leaps and bounds with
the official and permanent opening of the port to international trade in
1834, resulting in tremendous socio-economic changes for the Filipino.

B. Rise of the Clase Media-

- As a result of the great economic transformation in the life of the Filipino, a

middle class (clase media) of Asian and Eurasian mestizos emerged in the
Philippine social pyramid.
- The clase media emerged from the economic boom derived from expanded
agriculture and commerce embarked on by the rising native entrepreneurs.
- They formed the town principalía, an elite social group composed of former
gobernadorcillos and minor native bureaucrats owning at least P50.00 in
land taxes, decorated personnel, and school masters.

C. European Liberalism and Carlos Maria de la Torre-

- We cannot discount that not only men, but also ideas filtered to the
Philippines with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
- Thus, the travel between Spain and the islands was made shorter, safer.
and speedier.
- It not only "dispelled to some extent the atmosphere of the middle ages" in
which the Filipinos "were wrapped, according to Pardo de Tavera, but
"modern ideas of liberty began to penetrate the minds of the natives.

D. Racial Discrimination-

- There is an abundance of documentary proof on racism in the Philippines

during the Spanish period.
- "Although the laws recognized no difference between the various races,"
commented Pardo de Tavera, "nevertheless from the beginning of the
nineteenth century the Spaniards claimed superiority over the Filipinos,
and so taught their children."

E. Regular-Secular Conflicts-

- Secularization of the parishes was nothing more than the transfer of

ministries established or run by the regular clergy to the seculars.
- By the midst of the nineteenth century, secularization was transmuted into
a political and separatist movement which exploded in the Filipinization of
the church and culminated in the separation of the church from Rome
during the Philippine Revolution.

F. La Algarada Caviteña, 1872-

- The Cavite Mutiny broke out during the tenure of Rafael de Izquierdo who
had dramatically, said upon his arrival, “I shall govern with a cross on one
hand a sword in the other.”
- Galvanized by discontent against the Spaniards, some 200 Filipino soldiers,
joined in by some workers in the arsenal of the artillery corps led by Sgt. La
Madrid, guard at Fort San Felipe, mutinied in the night of January 1872.
Part III Reform and Revolution

8. The Campaign for Reforms- The unjust execution of the three

Filipino priests Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora was a
turning point in Philippine history, for it ushered in a new era the
reform movement. Realizing the danger of fighting for their cause on
the home front, the sons of the wealthy and the well-to-do Filipino
families migrated to Europe to breathe the free atmosphere of the old
World.
The Role of the Middle Class-

- The economic development of the Philippines in the nineteenth century

led to the rise of the Filipino middle class.
- Non-existent in previous centuries, the middle class, composed of Spanish
and Chinese mestizos.
- Peninsulares called the former Filipinos.
- Indios are the native Filipinos

The Nature of the Reform Movement-

- The dissatisfaction of the Filipino men of wealth and intellect was centered
around the abuses of the Spanish authorities, civil as well as clerical.
- Men with a social conscience and at least some of them with ulterior
motives, the middle class denounced Spanish abuses and asked Spain to
make the Philippines a province of Spain.

The Great Reformists-

- Not all the sons of wealthy Filipinos who went to Spain in the second half of
the nineteenth century were in the propaganda movement.

Graciano Lopez Jaena

- Born in Jaro, Iloilo, on December 17, 1856

- Son of Placido Lopez and Maria Jacobo Jaena
- At a young age he produced a tale called Fray Botod, botod means big-
bellied man. The equivalent of the Tagalog slang botyok, immoral, ignorant,
and abusive.

Marcelo H. Dela Cruz

- Born in the barrio of Kupang, Bulakan, Bulacan, on August 30, 1850

- Son of Julian H. Del Pilar and Blasa Gatmaitan
- He founded the nationalistic newspaper Diariong Tagalog (1882)

Ten Commandments of the Friars

Ang manga utos nang Fraile ay sampo:
Ang nauna: Sambahin mo ang Fraile na lalo sa lahat.
Ang ikalaua: Huag kang mag papahamak manuba nang ngalang deretsos.
Ang ikatlo: Mangilin ka sa Fraile lingo man at fiesta.
Ang ikapat: Isangla mo ang catauan mo sa pagpapalibing sa ama’t ina,
Ang ikalima: Huag kang mamamatay kung uala pang salaping pang libing.
Ang ikanim: Huag kang makiapid sa kanyang asaua.
Ang ikapito: Huag kang makinakaw.
Ang ikaualo: Huag mo silang pagbibintangan, kahit ka masinungalingan.
Ang ikasiyam: Huag mong ipagkait ang iyong asaua.
Ang ikapulo: Huag mong itangui ang iyong ari.
Itong sampong utos nang Fraile’I dalaua ang kinaoouian.
Ang isa: Sambahin mo ang Fraile lalo sa lahat.
Ang ikalaua: Ihayin mo naman sa kaniya ang puri mo’t kayamanan. Siya naua.

Jose Rizal

- Born in Calamba, Laguna, on June 19, 1861

- Son of Francisco Mercado and Teodora Alonzo
- Wrote Sa Aking Kabata at the age of eight
- Wrote Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo
- Studied Medicine at University of Santo Tomas

La Solidaridad

- Works of Lopez Jaena, Rizal, del pilar, Eduardo de Lete, Pedro Govantes and
other.
- February 15, 1889, the first number of La Solidaridad came out in
Barcelona.
- Lopez Jaena was the first editor and later passed it on del Pilar.
- Rizal as Dimas Alang, Laong Laan
- Mariano Ponce as Tikbalang, Nanig, Kalipulako
- Antonio Luna as Taga-Ilog
- Marcelo H. del Pilar as Plaridel
- Jose Ma. Panganiban as Jomapa

La Liga Filipina-

- Almost simultaneously with the introduction of Masonry in the Philippines,

a civic society called La Propaganda was established.
- Its members, composed mostly, if not exclusively, of the middle class,
contributed money to defray the expenses of the Filipino reformers in
Spain who were waging a campaign to obtain political concessions from the
Mother Country.
- Domingo Franco was elected President
- Deodato Arellano, Secretary-
- Treasurer; Isidoro Francisco,
- Fiscal; Juan Zulueta and Timoteo Paez, members of the Supreme Council.
- Mabini became the Liga's Secretary
Aims-
(1) To unite the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogeneous body
(2) Mutual protection in every want and necessity
(3) Defense against all violence and injustice
(4) Encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce
(5) Study and application of reforms.
Manner-
(1) The member or his son who, while not having means shall
(2) The poor shall be supported in his right against any powerful
(3) The member who shall have suffered any loss shall be aided; show application and great capacity,
shall be sustained, person
(4) Capital shall be loaned to the member who shall need it for an industry or agriculture; in the country,
shall be favored.
(5) The introduction of machines and industries, new or necessary
(6) Shops, stores, and establishments shall be opened, where the and members may be accommodated
more economically than elsewhere.

The Failure of the Reform Movement-

- The intensive campaign of La Solidaridad for reforms did not yield any
tangible result in the form of changes in the administration of the
Philippines. It is true that it brought to the attention of the peninsular
- Spaniards the so-called Philippine problem, but the Mother Country
- was too preoccupied with its own internal problems to give a
- moment's thought to the colonial problem.
9. Bonifacio and the Katipunan
- The news of Rizal's deportation shocked and surprised the people, for Rizal
to them was the symbol of freedom.
- That night of July 7, 1892, Andres Bonifacio, Valentin Diaz, Teodoro Plata,
Ladislao Diwa, Deodato Arellano, and a few others, met secretly at a house
on Azcárraga (now Claro M. Recto Avenue), near Elcano Street, Tondo, and
- decided to form an association called.
- Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang manga Anak nang
Bayan, or Katipunan for short.
- The men gathered around a flickering table lamp, performed the ancient
blood compact, and signed their membership papers with their own blood.

The Katipunan Objectives-

- Under the leadership of Bonifacio, the Katipunan laid down three

fundamental objective or aims: political, moral, and civic.
- The political objective consisted in working for the separation of the
Philippines from Spain.
- The moral objective revolved around the teaching of good manners,
hygiene, good morals, and attacking obscurantism, religious fanaticism, and
weakness of character.
- The civic objective aim revolved around the principle of self-help and the
defense of the poor and the oppressed.

The Structure of the Katipunan-

- Kataastaasang Sanggunian or the Supreme Council, the Sangguniang Bayan
or Provincial Council and the Sangguniang Balangay or Popular Council, The
Kataas-taasang Sanggunian was the highest governing body of the society
and was composed of a president, a fiscal, a secretary, a treasurer and a
comptroller or interventor.
- The Sangguniang Bayan and the Sangguniang Balangay represented,
respectively, the province and the municipality or town.

Kinds of Membership-

- The hood had a triangle of white ribbon inside of which were the letters Z,
Ll, B. A. ng B meaning Anak ng Bayan.
- Second grade-kawal-green hood with white lines
- The password is Gom-Bur-Za, take from the names of the three-martyr
priest.
- The third grade-Bayani-red mask and sash with green borders, symbolizing
courage, and hope.
- The password is Rizal.

The Katipunan Codes-

- The Katipunan members faced many dangers, so that precautions had to be

taken to keep the society secret.
- To maintain the secrets of their communications, Bonifacio evolved a
system of writing that would make it difficult, if not impossible, for the
Spanish authorities to discover the existence of the society.
- Several codes were made, the first of which was the following:

The Flags of the Katipunan-

- With the Katipunan now well organized, Bonifacio turned his attention to
the symbol of its upon his request, Benita Rodriguez, with the help
- of Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's wife, made a flag.
- It consisted of a red rectangular piece of cloth with three white K's
arranged horizontally at the center.
- This was the first official flag of the authority.

Andres Bonifacio-
- the founder and organizer of the Katipunan, was born in Tondo, then a part
of the Province of Manila, on November 30, 1863.
- His parents were Santiago Bonifacio and Catalina de Castro.
- Andres grew up in the slums and never knew the benefits of a prosperous
life.
- He had three brothers and two sisters: Ciriaco, Procopio, Espiridiona,
Troadio, and Max ima. Andres studied the alphabet in a school conducted
by a certain Guillermo Osmeña of Cebu.
- The death of his parents forced Andres to give up schooling to shoulder the
burden of his family.
Emilio Jacinto-
- Called the "Brains of the Katipunan, Emilo Jacinto was born in Tondo on
December 15, 1875, the son of Mariano Jacinto and Josefa Dizon.
- As a boy he spent most of the day in the streets and so came to learn a kind
of Spanish which may be described as bamboo or pidgin Spanish.
- Being poor did not detain his parents from sending him to school to pursue
a career.
- He enrolled at San Juan de Letran College and later at the University of
Santo Tomas, where he developed a taste for reading.
Teachings of the Katipunan (Kartilya ng Katipunan)-
1. A life that is not dedicated to a noble cause is like a tree without a shade or a poisonous weed.
2. A deed lacks nobility if it is motivated by self-interest and not by a sincere desire to help.
3. True piety consists of being charitable, loving one’s fellow men, and being judicious in behavior,
speech, and deed.
4. All persons are equal, regardless of the color of their skin. While one could have more schooling,
wealth, or beauty than another, all that does not make one more human than anybody else.
5. A person with a noble character values honor above self-interest, while a person with a base
character values self-interest above honor.
6. To a person of honor, his/her word is a pledge.
7. Do not waste time; lost wealth can be retrieved, but time lost is lost forever.
8. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
9. The wise person is careful in all he/she has to say and is discreet about things that need to be kept
secret./ An intelligent man is he who is cautious in speech and knows how to keep the secrets that must
be guarded.
10. In the thorny path of life, the man leads the way and his wife and children follow. If the leader goes
the way to perdition, so do the followers.
11. Never regard a woman as an object for you to trifle with; rather you should consider her as a partner
and helpmate. Consider a woman’s frailty and never forget that your own mother, who brought you
forth and nurtured you from infancy, is herself such a person.
12. Do not due to the wife, children, brothers, and sisters of others what you do not want done to your
wife, children, brothers, and sisters.
13. A man’s worth is not measured by his station in life, neither by the height of his nose nor the fairness
of skin, and certainly not by whether he is a priest claiming to be God’s deputy. Even if he a tribesman
from the hills and speaks only his tongue, a man has fine perceptions and is loyal to his native land.

When these teachings shall have been propagated and the glorious sun of freedom begins to shine on
these poor Islands to enlighten a united race and people, then all the lives lost, all the struggle and the
sacrifices will not have been in vain.

The Women's Chapter of the Katipunan-

- Bonifacio's idea of expanding the membership of the Katipunan led him,

first to do away with the triangle method of recruiting new members and,
second, to the formation of the Women's Chapter.
- Prominent women of the community were initiated into the society.
- Their officers were: Josefa Rizal, President
- Gregoria de Jesus, Vice-President
- Marina Dizon, Secretary; and Angelica Rizal Lopez, Fiscal.
- Gregoria de Jesus risked her life in keeping in her person many Katipunan
documents even at a time when she was heavy with child.

The Katipunan Newspaper-

- Another step taken by the Katipunan to propagate its teachings and to win
more adherents to its side was the establishment of a printing press.
- One difficulty encountered was the lack of sufficient funds with which to
purchase even a small printing press adequate to meet the simple needs of
the society.

The Expansion of the Katipunan-

- The publication and distribution of the Kalayaan, with its incendiary
contents, immediately influenced the thinking and feeling of the masses in
Central Luzon.
- Jacinto's and Bonifacio's writings awakened the people from a long lethargy
and immediately swelled the ranks of the Katipunan.
- The Katipunan became especially popular in the suburbs of
- Manila and in the provinces of Central Luzon. But as the number
- of its affiliates increased, the Spanish authorities began to suspect
- its underground character. The friars began to denounce the
- nightly meeting held by the Katipuneros and on August 19, 1896,
- Patino exposed the society to Fr. Mariano Gil. With the discovery
- of the Katipunan, Bonifacio had no other alternative than to
- take to the field and on August 23, at Pugadlawin, he and his
- men declared their intention to fight to the bitter end.

Rizal and the Revolution-

- Bonifacio, who had known Rizal during the Liga: days but whom Rizal did
not know personally, wanted Rizal's opinion on the necessity of rising in
ams against the Spaniards.
- He, therefore, commissioned Dr. Pio Valenzuela to go to Dapitan in June
1896 to confer with Rizal.
- With Valenzuela on the S.S. Venus were Rizal's sister Narcisa and his niece
Angelica Rizal Lopez.

Preparations for the Struggle-

- Meanwhile, the Katipunan began preparations geared for any emergency.

- Bonifacio thought that sooner or later the revolution would explode, and
he did not want to be taken by surprise.
- Consequently, he ordered the manufacture of bolos to be distributed to the
members of the society.
- Bolos alone, however, would not do, for the enemy was armed with
Remingtons and Mausers.
Spanish Suspicion Aroused-

- The increase in the number of the Katipunan affiliates, while advantageous

to Bonifacio, was in a way a disadvantage.
- The new members were impatient and in their impatience, they met
nightly, a circumstance that aroused the suspicion of the authorities.
- Rumors or such nocturnal meetings reached Manila, and the Spanish
population, particularly the friars, became jittery.

The Discovery of the Katipunan-

- Father Mariano Gil disgusted over the governor's attitude, next ran to the
military governor of Manila, General Echaluce, and revealed what he knew
about the Katipunan.
- But Echaluce was not in a mood to humor the friar. Instead, he took
precautions to make Manila safe from disturbances of any kind.

Wealthy Filipinos Implicated-

- As Valenzuela feared, the wealthy Filipinos refused to join the Katipunan.

- Bonifacio thought that in order to force them to sympathize with the
members of the society a trick should be played on them in such a way as
to make it appear that they were deeply involved in the Katipunan.
- Jacinto then drew up a list of wealthy Filipinos, while some of the
Katipuneros were ordered to study their signatures for the purpose of
forging them on some documents they were about to prepare.

The "Cry" of Pugadlawin-

- The news of the discovery of the Katipunan spread throughout Manila and
the suburbs.
- Bonifacio, informed of the discovery, secretly instructed his runners to
summon all the leaders of the society to a general assembly to be held on
August 24.
- They were to meet at Balintawak to discuss the steps to be taken to meet
the crisis.
- That same night of August 19, Bonifacio, accompanied by his brother
Procopio, Emilio Jacinto, Teodoro Plata, and Aguedo del Rosario, slipped
through the cordon of Spanish sentries and reached Balintawak before
midnight.
- "That being the case, Bonifacio said, "bring out your cédulas and tear them
to pieces to symbolize our determination to take up arms! The men
obediently tore up their cédulas, shouting: "Long live the Philippines!" This
event marked the "Cry of Balintawak," which happened in Pugadlawin.

First Skirmishes-

- During this dramatic scene, so Katipuneros who had just arrived from
Manila and Kalookan shouted: Dong Andres! The civil guards are almost
benina us and will reconnoiter the mountains."
- Bonifacio at once ordered his men to get ready for the expected attack of
the Spaniards.

The Revolution Spreads-

- Meanwhile, south of Manila the rebels grew in strength.

- A thousand men marched toward Pasig and attacked the small force of civil
guards.
- At almost the same time, about 400 rebels attacked the church of
Pandakan and captured it without any resistance, for the parish priest ran
to the belfry to save his life.
- Pateros, Tagig, Kalookan, Kawit, San Francisco de Malabon (now General
Trías), Noveleta, San Pedro Makati, and other towns, rose as one man and
pursued the Spanish enemy.

The Reign of Terror-

- The flames that now engulfed many provinces worried the Spanish
authorities no end.
- To frighten the population into submission, the authorities resorted to a
reign of terror.
- Only by this means could they hope to prevent the revolutionary
movement from becoming national in Scope.
- The Spanish volunteers and Corps of Vigilantes promptly invaded the
homes of Filipinos to secure evidence against those who were directly or
indirectly involved in the uprising.
- In Trozo, Captain Carlos March of the Spanish Volunteers found
incriminating evidence against Katipuneros.

The Katipunan in Cavite-

- Even before the outbreak of the revolution, the Katipunan in Cavite was
already divided into two factions representing two provincial councils.
- The factions were known as the Magdaló and the Magdiwang.
- The former was led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, with headquarters at Cavite el
Viejo (now Kawit), and the latter by Mariano Alvarez, with headquarters at
Noveleta.
- The Katipuneros of Cavite were very active, having raised the standard of
revolt on August 31, 1896 when they attacked the tribunál (municipal
building) of San Francisco de Malabon.
- The Magdiwang, on the other hand attacked the Spaniards in Noveleta,
Panahon na! Mabuhay ang Kalayaan!" (The time has come! Long live
Liberty!) At Cavite el Viejo, the Magdalő, led by Candido Tirona, took the
offensive against the enemy garrison which was captured.

Bonifacio in Cavite-

- The rivalry that existed between the Magdalo and the Magdiwang factions
of the Katipunan in Cavite led to a series of reverses early in January 1897.
- In a mass m movement such as that of the revolution, unity was
indispensable.
- To patch up matters, the Magdiwang faction invited Andres Bonifacio to
intervene in the conflict.

The Tejeros Convention-

- As months passed by and as the rebels found themselves on the receiving
end of the armed power with the Spaniards, their leaders thought it timely
and wise to call another meeting of both factions in order to solve their
internal problem.
- Consequently, on March 22, 1897, the two factions again met at Tejeros, a
barrio of San Francisco de Malabon.
- The convention was held at the estate-house of the friars which the rebels
had captured earlier.
- Emilio Aguinaldo- President
- Mariano Trias-Vice-President
- Artemio Ricarte-Captain-General
- Emiliano Riego de Dios-Director of War
- Andres Bonifacio-Director of the Interior

The Second Meeting at Tejeros-

- Aguinaldo, who was at Pasong Santol, a barrio of Dasmariñas, was notified

the following day of his election to the Presidency.
- At first he refused to leave his men who were preparing to fight the enemy,
but his elder brother, Crispulo Aguinaldo, persuaded him to take the oath
of office, promising that he would take his place and would not allow the
enemy to overrun the place without Aguinaldo then acceded to his
brother's dying in its defense.

The Naik Military Agreement. -

- Bonifacio's anger over what he considered an irregular election and the

insult heaped on him by Daniel Tirona, a Magdaló, rankled for long.
- At Naik, he and his men drew up another document in which they resolved
to establish a government independent of, and separate from, that
established at Tejeros.
- An army was to be organized "by persuasion or force and a military
commander of their own force was to take command of it. The document
read:
- First: All combatants shall, by persuasion or force, be incorporated in an
army corps and placed under the command of General Pio del Pilar.
- Second: We shall recognize no one as being vested with full power except
Right in the first place, and those courageous officers who, since the
beginning of the war and until the present moment, have never gone back
on their oath and have conducted themselves loyalty.
- Third: Any disloyal person shall be punished on the spot, according to his
desserts.

The Trial and Execution of Bonifacio-

- From Naik, Boniacio, his wife, and two brothers, with a handful of loyal
followers, transferred to the bario of Limbon, Indang. The Naik Military
Agreement came to the knowledge of Aguinaldo and, realizing the
significance of Bonifacio's intentions, he ordered the arrest of the Bonifacio
brothers.
- A group of soldiers under Andres and Procopio Bonifacio were found guilty
of treason and sedition although the evidence was not sufficient to prove
their alleged guilt.
- Bonifacio was returned to jail pending the reading of the sentence.
- Early on the morning of May 10, General Noriel ordered Major Lazaro
Makapagal to bring out the two brothers from jail.
- Makapagal was handed a sealed letter with orders to read its contents after
reaching Mount Tala.
- Makapagál chose four soldiers to accompany him in his mission.
- Having reached the vicinity of the mountain, Makapagál, upon the request
of Bonifacio, opened the sealed letter.
- It contained an order to execute Andres and Procopio Bonifacio.

The Revolution Continues-

- When Makapagál returned to Maragondon, where the new rebel capital

had been established following the capture of Naik by the enemy, he found
the Filipino forces retreating and the Spaniards pounding the town
furiously.
- The enemy, however, suffered much, for the Spanish soldiers, most of
whom had just arrived from Spain, were not accustomed to the tropical
climate.
- General Camilo de Polavieja, tired of the endless battles, asked for his relief
as governor-general of the Philippines. His request was granted and on
April 15, 1897.He was replaced by a former governor-generalFernando
Primo de Rivera sailed for Spain.

The Government of Central Luzon-

- News of Aguinaldo's arrival at Biyak-na-bato reached the towns of Central

Luzon.
- Therefore, armed men from Pangasinan, Zambales, the llocos provinces,
Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija, renewed their armed resistance against the enemy.
- From Biyak-na-bató, Aguinaldo and his men joined forces with those of
General Mariano Llanera of Nueva Ecija and harassed the Spanish soldiers
garrisoned in the Central Luzon provinces.
- Father Pedro Dandan- President
- Anastacio Francisco- Vice-President
- Paciano Rizal- Secretary of the Treasury
- Cipriano Pacheco- Secretary of the War
- Teodoro Gonzales- Secretary of the Interior
- Feliciano Jocson-Secretary of Welfare

The Biyak-na-bató Republic-

- Unable to persuade the Filipinos to give up their arms, Primo de Rivera

issued a decree on
- July 2, 1897, which prohibited all inhabitants to leave their villages and
towns.
- The effect of the decree was contrary to the governor's expectations, for
the people continued fighting for the Filipino cause proclamation in July
entitled "To the Brave Sons of the Philippines in which he listed the
revolutionary demands, namely:
- the expulsion of the friars and the return to the Filipinos of the lands they
appropriated for themselves; (2) representation in the Spanish Cortés; (3)
freedom of the press and tolerance of all religious sects; (4) equal
treatment and pay for Peninsula and Insular civil servants; (5) abolition of
the power of the government to banish citizens; and (6) legal equality for all
persons.

- Emilio Aguinaldo-President
- Mariano Trias- Vice-President
- Antonio Montenegro- Secretary of Foreign Affairs
- Isabelo Artacho- Secretary of the Interior
- Emiliano Riego de Dios- Secretary of War
- Baldomero Aguinaldo-Secretary of the Treasury

The Truce of Biyak-na-bato-

- Sometime in August, a mestizo, Fedro A. Paterno, who had spent a part of

his life in Spain, approached Governor-General Primo de Rivera and asked
that he bemade a mediator between the Filipinos and the Spaniards.
- He wanted, he said, to stop the fatal conflict between the two peoples, for
he loved Spain and the Philippines.
- The governor-general acceded to his request.

(1) that Aguinaldo and his companions would go into voluntary exile abroad

(2) that Primo de Rivera would pay the sum of P800,000 to the rebels in three
installments: (a) P400,000 to Aguinaldo upon his departure from Biyak-na-bato,
(b) P200,000 when the arms surrendered by the revolutionists exceeded 700, and
the remaining P200,000 when the Te Deum was sung and general amnesty
proclaimed by the governor,
(3) that Primo de Rivera would pay the additional sum of P900,000 to the families
of the non-combatant Filipinos who suffered during the armed conflict.

The Failure of the Truce-

- January 1898 was a month of The Spaniards, happy that their lives had
been spared during the hectic battles, began a series of fiestas so lavish
that thousands of pesos were spent to make the occasion, that is, the end
of the hostilities, a memorable one.
- There were boat and horse races, fireworks in the evenings, a magnificent
ball at the Ayuntamiento or City Hall, and dramas at the Zorilla Theater.
- On January 23, the Te Deum was sung at the Manila Cathedral and on the
24th (Madrid time) at the colorful festivities in Manila.

11. THE REVOLUTIGN: SECOND PHASE- Aguinaldo deposited the

P400,000 he received from Primo de Rivera in two Hongkong banks.
Only the interest of the amount was withdrawn and used for the
expenses of the exiles. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo, with two companions,
went to Singapore where the American Consul E. Spencer Pratt
conferred with him. Pratt persuaded Aguinaldo to cooperate with
Commodore George Dewey who was about to sail to Manila to destroy
the Spanish navy. War was declared between the United States and
Spain, and Dewey promptly sank the Spanish warships. Aguinaldo
returned to the Philippines on board an American ship and soon after
raised the standard of revolt against Spain.
The Relief on Primo de Rivera-

- Whatever good intentions Primo de Rivera had about the solution of the
Philippine problem were frustrated when the Conservative Party of Spain
was succeeded by one to which the governor-general does not belong.
- The succeeding Liberal Party sent General Basilio Augustin to the
Philippines as Primo de Rivera's successor.
- This was unfortunate, for the new governor-general was ignorant of the
actual conditions in the Philippines.

American Designs on the Philippines-

- Meanwhile, the Spanish-American relations were turning for the worse.

The Cuban revolution had drawn the United States to the side of the Cuban
rebels, for American economic interests in the island were paramount, At
that time, Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., one of the influential Americans, wished
that war between Spain and the United States should break out in order to
expand the navy

The Spanish-American War-

- In the face of the Philippine and Cuban revolutions, Spain could not
antagonize the United States.
- She therefore tried to heal the rift in order not to draw her into a fatal war
with a rising powerful nation.
- Unfortunately, however, Spain's Ambassador to the United States, Dupuy
de Lome, wrote a friend in Havana, Cuba, in January 1898, stating that
President William McKinley was a weakling and a low politician.
- This letter was stolen and published in a New York periodical.
- The result of its publication was that the Americans, who had been roused
to anger by stories of alleged Spanish brutalities and mistreatment of
American citizens in Cuba, demanded war against Spain.

The Battle of Manila Bay-

- With the receipt of Secretary Long's cable announcing the declaration of

war with Spain, Dewey sailed from Mirs Bay, near Hongkong, for the
Philippines with seven heavily armed ships.
- In the early morning hours of May 1, 1898, his fleet entered Manila Bay
almost undetected by the Spanish shore batteries on Corregidor and
Bataan.
- Dewey sailed straight toward the Manila Bay shore in the hope that he
would find Admiral Patricio Montojo's fleet there and give the Spanish
fleet, meanwhile, was near battle inmmediately.

Aguinaldo in Singapore-

- As early as the middle of April 1898, rumor filtered through Manila and the
provinces that the Spanish-American war was a matter of days or perhaps a
few weeks away. Many of the rebel leaders stopped their revolutionary
activities pending the determination of the truth of the rumor.
- Meanwhile, in Hongkong, Aguinaldo and his companions were following
the trend of events on the other side of to them it was an opportunity to
oust the Spaniards from the Philippines.
- But there was a division in the ranks of the exiles, for Isabelo Artacho
wanted the P400,000 given to Aguinaldo to be divided among them.
Aguinaldo refused the Pacific.

Aguinaldo and Consul Wildman-

- Aguinaldo was naturally disappointed upon finding that Dewey had already
sailed for Manila.
- Nevertheless, the American consul at Hongkong, Rounseville Wildman,
promptly met him and informed him that Dewey had left instructions for
him to decide for the return of Aguinaldo to the Philippines.
- In the succeeding conferences

Aguinaldo and the Hongkong Junta-

- In the wake of Dewey's victory, the Filipinos who composed the Hongkong
Junta met on May 4 to discuss the steps to be taken in the face of the new
developments.
- Present during the deliberations were Felipe Agoncillo, temporary
President; Doroteo Lopez, temporary Secretary; Teodoro Sandico,
Anastacio Francisco, Mariano Llanera, Miguel Malvar, Andres Garchitorena,
Severo Buenaventura, Maximo Kabigting, Faustino Lichauco, and Antonio
Montenegro, Agoncillo informed the Committee of the arrival
Aguinaldo Returns-

- Aguinaldo was convinced of the wisdom of the Junta's decision and so he

prepared for his return on May 7, the revenue cutter McCulloch arrived in
Hongkong, but the master of the ship notified Aguinaldo that Dewey did
not instruct him to take Aguinaldo aboard.

Renewal of the Struggle-

- As soon as Aguinaldo had landed the war materials, he had brought from
Hongkong, rebels from Bataan came to see him.
- Aguinaldo handed them copies of his proclamations urging the people to
rally once more to the Filipino flag in the struggle against the Spaniards.
- The news of his return spread throughout Central Luzon.
- Several Filipino volunteers in the Spanish army defected to the Filipino
forces.
- Aguinaldo ordered them to occupy Dalahikan, the Cavite shipyard, to
prevent the enemy from occupying it.
- Arms were secured from the captain of the American warship Petrel and
distributed among the large number of Filipinos coming in to offer their
loyalty and services to Aguinaldo.

Spanish Attempts to Win Over Filipinos-

- The effect of Aguinaldo's return on the Spanish authorities was

demoralizing
- A few days after the event, Governor-General Basilio Augustin found
himself betrayed by the Filipino soldiers who volunteered to the Spanish
army.
- To counteract its total effect on the Pilpino civilians, some Spaniards, with
the consent and, perhaps, inspiration of the govenor-general, circulated a
handbill entitled Viva la Autonomia! in which they stated that the
"salyation of the unity of the Islands, the unity of its liberties, and the unity
of its local and central government" lay with Spain.

The Siege of Manila-

- What was then known as the City of Manila was the Walled City or
Intramuros.
- The districts outside the City were called arrabales or suburbs. Soon after
the destruction of the Spanish navy, Dewey blockaded Manila to prevent
Spanish ships from entering or leaving the bay.

The Spanish-American Secret Agreement-

- The first American reinforcements Dewey had been waiting for arrived on
June 30, 1898, under the command of General Thomas Anderson.
- On July 17, the second reinforcements, headed by General Francis V.
Greene, arrived were confident that they could easily dislodge the
Spaniards from the city.
- Hope of an easy victory filled their hearts when the third reinforcements,
headed by General Arthur Mac-Arthur, arrived on July 31. Preparation were
immediately made for the battle that would determine the fate of Manila.
- For several nights, some Spanish soldiers outside the city skirmished with
the Americans, resulting in a few casualties.

Beginnings of the Filipino-American Rift-

- At the time that Dewey was waiting for reinforcements, Aguinaldo and his
forces were laying siege to Manila.
- This situation was favorable to the Americans, for they did not have to be
on the lookout for any hostile Spanish maneuver since the job of watchdog
was being done by their Filipino allies.
- It was Dewey's policy not to provoke an armed conflict with the Spaniards
until after the arrival of the reinforcements.

The Mock Battle of Manila-

- The assault on Manila was to have begun on August 10. Bad weather,
however, delayed the planned action.
- On August 7, Dewey and Merritt issued a joint ultimatum to Jaudenes
telling him to evacuate the non-combatants to safe places as the American
land and naval forces would start operations against the defenses of
Manila." Jaudenes asked the opinion of high Spanish officials, including the
Archbishop, on what to do.
- Since there was no unanimity of opinion, he waited till the next day to give
his answer.
- Another ultimatum was issued to him on August 9 asking him to surrender
the city and his forces.
- Jaudenes asked for sufficient time to consult with his government, but
Dewey and Merritt turned down the request.

Terms of Capitulation-

- General Greene, upon seeing the white flag, rushed into the open
Bagumbayan Field, followed by a handful of soldiers.
- Traversing what is now the City Hall, Greene, accompanied by his chief of
staff, Captain Bates, took a carriage and entered the city at the Puerto Real.
- He was on his way to the Ayuntamiento to confer with General Jaudenes.

The Protocol of Peace-

- Before the mock assault on Manila, Spain and the United States were
negotiating for the cessation of hostilities.
- On August 10, Secretary of State Day submitted to the representative of
Spain, Jules Cambon, the French ambassador to Washington, a draft of the
protocol with provided for the appointment of not more than five
commissioners on each side to discuss the peace treaty.
- The peace commissioners were to meet in Paris not later than October 1.
12. THE MALOLOS REPUBLIC-

Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines from Hongkong with a plan to

form a Filipino government. To show the capacity of the Filipinos for
self-government, Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial Government in
May and, a month later, the Revolutionary Government. Different
departments were created to take charge of the multifarious duties of
the new government. In September, the Congress was convoked at
Malolos and a constitution prepared to guide the government in its
progress toward republicanism.
The Dictatorial Government-

- In the wake of his military victories, Aguinaldo decided that it was time to
establish a Filipino government.
- He had with him when he arrived from Hong-Kong a draft of a plan
prepared by Mariano Ponce for the establishment of a revolutionary
government: Consul Wildman, however, had advised Aguinaldo earlier to
establish a dictatorial government which later on could be the nucleus of a
republican government similar to that of the United States.

Treatment of Enemy-
- In general, the Filipinos treated the Spanish prisoners with justice. But
there were times when, because of hatred of the former masters, the
Filipinos exceeded their enthusiasm and maltreated some Spaniards.
- Aguinaldo, wishing his people tb follow the paths of righteousness and
justice, appealed to them to treat the Spanish prisoners humanely.
- One of Aguinaldo's first acts as Dictator was to issue a circular, dated May
29, 1898, urging the people to stop the disgraceful treatment of the
Spanish prisoners.

Declaration of Independence-

- On June 12, between four and five in the afternoon, Aguinaldo, in the
presence of a huge crowd, proclaimed the independence of the Philippines
at Cavite el Viejo (Kawit).
- For the first time, the Philippine National Flag, made in Hongkong by Mrs.
Marcela Agoncillo, assisted by Lorenza Agoncillo and Delfina Herboza, was
officially hoisted and the Philippine National March played in public.
- The Act of the Declaration of Independence was prepared by Ambrosio
Rianzares Bautista, who also read it

Apolinario Mabini-

- It was immediately before the proclamation of independence that a young

man was brought before Aguinaldo as his adviser.
- He was Apolinario Mabini.
- Born with very poor parents, Inocencio Mabini and Dionisia Maranan, in
Talaga, Tanauan, Batangas, Mabini studied in a school in Tanauan, then
conducted by a certain Simplicio Avelino.
- Much later, he transferred to a school conducted by the famous
pedagogue, Father Valerio Malabanan.
- He continued his studies at San Juan de Letran and at the University of Sto.
Tomas, where he received his law degree in 1894.
- His dream to defend the poor led him to forsake the priesthood, which his
mother wanted him to take.
- Barely in 1896, he contracted an illness, probably infantile paralysis, that
led to the paralysis of his lower limbs.

Reorganization of Local Government-

- Because Mabini believed and order, he prepared a decree for Aguinaldo's

signature.
- Believing in the democratic principles, Mabini inserted in the decree a
statement to the effect that it was the first duty of the government to
interpret faithfully the popular will.
- Mabini wanted Aguinaldo to be surrounded by representatives close to the
people and who knew their needs so that the head of the State could take
measures to meet those needs.

Administration of Justice-

- The administration of justice was outlined in a supplementary decree of

June 20, 1898, because of the complex problems connected with the
establishment of courts.
- The decree provided that the Spanish Penal Code, when not contrary to
the decree of the government, was to remain in force for the time being.
- The town chief was automatically the judge of the town.

The Revolutionary Government-

- The Dictatorial Government lasted for only a month, from May 24 to June
23, 1898.
- At the instance of Mabini, Aguinaldo delivered on June 23 a message,
penned by Mabini, giving his reasons for changing the form of government
to a revolutionary one.
- On the same day, Aguinaldo issued a decree setting up the Revolutionary
Government.
- It changed the title of the chief of state from Dictator to President and
defined the object of the government as the "struggle for the
independence of the Philippines until all nations, including the Spanish,
shall expressly recognize it, and to prepare the country so that the true
republic may be established.

The Malolos Constitution-

- In preparing the decree on June 18, and that of June 23, Mabini envisioned
the congress to be an advisory body of the President.
- He believed that in such period as the country was passing through it was
necessary to have a strong executive.
- But his idea was contradicted by Congress when it proposed to draft a
constitution.
- Congress advanced the opinion that a modern constitution answering to
the needs of the times was imperative to secure the recognition of
Philippine independence by foreign powers.

The Constitution-

- The Malolos Constitution is the first important Filipino document ever

produced by the people's representatives.
- It is anchored in democratic traditions that ultimately had their roots on
American soil.
- It created a Filipino State whose government was "popular, representative
and responsible" with three distinct branches the executive, the legislative,
and the judicial.
- The constitution specifically provided for safeguards against abuses and
enumerated the national and individual rights not only of the Filipinos, but
also of the aliens.

The Malolos Constitution-

- Is unique for three reasons first, because of the provisions making the
Assembly or the legislative branch superior to either the executive or the
judicial branch
- Second, because it provided for a Permanent Commission to sit is a
legislative body when the Assembly was not in session, and
- third, because it established a unicameral legislature.
- Calderon's argument for the omnipotence of the legislature was that he
learned the predominance of the ignorant military elements which were
solidly behind Aguinaldo.

The Philippine Republic –

- Owing to the objections of Mabini to some provisions of the constitution,

Aguinaldo did not immediately promulgate it.
- The Congress leaders compromised with Mabini by agreeing to insert
amendments to satisfy the President's closest adviser.
- On January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo finally promulgated the Constitution.
Earlier, on January 2, he formed his Cabinet as follows:
- Apolinario Mabini-President of the Cabinet and Secretary of Foreign Affairs
- Teodoro Sandico-Secretary of the Interior
- Baldomero Aguinaldo-Secretary of War
- Mariano Trias-Secretary of Finance
- Gracio Gonzaga-Secretary of Welfare, including Public Instruction, Public
Works, Communications, Agriculture, Industry and Commerce

Revolutionary Periodicals-

- As a struggling nation, the Philippines had to make its ideals and aspirations
known to all the its independence.
- There was need for propaganda media to revolutionary Government
founded its official organ El Heraldo de la Revolución whose first number
came out on September
- 29, 1898. Its name was subsequently changed to El Heraldo Filipino
Education-

- The educational problem merited the attention of the Filipino leaders.

- Owing to the destruction of many schools and to the peace and order
condition, all the schools were closed for the time being.
- The Revolutionary Government took steps to open classes as soon as
circumstances permitted.
- To continue giving instruction to the people, Aguinaldo included in the
budget for 1899 an item for public instruction amounting to P35,000. On
October 24, a decree was issued outlining the curriculum of the Burgos
Institute.
- The curriculum included Latin grammar, universal geography and history,
Spanish literature, mathematics, French, English, physics, chemistry,
philosophy, and natural laws, higher education was provided for when, in a
decree of October 19, 1898, Aguinaldo created the Literary University of
the Philippines.
- Professors of civil and criminal law, medicine and surgery, pharmacy, and
notariat were appointed.
- Ma. Guerrero, who delivered the commencement address on September
29, 1899.
- The University did not live long, for the conflict with the Americans led its
faculty and students to disperse.
- Dr. Joaquin Gonzalez was appointed first president of the University.

Diplomatic Activities. –

- To persuade the foreign Powers to recognize Philippine independence,

Aguinaldo created diplomatic positions abroad.
- The first step taken was the promulgation of decrees creating committees
abroad for the purpose of carrying on propaganda activities for the
Revolutionary Govenment.
- On June 24 and August 10, 1898, Aguinaldo issued two decrees providing
for the establishment of the Hongkong Junta whose members were to
represent the Philippines in different countries.
The Treaty of Paris. –

- In accordance with the Protocol of Peace signed on August 12, 1898, five
American and five Spanish commissioners were appointed to meet in Paris
to discuss the final peace terms between Spain and the United States.
- The American commissioners were Cushman Davis, William P. Frye,
Whitelaw Reid, George Gray, and William R. Day, who resigned as Secretary
of State to become Chairman of the American Peace Commission.
- The Spanish commissioners were Eugenio Montero Ríos, Chairman, and
Buenaventura Abarzuza, Jose de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa-
Urrutia, and General Rafael Cerero, members.

13. THE FILIPINO-AMERICAN HOSTILITIES-The American insistence on

the evacuation by Aguinaldo's army of the strategic points along the
Manila Bay area, the refusal of the American military authorities to
allow the Filipino soldiers to enter the city after its surrender, and the
American limitation of the areas to be occupied by the Filipino troops
after the mock battle of Manila, led progressively to the deterioration
of Filipino-American relations.
American Apostasy.-

- It must be remembered that it was the Americans who first approached

Aguinaldo in Hongkong and in Singapore to persuade him to cooperate with
Commodore Dewey in wresting the power from the Spaniards.
- While it may not be true that Dewey promised Aguinaldo American
recognition of Philippine independence, yet it is nevertheless true that
there was an informal alliance between Dewey and Aguinaldo an alliance to
fight a common enemy, the Spaniards.

McKinley's Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation-

- Before the conclusion of the Treaty of Paris, President McKinley pretended

not to know what to do with the Philippines.
- Actually, there were American vested interests who pressured him into
taking the Philippines from Spain: the American economic interests who
were thinking of expanding American business in the Orient; the naval and
military interests who wanted the Philippines as the first line of American
defense; and the religious interests who wanted the Philippines as a base of
operations for American Protestant missionaries.

Filipino Reaction.-

- Unfortunately for the Americans, however, General Miller, then in Iloilo,

published the original text of the proclamation.
- A copy fell into the hands of the officials of the Revolutionary
Government.
- The Proclamation was immediately subjected to severe attacks. Antonio
Luna, editor of La Independencia, led the attack on the proclamation and
pointed out that it was "merely a subterfuge to quiet the people
temporarily until measures could be inaugurated and applied to put in
practice all the odious features of government which Spain had
employed" in the Philippines.

Attempts to Relax the Tension.-

- Aguinaldo, however, tried his best to relax the Filipino-American tension.

- He knew that an armed conflict with the Americans would necessitate
more and bitter sacrifices on the part of the people and that not having
sufficient arms and ammunition the Filipino troops would be a terrible
disadvantage.
- Consequently, he wrote Otis on January 9 notifying him of the appointment
of Florentino Torres, Ambrosio Flores, and Manuel Arguelles to meet with
the same number of American commissioners.

Investigation of the Incident-

- That same night, Captain Fernando Grey wired Malolos saying at the
Americas had started the hostilities.
- Aguinaldo could not do anything now, but the next day he sent an emissary
to Otis to convey to the American commander that "the firing on our side
the night before had been against my order. Furtnermore, he expressed his
wish to stop further hostilities.

American Victories.-

- With swift strokes, the American army knifed through Pasig and other
towns south of Manila.
- In the north, General MacArthur pushed ahead with his columns,
bombarding the Filipino positions with accuracy.
- In the battle of La Loma, near the Chinese cemetery, Major Jose Torres
Bugallon, one of the bravest officers, fell mortally wounded.
- With La Loma secure in his hands, MacArthur proceeded towards Kalookan,
where General Antonio Luna was waiting for him.
- In the fierce battle that followed, American superiority in arms once more
proved victorious.

The Drive to the North.-

- In late February and early March, American reinforcements arrived from

the United States, General Otis then began his intensive drive to the north
and ordered General Henry W. Lawton to take the offensive in the south.
- Polo was taken, followed by the town along the Manila-Dagupan Railway,
until on March 30 the American army was knocking at the gates of Malolos.
- Meanwhile, the Aguinaldo government had evacuated Malolos and
established its headquarters in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.

The Fall of Mabini.-

- Mabini, as President of the Cabinet was the most powerful man behind
Aguinaldo.
- When the United States, through the Schurman Commission, announced
the policy of the American Government of extending its sovereignty over
the Philippines, Mabini urged the Filipinos to continue the bitter struggle
for independence.
- Pedro A. Paterno-President of the Cabinet
- Felipe Buencamino-Secretary of Foreign Affairs
- Severino de las Alas-Secretary of Interior
- Mariano Trias-Secretary of War and Navy
- Hugo llagan-Secretary of the Treasure
- Agucdo Velarde-Secretary of Public Instruction
- Maximo Molo-Secretary of Communication and Public Works
- Leon Ma. Guerrero-Seceretary of Industry, Agriculture and Commerce

Assassination of Luna.-

- Of all the Filipino soldiers of the period, Antonio Luna was the best
prepared to fight the American enemy.
- He was educated in Europe and studied a little of military science and
tactics.
- But Nature endowed him with an unruly temper that made men fear and
hate him.
- When the Filipino-American armed clash broke out, he saw the necessity
of instilling discipline into the minds of the men, most of whom were
peasants or men of no training at all.

American Conquest of the Visayas.-

- Meanwhile, Otis instructed General Miller to attack Iloilo.
- Miller demanded the surrender of the city, but the Filipino patriots, headed
by General Martin Delgado, refused, and instead decided to fight.
- Fighting against heavy odds, Delgado ordered the burning of the city to
prevent the enemy from using it as a base of operations.

The Bates Treaty.-

- The Americans were very diplomatic and cheerful in dealing with the
Muslims.
- To win them over, the Americans appointed General John C. Bates to
negotiate a treaty with the Sultan by which the Muslims and the Americans
could co-exist peacefully.
- There was, therefore, no attempt on the part of the Americans to conquer
the Muslims, for they knew that they would have a big fight on their hands
if they made such an attempt.

The Battle of Pasong T'irad. –

- In Aguinaldo's flight to the north, his rearguard commander, General

Gregorio del Pilar, noted the advantageous terrain of Pasong Tirad.
- He, therefore, suggested that to halt the Americans temporarily he would
stay behind and make a last stand at the Pass.

The Capture of Aguinaldo-

- With the Philippine army bereft of its leader and symbol, many Filipino
soldiers, and officers the same time, the Americans conducted an intensive
campaign of propaganda to win over the Filipinos to their side.
- They used the members of the Filipino middle and upper classes Cayetano
Arellano, Pedro A. Paterno, Felipe Buencamino, Trinidad H. Pardo de
Tavera, Benito Legarda, Gregorio Araneta, and others to campaign for
peaceful existence under the Americans.

Barbarous Acts.-
- War has always been uncivilized, and although its weapons have vastly
improved with the advance of science, its techniques have not changed
radically from those of less civilized ages.
- In almost all cases, brutality as an instrument to weaken an enemy's
resistance is practiced on both sides of the fence.
- The Filipino-American war was not an exception, particularly because the
combatants belonged to two different races and civilizations.

End of the Resistance.-

- Though thousands of Filipino soldiers surrendered because of the American

peace propaganda and their brutal treatment of captured guerrillas, some
military commanders refused to lay down their arms.
- General Miguel Malvar took over the leadership of the Filipino Government
or what remained of it and harassed the Americans by his guerrilla tactics.
- In Samar, General Vicente Lukban resorted to ambushing American soldiers
and withdrawing after killing and wounding them.

14. THE RELIGIOUS SCHISM- The only living and tangible result of the
Revolution was the Filipino Church, popularly known as the Aglipayan
or Philippine Independent Church. When at the start of the second
phase of the Revolution the Spanish archbishop enlisted Father
Gregorio Aglipay's help in bringing back the Filipinos to the Spanish
side, Aguinaldo persuaded Aglipay to divert his energies to the cause of
the people. Mabini, riding on the crest of the popular nationalistic
movement, suggested the founding of a Filipino National Church.
Gregorio Aglipay on the Scene.-

- The Revolution which began in 1896 was primarily a conflict of races. On

the one land were the Filipino civil and clerical groups who were up in arms
against the Spanish civil and clerical segment, on the other.
- As it turned out, the second phase of the Revolution was not only political,
but religious as well.
- The Philippine Catholic Church, whose majority belonged to the party of
the oppressors, aided, and abetted the colonial government in its policy of
repression.
- Mabini himself, in his letter to General Otis in 1898, accused the Spanish
friars of giving aid and comfort to the colonial administration and of taking
up arms, when necessity arose, against the revolutionists.

Nozaleda Against Aglipay.-

- Aglipay's position in the Revolutionary Government as Military Vicar

General and his position in the Catholic hierarchy as Ecclesiastical Governor
of the Dioces of Nueva Segovia were anomalous.
- As a Filipino, he had to support the revolutionists, but as a Catholic priest
he had to back up the head of the Church who, as a Spaniard, was naturally
for the colonial government.
- Aglipay chose to be a Filipino first and a Catholic second.

Mabini and the National Church-

- Apolinario Mabini, a Mason and an uncompromising nationalist, saw the

necessity of having a church administered by Filipinos and owing its loyalty
to the country.
- On October 22, 1899, while vacationing in Rosales, Pangasinan, Mabini
directed a manifesto to the Filipino clergy urging them to organize a Filipino
National Church.

The Filipino National Church.-

- Mabini's call for a Filipino Church and the favorable attitude of the Republic
toward the Filipino clergy heartened the latter who believed that the time
was ripe for the assertion of their rights not only to occupy the parishes,
but also to direct Philippine Catholicism at the top.
- Consequently, Aglipay, acting in his capacity as Military Vicar General,
called the Filipino clergy to an ecclesiastical assembly at Paniqui, Tarlac, on
October 23, 1899.

Chapelle and Filipinization.-

- Before the complete collapse of the underground movement against the

United States, the Apostolic Delegate to the Philippines, Mons. Paciao
Chapelle, an American from New Orleans, arrived on January 2, 1900.
- His first act was not to win over the Filipinos in general and the clergy, but
to drive them away further from Rome, on one hand, and from the
Americans, on the other.

First Converts.-

- A man of passion and vision, Isabelo de los Reyes was nevertheless over-
enthusiastic and precipitate.
- In his desire to give dignity to the movement, he placed in the list of the
Executive Committee of the new Church such big names as Trinidad H.
Pardo de Tavera, Fernando Ma. Guerrero, Martin Ocampo, Manuel Artigas
and other eminent lay leaders, and such priests as Adriano Garces, J. Barlin,
Manuel Roxas, Toribio Dominguez, and others, without consulting them.

Agipay and the Jesuits.-

- Aglipay was mildly irked at the inclusion of his name as the Supreme Bishop
of the new Church, or he was at the time in conference with the Jesuits in a
last attempt to prevent a schism.
- Knowing that Aglipay was influential with the Filipino clergy, the Jesuits,
through Dr. Leba Ma. Guerrero and Joaquiñ Luna, invited Aglipay to an
interview at the Jesuit House in Sta. Ana, Manila.
- The Jesuits chose Father Francisco Foradada, a Spaniard and author of a
book on the Philippines, to work on the Filipino priest.

Aglipay's Consecration as Bishop. –

- Aglipay's first conference with the Jesuits made him realize the futility of
staying outside the new Church which elected him Supreme Bishop.
- His next step was to persuade the American Protestants in Manila to join
him in his plan to divide the ranks of the Catholics and to persuade them to
join his Church.

Significance.-

- Born of the Revolution, the movement for a Filipino National Church

independent of Rome was a reaction of the nationalistic priests to centuries
of disparagement and prejudice.
- The Spanish prejudice had two bases: first, the feeling of racial superiority,
and second, the alleged incompetence of the Filipino clergy.
- As to the first basis, the Spanish friars could not admit that the colored
Filipinos were or could be the equal of the white Spaniards.

Part IV The American Period

THE CONTINUING RESISTANCE (1901-1913)- After the capture of

General Emilio Aguinaldo at Palanan, Isabela in 1901, the Filipino-
American War ended as far as the United States and Filipino elites were
concerned. But to the Filipino masses, who looked upon their war
against the Americans as a continuing struggle for independence, the
resistance lasted longer. The resistance can be conveniently seen in
three sectoral perspectives: Christian, Muslim, and tribal.
A. The Katipunan Inertia

- As previously noted, the surrender of Aguinaldo only formally

ended the Aguinaldo-led resistance, but the inertia of the Katipunan revolution
that began from the Bonifacio-initiated struggle continued to sustain the struggle
for independence.

In fact, despite the Aguinaldo capture, the remaining leaders of the Aguinaldo
Army, particularly General Miguel Malvar in Batangas, General Vicente Lukban in
Samar, and other army officers, continued the war in their respective areas.

1. In Luzon, 1905

- Resistance was reported by the American authorities confidentially and

publicly in the strategic areas of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
- In Luzon in 1905, disturbances were reported in Cavite and Batangas.
Governor Shanks of Cavite noted outbreaks at San Pedro Tunasan,
Parañaque, Taal, and San Francisco de Malabon.
- The leaders of the uprisings were former officers of the revolutionary army
who were respected by the people.

2. In Bicol, 1902

- In the Bicol Peninsula and the Visayas, the pattern of resistance showed a
radical shift from the elite to the masses.
- One of the movements that worried the Americans was the one led by
Simeon Ola and about 1,500 "insumrectos" in Albay.
- As a charismatic local leader, Ola started his activities after the fall of
Aguinaldo.
- No less than Col. Harry H. Bandholtz noted the significant role of Ola in the
anti-colonial resistance in Bicol, although he regarded Ola as nothing but a
notorious ladron.

3. In the Visayas, 1902

- Other areas that presented a serious challenge to American colonial
capacity were Samar and Leyte.
- The outbreak of disturbances was particularly irksome after the surrender
of General Lukban in Samar in 1902.
- It continued up to the end of 1906.
- The inertia of the revolutionary struggle did not end with Lukban's
capitulation.

4. In Mindanao, 1903

- Armed disturbances, which assumed the nature of anti-colonial resistance,

were also noted in Mindanao.
- In March 1903, this kind of situation was recorded in Surigao. Civil
Governor William Howard Taft reported that a group of "outlaws" entered
the town of Surigao on March 23 and attacked the Constabulary station
which was under the charge of Captain Clark.
- The Captain was killed and the guns of the detachment were carted away
by the attackers.
- The group tarried about the town before departing to their mountain
hideouts.

B. The Muslim Struggle-

- Even before the fall of Aguinaldo, sporadic clashes between Muslims and
American troops started in Moroland.
- It was part of American colonial policy not to provoke the Muslims to
violent reaction while the American war against Aguinaldo's armed forces
was going on.
- The signing of the Bates Treaty on August 20, 1899 was part of this colonial
strategy to neutralize the Sulu Muslims who were spoiling for battle against
the Americans.
- By 1902, the Americans had reduced the Filipino resistance to small
guerrilla-type attacks on American stations.
- This allowed American attention to be focused on the "Moro Problem

1. The Lanao Resistance, 1902-1912.

- Despite American efforts to neutralize the Maranao leadership, only a part

of it was amenable to accepting American sovereignty.
- The other part that continued the "Moro resistance" to colonialism was
represented by traditional leaders like Sajiduciman, Ampuanagus, and Datu
Grande.
- In June 1902, Datu Tungul of Onay an attacked Camp Vicars. T'he Sultan of
Binidayan was suspected by American authorities as being involved in the
Tungul affair.
- He was arrested, but ran amuck when he failed to convince the Americans
of his innocence. His death triggered unrest among the Lanao Muslims.
- In Maciu, 150 to 200 Muslims, led by Sultan Ganduli and Sultan Tanagan,
fought furiously against the Americans.

C. The Sulu Resistance, 1899-1913

1. The Bates Treaty, 1899

- After the cession of the Philippines by Spain to the United States in 1898,
the Sulu Muslims, like the rest of the Filipinos had remained unreconciled
to colonial rule.
- The serious conflict between Sulu and Spain in late 19th century had not
resulted in the weakening of Muslim will to remain free.
- But the United States was determined to enforce its so-called sovereignty
over all Moroland. The problem was how to contain for a while.

2. Panglima Hassan, 1903

- Wood's campaign against Hassan included a secret landing through siit,
walking unnoticed through jungles and swamps before the troops finally
cornered Hassan and his followers.
- Hassan was captured by Col. Hughes Scott and was to be taken to Jolo for
incarceration when the wily Hassan deceived Scott into stopping at one of
Hassan's hideout, supposedly to pick up Hassan's wife.
- Hassan escaped at the first chance and eluded attempts

3. Bud Dajo, 1906

- In 1906, shortly after the suppression of the Pala Uprising, another trouble
was brewing as hundreds of Muslims trekked towards the crater of an
extinct volcano, Bud Dajo, located strategically in the northern series of
mountain ranges which had figured prominently in past encounters.
- The uneasiness was caused by a rumor that American intention was to wipe
out the Jolo Muslims.

4. Jikiri, 1907

- Jikiri, a native of Jolo, began his "piratical" attacks on trading vessels or

villages early in the American period but he became notorious and known
to media about 1907.
- By then his activities had gone beyond Jolo to Basilan, the Zamboanga
peninsula, and southeast to the Tawi-Tawi islands.
- After 1907, he had established a staging point in Cabingaan island between
the Jolo and Siasi island groups.

5. Bud Bagsak, 1913

- Records show that by June 1912, loose firearms had been collected in Jolo,
except in Lati and Luuk where the opposition to disarmament was strong.
- Here began the process for another uprising when Panglima Indanan, a
powerful leader, was arrested and disarmed, together with his aides and
sons.
- This was accompanied by the violent operations of the Scouts in the
Eastern part of the Jolo, especially in Lati where the sabilallah attacks on
American troops became the source of colonial horror.

D. The Cotabato Resistance, l903-1912

1. Datu Ali, 1903-

- Unlike in Sulu and Lanao, there were only two significant events that
marked Maguindanao's resistance to American rule.
- One was in 1903 when Datu Ali, successor to Datu Utu's mantle and son-in-
law of Datu Piang, began to defy American offer of peace and to persuade
the Maranaos to join the anti-colonial movement.
- The military governor of Cotabato, Capt. Carl Riechman, sent troops to the
Rio Grande to prevent the spread of the uprising from Cotabato.

2. Datu Alamada, 1912

- However, Ali's death did not end Maguindanao's defiance of American rule.
- In 1912 Datu Alamada and 300 followers rose in rebellion, supported by
thousands of sympathizers who vowed not to accept American sovereignty.
- His movements were concentrated in Buldon and Upper Cotabato. Late in
1912 local collaborators, led by Datu Inuk, offered two plans to assist in the
apprehension or killing of Alamada.
- The first plan was to infiltrate Alamada's group and kill him. The second
option was to surrender and then, liquidate Almada’s band.

The Highlander’s Reaction

a. Back to Tradition-

- In the late 19th century, the tribal groups had, to a certain extent joined the
revolutionary movement against colonialism.
- Although they were not integrated into the Aguinaldo government and
armed forces, they nevertheless opposed the Spanish elements quite often
because of what they perceived to be a definite Spanish effort to subdue
them.

b. The Subanun Affair, 1909

- The only violent disturbance reported in Mindanao was in1909 among the
Subanons.
- The Constabulary report from the Fifth District to the headquarters in
Zamboanga referred to a "fight" on November 28 at the sitio of Bobhoran
between government forces under Capt. H.H. Elarth and about eight to
nine hundred Subanuns and Moros.

F. Literature of Resistance

- While the elite was coopted by colonialism thus giving to the masses the
mantle of revolution and armed resistance, there were those among the
ilustrados who contributed intellectually to the revolutionary cause despite
the passage of the Sedition.
- Act of 1902 which punished any form of agitation or sedition, including
through the printed page or the theatre.
- Tagalog writers expressed resistance through the zarzuela which was a
popular form of dramas were also entertainment during the Spanish
period.
COMPROMISE WITH COLONIALISM

- The successful suppression of the various revolutionary out breaks or

disturbances following the formal end of the Filipino American War was
enough reason for the Filipino elite to pursue the alternative of peaceful
struggle.
- This prospect became quite clear when the American colonial authorities
repeatedly offered opportunities for Filipino cooperation and participation
in the colonial government.

A. Involvement During the Military Phase, 1899-1913

- in 1899, the Schurman Commission, the first significant body created by

President McKinley, with Jacob Schurman, President of Cornell University,
as head, initiated the non-military approach of American colonialism and
succeeded, after several months, in laying down the foundation of a subtle
conquest of the Philippines through the cooperation of the Filipino elite.

1. The Christian Filipinos

a. In the Local Level

- A notable example of this readiness of the Filipino elite to collaborate was

the case of Negros Island, which had witnessed as early as 1898, towards
the end of Spanish rule, the division of the inhabitants between the political
and economic elite and the peasants and workers.
- The landowning class and the ilustrados decided, upon the entry of the
United States in the islands, to cooperate with the American colonialists.

b. In the Central Government

- The most important manifestation of American cooperation of the elite was
in the national level of administration.
- Being a highly centralized government, those few occupying the of
executive, legislative, and judicial positions exercised vast powers and
influence in national affairs.
- The involvement of the Filipino elite in this level was represented by those
who were appointed as members of the Philippine Commission which
performed executive and legislative powers and functions.

c. Why the Elite

- The question that often recurs is why the Americans easily coopted the
elite for colonial purposes and why the elite had no difficulty in shifting
loyalty from Filipino to American rule.
- There were two basic reasons for the elite's readiness to accept
colonialism.
- First was the natural fear of losing the security of their interests because of
the growing demand of the masses for the redistribution of economic
benefits and resources.

2. The Cultural Communities

- In the cultural communities, the Americans were also successful in coopting

the ruling elite at the start of American rule.
- In the tribal communities, American teachers and missionaries opened the
path to an understanding of American benevolent policy through schools,
religious missions, and especially, medical work.

a. In Mindanao
- It was a part of the American strategy to make use of the local datus and
leaders to promote the need for social services.
- The building of schools was undertaken with American supervision of
native workers using existing local materials.
- This was, for instance, illustrated by Datu Santiago of Cotabato and his
men.
- The same was true of the campaign against insanitary living conditions and
diseases especially those that frequently led to epidemics like cholera,
dysentery, smallpox, and malaria.

b. In the Cordillera

- In the Cordillera, the Americans were confronted by the many problems of

the Filipino-American War which had brought the retreating forces of 200
Filipinos under Aguinaldo to the traditionally hostile Ifugao country.
- To outside forces, the Ifugao head-hunting activities were constant
problems.
- But the pressure was not as difficult as the Spanish and Aguinaldo forces.
- The Americans had impressive firepower which impressed the Ifugaos,
reinforced by a practice of avoiding outright confiscation of food resources
and valuables and readiness to assist in rendering speedy justice in disputes
and conflict.

c. Treaty Traps

- In Southern Philippines, Muslim leadership was already divided into those

who opposed and those who accepted American presence in 1899.
- But the latter group, which was represented by those in Sulu, allowed
American presence without necessarily accepting American sovereignty.
- In fact, the Bates Treaty signed by Sultan Jamalul Kiram and Gen. John C.
Bates on August 20, 1899, clearly expressed this sort of political
compromise.
d. The Carpenter-Kiram Agreement, 1915

- The effect of the persisting American belief in the Sultan's involvement led
to the further emasculation of the sultanate through the Kiram-Carpenter
Agreement of March 22, 1915,.
- The agreement divested the Sultan of all his political power and
prerogative.
- He was only allowed to exercise the rights and duties of a spiritual leader.
- Since under Islam there is no separation of power, the agreement created
problems for the sultan.

B. Increase in Filipino Participation

1. Political Charge in the United States

- In 1912, the political climate in the United States had changed.

- Not only was a new president coming in Woodrow Wilson but a new
political orientation was expected to emerge from the change to
Democratic rule.

2. Effects on Colony

- The Democratic Party administration, which differed to some extent from

the Republican, was expected to bring some changes in American
expansionist policy and direction.
- It had been associated with the populist interests of American society, with
the working men and farmers.

C. Limits to Filipinization

1. Restraints of Elitism
- While Filipinization gained momentum under the Harrison administration,
there was a fundamental limitation to the extent of its enjoyment in
Filipino society.
- It was obvious that from the list of those who represented the Filipinos in
the various levels of the bureaucracy, Filipinization involved only the upper
crust of Filipino society, those who belonged to the national and local elite.

2. Economic Limitation

- The dilemma of Filipino leadership was best seen in the economic relations
with the United States during the Harrison era (1913-1920).
- Before this period, the economic policy of the United States was anchored
entirely on the ambiguities of the Paris Treaty of 1898 and later, on the
"free trade" provisions of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909

D. Social Effects of Filipinization

1. Tradition vs. Modernism

- The establishment of American liberal democracy as the new pattern of the

Filipino way of life would bring about the confrontation between Filipino
traditional ways and the new system.
- The basic differences in values would eventually create a dichotomy of
systems in which a democratic form and a traditional essence were welded
to create a "democracy Filipino style".

2. Democracy Filipino Style

- But before the end of Harrison's term, the American colonial administration
would notice that only the form of democracy was in evidence.
- The essence of democracy had yet to be developed.
- The Filipino values, rooted in ancient traditions, continued to manifest their
influence in the actual operation of the new democracy.
- Even the elite, who had already been coopted by colonialism, had not
abandoned their traditional values which had kept their ties with Filipino
society unaffected.

17. COLONIAL POLITICS: TOWARDS COMPLETE AUTONOMY- The

Democratic Administration of Harrison and Wilson completed its eight
years in office, in March 1921, without full filing its long-standing
commitment to Philippine independence. In December 1920, after
nearly eight years as President and just after his party had been
decidedly defeated in the elections, Wilson made his only
recommendation to Congress in favor of Philippine Independence. This
Congress was, however, Republican controlled and as expected, it did
not respond to the President's suggestions for independence
legislation.
The Wood-Forbes Mission

- In March 1921, the succeeding Republican Administration of Warren G.

Harding sought to verify Filipino preparedness for independence in view of
the rapid Filipinization that took place during the Harrison administration.
- That rapid and complete Filipinization of the government was essential if
the Filipinos were to learn to maintain a fully in-dependent government in
the future, allowed the Filipinos to assume almost complete management
of their political and economic affairs, even to the point of sacrificing
efficiency and good government.

The Administration of Leonard Wood (1921-1927)

- The choice of Leonard Wood as Governor General demonstrated that

President Harding accepted the Wood-Forbes Mission's recommendations
as to Philippine policy and that he looked to Wood to remedy the
unfortunate conditions pointed out in the mission's report.
- It is, indeed, unfortunate that Wood became Governor General so soon
after the completion of his mission, a difficulty which he himself had
forseen, and which situation undoubtedly colored his relations with the
Filipino politicians whose performance he had just indicted.

Wood vs. the Filipino Politicos

- On July 17, 1923, Manila's metropolitican dailies headlined the resignation

of all the Filipino members of Governor Wood's Cabinet, thus precipitating
the "Cabinet Crisis'" which brought the Philippines to the focus of the US
government and public attention.
- Nationalistic feelings were aroused by holding up the Governor as the
enemy of Philippine autonomy and independence.

The Conley Case and the Cabinet Crisis

- Wood's action in a police matter known as the Conley Case provided

Quezon with an issue, and he used it to bring on the "Cabinet Crisis."
- By engineering this crisis Quezon succeeded in electrifying an electorate
which promptly supported the Quezon-Osmeña coalition.

The Governor's Veto Power

- The veto power of Governor Wood, in the eyes of the Filipino leaders, was
being excessively exercised, "on the most flimsy motives." Governor
Wood's veto record showed the following:
- From October 1923 to February 1924, the Sixth Philippine Legislature
passed 217 bills and concurrent resolutions, out of which 46 were vetoed,
the bills not having been presented until after the adjournment of the
Legislature so that, Wood commented, conference with a view to
modification or correction of errors was possible.

The Board of Control Controversy

- Wood was determined to get the government out of business, the

government in Harrison's time having created and controlled stocks in
various government corporations through the Board of Control.
- Wood was convinced that the Board was illegal because the Governor
General occupied a minority position in it (in violation of the Organic Act
which placed supreme executive control in the hands of the Governor
General), and so he could never get the consent of the two Filipino
members (the Senate President and the House Speaker) to get the
government out of business.

Leonard Wood: In Retrospect

- Leonard Wood's tenure as Governor General of the Philippines was marked

by deadlock and political strife, with the Filipino politicos led by Quezon
openly challenging the authority of the American representative in Manila.
- The friction grew out of the Governor's program to restore American
supervision and control, particularly with respect to the functions of the
Legislature.

The Administration of Henry L. Stimson: Cooperation Restored

- Henry L. Stimson was inaugurated Governor General of the Philippines on

March 1, 1928.
- Fully cognizant of the controversies his predecessor had gotten himself
involved in, Stimson had determined to re-establish a working relationship
with the Filipino leaders to remove the ill-feelings left over from the Wood
Administration.

18. THE CAMPAIGN FOR INDEPENDENCE-The Philippine independence

movement during the American period never became the bitter and
sometimes bloody struggle that marked the experience of other
colonial regimes in Asia, for the United States accommodated herself to
Philippine nationalism. The leaders of Philippine independence were
given the freedom and the means to articulate their nationalist feelings,
and in so doing won for themselves a following and national
prominence.
The Commission of Independence

- In November 1918, the Philippine Legislature created the Commission of

Independence "for the purpose of studying all matters related to the
negotiation and organization of the independence of the Philippines."
- The Commission was given "full power and jurisdiction to act for the
Philippine Legislature and represent it in all respects during the recess of
said Legislature."
- In March 1919, the Legislature approved a Declaration of Purposes for the
guidance of the Commission.

The Independence Missions

- The First Parliamentary Mission was sent to the United States in 1919, the
only one during the Democratic Administration of Woodrow Wilson.
- This was a huge delegation, led by Senate President Quezon and Senator
Rafael Palma, and consisted of some forty leading Filipinos representing
both the Democrata and Nacionalista parties and the various elements of
agricultural, commercial, and professional life in the Philippines.

The Fairfield Bill

- President Coolidge's negative response to the Special Mission did not, at

first, blunt a new-found ardor for independence on Capitol Hill (US
Congress).
- Bills and resolutions for independence from Republicans and Democrats
alike had been introduced before in Congress but had seldom even
received committee consideration until the 68th Congress.

The Independence Campaign Continues

- Congressional interest in Philippine independence would not be revived
until the Great Depression in 1929.
- As far as independence sentiment in the Philippines was concerned, a peak
was reached in 1924, and after the "commotion" brought about by the
Fairfield Bill in Manila, the independence movement began to lose
momentum.
- Wood thought that the politicos were concluding that "they have about
reached the end of the road and that they are losing rather than gaining by
their attitude of non-cooperation."

The Supreme National Council

- While Osmeña was in Washington, Quezon launched the Supreme National

Council, uniting all political parties and all segments of Filipino society for
an ostensibly more effective and vigorous fight for Philippine
independence.
- There were some, however, who felt that Quezon's real motives were to
strengthen his hold on local affairs and leave him in full control.

The Plebiscite Controversy

- Another major disagreement between Governor Wood and the Filipino

leaders concerned an independence plebiscite bill.
- The Philippine Legislature initially passed the bill (Senate Bill 198) providing
for a plebiscite on immediate independence in early November 1925.
- Its purpose was to counteract the anti-independence campaign in the
United States premised on the assumption that, except for a small group of
self-interested politicians, the Filipino people did not desire independence.

American Interest Groups "Friends" of Philippine Independence

- From 1929 onwards, the issues of tariffs and free trade, more specifically of
sugar, and immigration, would revive the independence movement and
eventually see its consummation.
- Determination of Philippine policy would shift markedly from executive to
congressional initiative as Congress showed greater concern for increasing
popular discontent over the alleged competition of Philippine products and
labor.

Free Trade and Independence

- The tariff agitation in Congress, particularly with its zeroing in on Philippine

products entering the United States under preferential arrangements,
seriously distressed the Pilipino leaders.
- As the thought began to sink in that, perhaps, due to the economic
situation in the United States tariffs might be restored on Philippine
products, and conceivably, independence might suddenly be granted, the
Filipinos showed increasing hesitation to accept it.

The OsRox Mission, 1931-1933

- In December 1931, Osmeña and Roxas left for the United States as the
OsRox Mission to secure what in their judgment would be the best out of
any situation that might arise in Con gress concerning the Philippine issue.
- After some thirty-odd years of independence agitation, the OsRox Mission,
which stayed the longest in the United States [until 1933], succeeded in
securing the passage of an independence bill-the controversial.

19. TRANSITION TO INDEPENDENCE THE COMMONWEALTH- On May

1, 1934, when the Philippine Legislature unanimously accepted the
Tydings-McDuffie Act, Manuel L. Quezon had a sobering admonition to
his people. He said: ". . . we have taken one more step forward in our
onward march to the realization of our national ideal.. . . In this solemn
moment, let there be no exultation of victory.
The Framing of the Constitution

- In accordance with the provisions of the independence act, the Filipinos, on

July 10, 1934, elected 202 delegations to a constitutional convention tasked
with the drafting of a Philippine constitution.
- Meeting in inaugural convention on July 30, the following were elected as
officials of the constitutional convention: Claro M. Recto, president;
Ruperto Montinola, first vice-president; Teodoro Sandiko, second vice-
president; and Narciso Pimental, secretary.

The Sakdal Uprising

- Perhaps no better event dramatized what needed to be done urgently than

the outbreak of the Sakdal uprising shortly before the inauguration of the
Commonwealth.
- On the night of May 2-3, 1935, 65,000 partially armed peasants shattered
the tranquility of the countryside surrounding Manila. Between sunset and
sunrise, peasant bands seized three communities and threatened ten
others in Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, and Cavite.

National Security and National Defense

- To underscore the urgency of providing an adequate defense system for an

independent Philippines, the National Assembly enacted Commonwealth
Act No. 1the National Defense Act.
- To set up the Philippine defense system President Quezon secured the
services or General Douglas MacArthur, retired Chief of Staff of the US
Army, on whom he conferred the title of Field Marshal of the Philippine
Army.
The Social Justice Program

- Perhaps no other Commonwealth policy has received as much attention,

curiosity, and even, criticism, as Quezon's social justice program.
- The Constitution of 1935 mandated that "the promotion of social justice to
insure the well-being and economic security of all the people should be the
concern of the state." Social Justice was equated with justice to the
common man.

Education during the Commonwealth

- Social justice was also linked to the need to improve the skills, productivity,
and development of the human resources of the nation.
- This could be achieved through the development of a system of education
that would be available to the largest number of Filipinos.

The National Language

- Article 2 of the Constitution directed the National Assembly to "take steps

toward the development and adoption of a common language based on
one of the existing native languages.
- Quezon thought that a national language would foster national unity and
national identity. On November 13, 1936, the National Assembly enacted
Commonwealth Act No. 184 establishing the Institute of National Language
tasked to study the different Philippine languages for the purpose of
evolving and adopting a national language.

Economic Development

- The other major concern of the Commonwealth Government was economic

development.
- A sound economic system would undoubtedly insure the political
independence of the country in substance as well as in form, while it also
provided the government with the wherewithal to provide for the well-
being and prosperity of its people.

Trade Relations with the United States

- The most pressing economic problem involved trade relations with the
United States.
- In the years before the establishment of the Commonwealth, Philippine
economy had become tied to the American market.
- Sales of Philippine products to the United States increased enormously
because of free trade while sales to foreign countries had, in the 1930s,
become less than what they were at the beginning of the decade.

Philippine Independence Re-Examined

- Since the United States was not inclined to tinker with the political status of
the Philippines, Quezon decided to test the waters.
- In early 1937, Quezon stated that he wanted the date of Philippine
independence advanced to late 1938 or early 1939.
- In declaring this, Quezon was admitting that independence was impractical
and was looking for dominion status, perhaps thinking that that was the
answer to the problems of economic adjustment.

Alien Control of the Economy

- As serious as Philippine dependence on the American economy market was

the fact that the Filipinos did not control their economy.
- Mining, public utilities and industrial sectors of the economy were heavily
capitalized by American investment companies that exported Philippine
products to the American market.

Partyless Democracy

- The Philippine Commonwealth was a "Quezon government," with Quezon

clearly dominating political life (sometimes even shrewdly administering by
radiophone from halfway around the world!) and the National Assembly
almost totally submissive to his domination.
- Quezon was clearly the most dynamic personality of the pre-war era and
exemplified the "modern lawyer-politician" so characteristic of the political
leadership of contemporary Philippines.
20. RESULTS OF THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION- In consonance with
President McKinley's "Benevolent Assimilation" Proclamation, the
United States introduced in the Philippines a regime of democratic
partnership under which the Filipinos played the role of junior partner.
The policy, while not satisfactory enough from the point of view of the
Filipino nationalist, was nevertheless a decided improvement over that
of Spain.
Public Health and Welfare.-

- Next in importance to the public educational system as America's

contribution to Philippine civilization was the introduction of a scientific
program of public health and welfare.
- Before 1900, ravages of cholera, smallpox, dysentery, malaria, tuberculosis,
and other deadly diseases plagued the people.

Trade, Commerce, and Industry.

- The economic development of the Philippines under the United States may
be attributed to the free trade relations that the Americans imposed upon
the country.
- As early as 1902, a reduction of 25% was allowed on goods coming from
the Philippines.
- Nevertheless, the American Congress consistently refused to admit
Philippine productsinto the United States free of duty. It was not until 1909,
when

Transportation and Communication.-

- Progress in health and welfare and in trade, commerce and industry was
paralleled by similar progress in transportation and communication.
- Economic development would be meaningless if the means of
transportation and communication were primitive, for commercial and
industrial products.
- Thus the development need to be transported efficiently to various places
for marketing purposes.

Individual Freedoms.-

- McKinley's Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation and his "Instructions to

the second or Taft Commission laid the bases of American policy in the
Philippines.
- This policy was rooted in the recognition of the individual freedoms, the
foundation of any democratic system.
- Much of the ugly connotations of the American intrusion in the Philippines
was whitewashed by extending to the Filipinos the democratic principle of
equality- in rights and obligations as well as in opportunities.

Political Consciousness Colonization-

- Partisan politics was one of those institutions which the Americans brought
to the Philippines.
- The municipal elections that followed the implantation of American
sovereignty gave the Filipinos the first taste of politics, American-brand.
- To be sure, there was at the beginning no furor, no color to campaigns, for
the Filipinos were yet too politically naive to understand the intricacies of
modern politics.

Language and Literature.

- Probably one of the most lasting American influences in the Philippines is

the development of a Filipino literature in English and the adoption of
American words and phrases in the Philippine languages, particularly in
Tagalog.
- With English as the medium of instruction in all schools, many talented
Filipinos turned from their native languages to English as the medium of
creative expression.

Negative Results.
- The American occupation has its seamy side.
- In the intimate contact of two peoples the good and the bad sides of the
occupying power are inevitably adopted and adapted by the colony.
- As a people the Filipinos are apt pupils and need not be whipped into line
to perform foreign "tricks."
- They are naturally imitative and can out Spanish or out American a
Spaniards or an American.

Part V The War Years

21. The Japanese Occupation-

THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION- The ten-year preparatory period, known

as the Commonwealth regime, was rudely interrupted when the
Japanese, looking for territories to accommodate not only their excess
population but also their manufactured goods, started the war in the
Pacific. Japanese naval bombers attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in
December 1941. Because of this war, the Philippines was occupied by
the Japanese. For three years the Filipinos suffered the rigors of war.
The United States declared war against Japan and the war in the Pacific
was formally on.
Background of Pearl Harbor.-

- One of the factors that led the Americans to acquire the Philippines was the
belief that the colony would be of strategic importance to the United
States.
- It was then thought that with the Philippines under the United States, no
foreign Power would dare antagonize her.
- President Theodore Roosevelt expressed this view in January 1906 when, in
a letter to Major-General Leonard Wood, he declared that Japan had no
immediate intention of moving against the United States.

Roosevelt and the War.-

- The treacherous bombing of Pearl Harbor drove the American people to
frenzied anger.
- Secretary Hull gave vent to his ire when he said: "In all my fifty years in
public life I have never seen a document [ the Japanese peace proposals]
more crowded with infamous falsehoods and distortions on a scale so
huge."
- The American naval and military losses at Pearl Harbor amounted to 2,897
men.
- The tragedy struck deep into the hearts of the Americans.

The Japanese Offensive.

- The general offensive plan of the Japanese was to strike immediately at the
rich Dutch and British possessions in Southeast Asia, specially Malaya and
the Dutch Bast Indies (now Indonesia).
- To do this, the Japanese naval and air forces had to destroy the American
Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor in order to neutralize it, and then to attack the
Philippines in order to cut America's lines of communication in the Pacific.

The Occupation of Manila.-

- The Japanese preparation for the war, particularly the attack on the
Philippines, was planned carefully.
- Even before their planes could take off to attack targets in the Philippines,
three task forces were already on their way to the Philippines: two were to
land in northern Luzon and one in Bataan Island.
- At dawn of December 8, the Japanese landed at Bataan without any
opposition.

Quezon in Corregidor.-
- Manuel L. Quezon, President of the Commonwealth, was a very sick man
when the war broke out.
- The sufferings of the people increased his worries which, to a large extent,
contributed to his physical breakdown.
- Thousands were killed because of indiscriminate bombings of the enemy
and thousands more were hospitalized for wounds received from enemy
bombs and bullets.

The Fall of Bataan and Corregidor.-

- MacArthur's retreat to Bataan was a brilliant maneuver, for in the process

he out witted General Masaharu Homma, the Japanese commander-in-
chief, who failed in his attempt to encircle the USAFFE as he had
contemplated.
- Maneuvering in a limited territory, Mac Arthur succeeded in keeping his
army intact and well coordinated.

Educational Re-Orientation.-

- The Japanese educational policy was embodied in Military Order No. 2,

dated February 17, 1942 dissemination of the principle of the Greater East
Asia Co Prosperity Sphere; the spiritual rejuvenation of the Filipinos
vocational and elementary education; and the promotion of love of labor.
- lts basic points were the propagation of Filipino culture; the the teaching
and propagation of Nippongo; the diffusion of to Jananese intentions

The Republic.

- The Japanese authorities realized that it was difficult, if not impossible, to

channel Filipino sympathy toward them and consequently did everything in
their power, from threats to caress, to dissipate the Filipinos' hostility.
- It was important to them, for propaganda purposes, that the Filipinos were
made to believe that Japan's intention was to see the Philippines become a
Republic.

Economic Conditions.-
- Hours before the Japanese entered Manila, the restive masses, including
some of the supposedly educated, suddenly and brutally attacked all
grocery and sari-sari stores, carrying away all they could lay their hands on,
including such inedible things as beds, pillows, chairs, and even wooden
benches.

Social Conditions.-

- Life under the enemy occupation was most trying and dangerous.
- The men of the cities and plains had five mortal enemies: the Japanese
military, diseases, the guerrillas, hunger, and the Japanese-paid Filipino
spies.
- Escape in the circumstances was difficult, for the war hysteria made men
unreasonable. Those who escaped unscathed could only be thankful and
pray, after the liberation, that the Almighty had been merciful to them.

Cultural Aspects.-

- Aside from slapstick comedies presented before pleasure-hungry populace,

there were the movie theaters which presented pre-war American films.
- These films, however, were previously censored by the authorities to make
sure that they were of the harmless type.
- In between presentations of American films were Japanese films glorifying
the Japanese war machine and way of life-certainly, the kind of propaganda
materials that the Filipino audience got tired of because of their banalit.

22. THE "LIBERATION"- The three years of Japanese occupation were

also years of resistance movement. Even before the Japanese entry into
Manila, guerrilla units had already been formed in anticipation of

what was then believed as the short stay of enemy in the Philippines.
When Bataan and Corregidor fell, quite several Filipino and American
officers and soldiers succeeded in escaping to the mountains and there
directed the underground movement. Sabotage on large and small
scale, aimed at the paralyzing the Japanese war efforts, was conducted.
Guerrilla Warfare.

- The day following the enemy occupation of Manila, the Commander-in-

Chief of the Japanese Army warned the Filipinos against *offering
resistance or committing hostile acts against the Japanese forces in any
manner".
- Any such act on the part of the Filipinos would lead to the destruction of
the Philippines.

Guerrilla Newspapers.

- Truthful news report about the war was impossible under the enemy, for
the press and the radio were controlled.
- It was natural that the Japanese should resort to propaganda lies to achieve
their purpose of demoralizing the Filipinos and of making them believe in
the invincibility of Japan.

The Government-in-Exile.—

- When Quezon and his party left Corregidor in February 1942, they did not
proceed directly to Australia.
- They visited several islands in the Visayas, which were still free, and
boosted the morale of the people.
- From Negros the Quezon party proceeded to Oroquieta, Misamis, and here
waited for the airplane that would take them to Australia.
- Practical and farsighted that he had always been, Quezon, thinking of
death, issued an Executive Order naming Colonel Manuel A. Roxas
President of the Commonwealth upon his and Osmeña's death.

Battle of the Philippine Sea.-

- The year 1944 was for the combatants in the Pacific.
- Slowly and pain fully American naval and marine forces inched their way
north the vicinity of Australia.
- Saipan and T'inian Islands bombarded by the American fleet and marines in
June and landings in Guam were made thereafter.
- Meanwhile, a huge naval hattle was shaping up in the Philippine Sea off the
Pacific coast

The Road to Leyte.

- After the battle of the Philippine Sea, the American naval and marine forces
concentrated their wrath on Saipan, which was captured on July 9.
- Guam and Rota Islands were heavily bombarded at the same time, and on
July 21 the American marines landed on Guam, which fell, after heavy
fighting, on August 10.
- The "skip-and-jump" operations netted the Americans Tinian Island, which
fell on August 8, the coast of New Guinea, Wake Island, which fell on May
19, Biak island, and the Western Carolines.

The Leyte Landings.

- The landings in the Philippines to be carried out by the forces under

General MacArthur.
- Such a task meant the convergence of troop transports, supply shin fire
support ships, escort carriers, mine craft, landing craft, cargo ships.
- The American forces, known as the central Philippine Attack Force, were
divided into the Northern Attack Force and the Southern Attack Force .
- All in all, the American attack force consisted of 650 ships and four army
divisions.

The Battle for Leyte Gulf. –

- The Leyte landings brought home to the Japanese naval and military
authorities the urgent menace those landings presented to them.
- Admiral Soemu Toyoda, Chief of the Japanese Combined Fleet, had Sho
Operation

The Battle of Surigao Strait.-

- The Japanese Southern Force, coming from Singapore, entered the narrow
Surigao Strait in the darkest hours of October 25.
- The American task force, headed by Rear Admiral J. B. Oldendorf, waited
for the enemy in complete silence.
- The Japanese commander, not suspecting that his approach had been
discovered, continued steaming down the strait with self-confidence.

The Battle off Samar.-

- On October 24, when the American naval intelligence discovered that a

strong Japanese force was steaming for San Bernardino Strait, planes of the
Third Fleet attacked the Japanese Central Force under Admiral Kurita.
- The enemy suffered severe losses before he could reach the strait.
- Some turned back, but the survivors doggedly proceeded to the strait
without having been detected by the Americans.

(C) The Battle off Cape Engaño.-

- The presence of powerful fleets in the vicinity of Leyte Gulf Admiral Halsey
commander of the Third Fleet, to suspect that another unite the Japanese
navy must be lurking around.
- He sent his planes in search of this fleet.
- In the afternoon of October 24, the planes found the Northern Force
coming from Japan.
- Admiral Ozawa's intention was to draw Admiral Halsey 's fleet from the
vicinity of Leyte Gulf in order to allow the Central Force and the Southern
Force to sneak into the gulf and destroy Admiral Sprague's weak force.
Halsey took the bait and pursued Ozawa,
The Landings at Lingayen Gulf.-

- Preparatory to the recapture Manila, MacArthur forces landed on the

southwest coast of Mindoro in mid-December 1944.
- This maneuver left the southwest coast my at a disadvantage, for his
shipping lanes through the South China Sea were threatened.
- Carrier strikes in the Manila Bay area fooled the Japanese into believing
that American landings would be made in that area.
- On January 9, 1945, the Americans unexpectedly landed at Lingayen Gulf,
thereby taking the enemy by surprise.

The Liberation of Manila.-

- Once MacArthur's forces had set foot on Lingayen they relentlessly moved
down south.
- It was imperative that Manila be captured without delay, for the city
offered excellent harbor facilities.
- Consequently, amphibious operations were carried out in Batangas;
another assault force succeeded in putting ashore an army corps at the San
Narciso area in Zambales.

The Return of the Commonwealth.

- The heavy rains did not deter the American troops from pursuing the
enemy in Leyte.
- When it was finally determined that a large part of the island was in
American hands, MacArthur ordered the organization of civil municipal
government.
- The temporary seat of the Commonwealth Government was established in
Tacloban, Leyte, on October 23, 1944. On November 15, 1944, on the ninth

The End of the War.

- The Philippines having been liberated from the enemy, MacArthur

proposed to carry the war right Japan's door.
- Hundreds of B-29 s, the super forts, bombed he mainland of Japan,
reducing the latter's war potential.
- Important Japanese ports and cities like 'Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, and Kure
were bombed day and night, giving the enemy no respite.

Part VI The Third Republic

POST-WAR PROBLEMS AND THE REPUBLIC- The damage done by the

war to the Philippines and the Filipinos was incalculable. The basic
problem, therefore, that confronted the Commonwealth and, later, the
Republic, was economic. Buildings, School houses, roads, bridges,
livestock, sugar mills, agriculture, and banking institutions had to be
rehabilitated or reconstructed.
Post-War Economic Conditions.—

- The ravages of war had left their imprint on the economy of the country.
- The incomes of the people dipped radically and means of livelihood were
reduced tremendously.
- Poverty, resulting from widespread destruction of property, including work
animals, was rampant throughout the country

The Philippine Civil Affairs Unit.

- Production was practical at a standstill when the Americans hit the

beaches of Luzon
- Food was extremely scarce.
- The condition became worse during and immediately after the battle of
Manila when the people attention was centered on saving their live not
only from the atrocities of the Japanese but also from American bombs
and guns.

Reorganization of the Government.-

- As the raging fires of Manila and the provinces subsided in the wake of the
Japanese defeat in the field, President Osmeña reorganized the
government to make it responsive to the imperative needs of the nation.
- On March 7, 1945, he signed an Executive Order providing tor the
restoration of the executive departments of the government as they
existed before the war.

The Congress Convened.-

- Most of the important affairs of the government should have been handled
by the Filipino officials, but MacArthur, a man of action and of a military
made the important decisions for President Osmeña.
- The latter, unassuming and cool under fire, did not convoke Congress on
the ground that it might fall into the hands of collaborators, whom the
American Government suspect treason.

The Collaboration Issue.-

- Osmeña faced the problem of collaboration with an open mind.

- But the line of conduct he was to follow with regard to the question was
laid down for him by President Roosevelt when, on June 29, 1944, the latter
stated that those who collaborated with the enemy should be removed
"from authority and influence over the political and economic life of the
country."

American Financial Aid.-

- The general economic situation arising from the ravages of the war led the
American Government to survey the actual damage inflicted by the enemy
on the Philippines
- Consequently, Senator Millard Tydings, coauthor of the Tydings-McDuffie
Independence Act, was sent to the Philippines to make the survey.

The Bell Trade and Rehabilitation Acts.

- The proclamation of Philippine independence on July 4, 1946 was a settled

matter.
- There was no opposition from across the Pacific.
- But the matter of future trade relations was given some thought by
American leaders.
- On September 26, 1945, Congressman C. Jasper Bell of Missouri introduced
a bill providing for free trade relations between the United States and the
Philippines for a period of twenty years.

The Election of 1946.

- When MacArthur returned to the Philippines the officials of the Laurel

Government were forcibly taken by the Japanese.
- Some of them were taken to Baguio in the wake of the retreating Japanese
army, while others were flown to Japan. Manuel A. Roxas, elected senator
in the election of November 1941, was one of those taken to Baguio.
- Mac Arthur, a friend of Roxas, ordered his men to liberate Roxas
- Once liberated, Roxas proceeded to maneuver for his election to the
presidency.
Policies of the Roxas Administration. –

- Elected amidst ruins and hunger, Roxas, in his inaugural address as the last
President of the Commonwealth, laid down the bases of his policy: the
rebuilding of the "economy that was broken and destroyed by war," the
industrialization of the country, the encouragement of Flipinos "to
participate in all the operations of our new economy at all its levels",
devotion "to the ideals of an indivisible world," close cooperation with the
United States, and the restoration of the "role of law and government as
the arbiter of right among the people."

Guerilla Amnesty.-

- Not only the collaboration issue but also the guerrilla problem rocked the
country immediately after liberation.
- The so-called guerrilla problem consisted in the abuses allegedly committed
by many guerrillas during the enemy occupation.
- When the courts of justice had been re-established, many criminal
complaints were filed against the guerrillas who were charged with murder,
rape, kidnapping, and robbery during the three years of Japanese
occupation.

The Treaty of General Relations.-

- Immediately after the independence ceremonies, he Philippines, now a

Republic, and the United States entered a treaty of general relations.
- In accordance with this treaty, the United States withdrew and surrendered
"all rights of possession, supervision, jurisdiction, control or sovereignty
over the Philippines, except such bases as the United States would need for
the mutual protection of the United States and the Philippines.

The Plebiscite of 1947-

- The election of 1946 resulted not only in the return to' power of the pre-
war lords of Philippine economy, but also, as a reaction against such a
comeback, in the election of six Democratic Alliance men, headed by Luis
Taruc of Pampanga, to Congress.

Death Came for Roxas.-

- Roxas was sincere when he outlined his program of rehabilitation and

reconstruction.
- There was, in fact, too much sincerity in him that he would go to any length
to be the architect of the Philippines' rise to a prosperous status.
- The basis of that material prosperity for which he and his countrymen were
laboring was close friendship with the United States no matter what
happened.

Quirino's Administration.

- Quirino was suffering from high blood pressure and was taking it easy in a
boat cruising the Visayan waters when he received the news of Roxas’
unexpected death.
- Upon assuming office, Quirino, who inherited the problems of the State,
announced that his program of government would consist in restoring the
faith and confidence of the people in the government and in the
restoration of peace and order.

THE HUKBALAHAP MOVEMENT- The Hukbalahap Movement has its

deep roots in the Spanish encomienda system which developed into a
system of exploitation. The numerous abuses, injustices, and cruelties
perpetrated by the encomenderos upon the Filipino peasants led to
uprisings that failed because of lack of unity and leadership.
Nevertheless, the seeds of revolt were planted in the minds of the
peasants. Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapones
Spanish Origins.-

- There is no record of any agrarian unrest in pre-Spanish times; the

unrest, in so far as records are concerned, dates from the Spanish period
when the encomienda was established about 1570.
- High taxes, coupled with unspeakable abuses connected therewith, led
to widespread discontent among the people.
- Theoretically, the encomienda was an excellent institution designed to
protect the people from exploitation and to educate them in the

Agrarian Unreit under the Americans.

- The factors that helped shape the “filibustero" mentality of the second half
of the nineteenth century arose out of the conditions brought about by the
economic structure of the Spanish colonial system.
- Of these factors, the most important was economic: the cruelties, thievery,
and injustices of the Spanish officials and friars were perpetrated to amass
wealth and, with it, power.

The Rise of Socialism and Communism-

- Any movement that has its roots in the social and economic inequalities,
particularly in oppression and fraudulent practices on the part or those in
power, always finds a leader or misleader.
- The freedoms that the United States brought to the Philippines led to a
political consciousness which seeped through the minds of the peasants

The Founding of the Hukbalahap.-

- The socialist-communist orientation of the Central Luzon peasants led to a

more militant peasant and labor movement.
- The years immediately preceding the outbreak of the war in the Pacific may
be described as critical, for it was during that period that numerous strikes
were recorded.

The Hukbalahap Sovereignty.

- The high command of the Hukbalahap imposed an iron discipline on all its
members.
- There was no excuse for deviation from the rigidity of the rules and
regulations that made the movement the most disciplined and powerful in
the country, during the enemy occupation.
- That this discipline was real can be gauged from the execution of Dayang.
- Dayang (Felipa Culala) by her own men when it appeared that she was
endangering the movement by her deviation from the rules of the
organization

Liberation and Imprisonment.

- The American landing in Lingayen in January 1945 was opportune, for the
guerrillas had already cleared out the Japanese obstacles.
- The Huks, as the most potent guerrilla outfit, had the straggling Japanese in
flight.
- In mid-January they liberated much of Tarlac, and on the 20th they
assaulted and captured the capital of the province.

The Arrest of Taruc.

- The mass arrest or the Huks reached its peak on Febuary 22, 1945, when
the CIC arrested the members of the Huk General Headquarters and jailed
them in Fernando, Pampanga.
- One of those arrested was Luis Taruc.
- There was, naturally, bitterness among the peasants, for no formal charges
were preferred against the Huk leaders.
- On March 8 the Americans released Taruc and another leader;

Roxas and the Huks-

- When it became evident that Manuel Roxas, whom the Huks accused of
having been a collaborator, would run for the presidency the Huks and the
Democratic Alliance, a new party composed of intellectuals, workers, and
peasants, studied the situation and its implications and decided to throw
their support behind President Osmeña.
The Pacification Campaign.-

- Taruc and other peasant leaders, in their desire to make the countryside
safe, cooperated with President Roxas in the campaign of pacification.
- Taruc, Juan Feleo, and Mateo del Castillo went from barrio to barrio to
explain to their followers the importance of peace and order in national
rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Outlawing of the Huks-

- The sharp and constant fighting between the Huks on one hand, and the
MP's and civilian guards, on the other, wrought havoc on the agricultural
economy of Central Luzon.
- The people, placed in the cross-fire of two contending forces, lived in fear
and hunger.
- Seasonal harvests decreased tremendously, resulting in the spiraling of the
prices of commodities.

The Amnesty Proclamation.-

- Roxas, whom the Huks labeled as the willing tool of American and Filipino
vested interests died at Clark Field, an American territory, in April 1948.
- The first task of Elpidio Quirino as successor or Roxas was, as he stated, the
establishment of peace and order so that his administration could proceed
with economic mobilization and the restoration of the people's faith and
confidence of the government.

The Breakdown of Amnesty.

- Taruc entered Manila somewhat like Julius Caesar entering Rome after the
Gallic wars.
- He was mobbed by admirers and congressmen and senators who happily
posed with him in pictures taken by news photographers.
- He resumed his seat in the Lower House and collected his three years back
salaries.

Cause of the Failure of Amnesty.-

- From his headquarters somewhere in Central Luzon" Taruc accused the
Quirino Administration or bad faith and of failing to implement the "secret
agreement with Judge Quirino.
- The latter, however, in an open letter to Taruc, denied any such "secret
agreement was talked about between him and Taruc.
- Judge Quirino promised to make public the details of his negotiations with
1aruc, together with pertinent documents relating to the agreement which
led to Taruc's "triumphal march" into Manila. The "secret agreement,"
according to Taruc, consisted in (1) scrapping of the Bell Trade Act; (2) no
resumption of trade with Japan; (3) division of large estates for distribution
to the tenants; (4) release of all Huk prisoners; (5) industrialization; and (6)
no military bases agreement with the United States.

The Murder of Mrs. Quezon.

- Peace and order again deteriorated soon after Taruc joined his peasants in
Central Luzon.
- Frequent and sharp clashes between the MP's and the Huk occurred
throughout the Central Plains.
- This condition reached its climax when, on April 28, 1949, Mrs. Aurora
Aragon Quezon, the late President Quezon's wife, her daughter, Baby, and
ten others, were waylaid past Bongabon, Nueva Ecija, and shot mercilessly
to death.
- General Rafael Jalandoni, who was with the Quezon party, accused the
Huks of having perpetrated the dastardly crime, but General Alberto
Ramos, Chief of the Constabulary, contended that bandits, not the Huks,
were responsible for the death of Mrs. Quezon and others in the party.

The Fall of the Huk Politburo.-

- The unified and widespread Huk movement posed a real danger to the
govermment.
- Rumors circulated in Manila that the Huks could take the city any time they
wanted and that it would not be long before the Manila populace would
wake up one morning to find Malakanyang in the hands of the Huks.
- Strict security measures were then taken by the government to forestall
any such Huk movement, searches were made in domiciles of suspected
Huks and liberal intellectuals.

The Surrender of Taruc.

- With the election of Ramon Magsaysay to the presidency in 1953, the Huk
movement lost its glamour.
- President Magsaysay, an avowed lover of the "little people," toured the
barrios, kissed children, and old women, and heartily pumped the hands of
the peasants.
- He continued his policy of attraction, at the same time resorting to the
mailed first policy to break completely the Huk movement.

Significance or the Huk Movement.

- The Huk movement is not an isolated armed uprising against duly

constituted authority.
- Having its roots in the enconmienda system which was characterized by
greed, brutality, and corruption, the Huk mass movement is the
culmination of centuries of peasant degradation, loss or self-respect, and
abject poverty.

25. THE RECOGNITION OF THE TAO- The success or the Quirino

Administration in breaking the hack of the massive Hukbalahap
movement fulfilled one of thee promises of President Quirino, namely,
the restoration of peace and order. In these peace campaigns he found
in his Secretary of National Defense, Ramon Magsaysay, an able and
honest man who, With the President's moral and financial backing,

brought about an official change of attitude toward the problem of

dissidence.
The ""Tao" in History.-
- The common man, popularly known as the tao in Tagalog, has been, since
Spanish times, the object of ridicule, contempt, and, at best, pity. He has
been the victim of injustices, brutality, and all sorts of unnameable
barbarism, but, like the carabao that symbolizes him, he suffers all those
with abundant patience and amiable tolerance.
- In all difficult undertakings, as in the Spanish pacification campaigns and
expeditions to foreign lands, in the American campaigns against the
Muslims, and in the Filipino participation in World War II, he has been a
beast of burden.

The Presidential Election of 1953.-

- Such, in brief, is the history of the tao.

- Accustomed to being ignored, he was resigned to his fate and adopted an
attitude of "let alone" in political and social matters.
- When politician came around to harangue him with rosy promises, he just
smiled and said, "Oh, he’s another of those fellows", and refused to be
drawn into the vortex of politics.

Magsaysay's Charismatic Leadership.

- True to his promise Magsaysay worked hard to make the tao a man in his
community.
- He geared his administration to the urgent demands of rural uplift.
- "To be really secure," he said, "a country must assure for its citizens the
social and economic conditions that would enable them to live in decency,
free from ignorance, disease, and want."
- Young, enthusiastic, and fired with a Messianic fervor, Magsaysay enlisted
the help not only of the governmental agencies, but also of the civic
organizations in the vast undertaking of "bringing freedom and progress to
our barrios."
- Thus he approached the rural problem along three lines: (1) the
improvement of the land tenure system, with land resettlement thrown in
for good measure; (2) easy-term credit to the peasants, the building of
roads and other facilities for the benefit of the rural folk, and giving
technical advice to the farmers on how to improve fam operations; and (3)
an intensive community development with self-help as the basic factor.

The Spoiled Masses.-

- Magsaysay was profuse and dramatic in his love for the tao.
- He showed this feeling in countless ways.
- He walked with them in his wooden clogs, ate with them with his hands,
slept in their homes in the lowly papag or bamboo bed, and posed with
them in the garb of a yokel for the benefit of the press photographers.
- He personally heard their complaints and, to make sure that their
grievances were taken seriously, he created the Presidential complaints and
Action Committee (PCAC) to help make the Government "truly a
government of the people.”
- The masses, hitherto timid and complacent in airing their grievances, now
found the courage to condemn corrupt public officials.

The Failure of the "Tao"-

- Magsaysay's intentions regarding the tao were sincere, for he wanted him
to improve his lot within the framework of the laws.
- He took time out to listen personally to his grievances and took steps which
would develop the rural areas in a manner that would be satisfactory to the
tao.
- He exhibited his tantrums to show his displeasure over the way his plans
for the peasants were being bungled.

The Election of 1957—

- Magsaysay had prepared a ten-point program of administration designed
to stabilize Filipino society when death overtook him in an airplane.
- On March 16, 1951 he left Malakanyang for Cebu where he was scheduled
to speak before an educational institution.
- In a hurry to return, he and some newspapermen and others in the party
boarded the presidential airplane late that same night for Manila.
- In the early morning hours of March 17, his plane was reported missing.
- It was late in the afternoon of the day when the newspapers carried the
news that the airplane had met with an accident and that all aboard, except
one newspaperman, were killed.
- Vice President Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the presidency to complete
the last eight months of Magsaysay in office.

Garcia's Program.-

- Underscoring the serious economic problems that confronted the country,

President Garcia, certainly a more sober and level-headed man than his
predecessor, anchored his whole program of government in austerity.
- Appealing to the people for cooperation in this urgent matter, he said:
Austerity as a policy means temperate spending. L
- t signifies more work, more thrift, more productive investment, and more
efficiency.
- It means less imports and less extravagant consumption.
- It is a challenge to our resiliency as a people to change our past habits and
make thrift and economy our everyday way of living.
- Imposed on us by harsh realities, the exercise of austerity in our every day
life is a desirable end.

26. THE CONTINUING CRISIS- Despite President García's nationalistic

posture, which the nationalists supported with slim resources at their
command, the country continued to deteriorate economically and
moraly. Graft and corruption in high and low places continued to plague
society resulting in the loss of revenues to the government, on the one
hand, and in the increase of criminality, on the other. In desperation,
the people voted Macapagal into office.
The Election of 1961.—

- As vice president of the Republic Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party

was not given an work, except to receive his pay envelop, by the ruling
Nacionalista Party.
- Frustrated, he toured the provinces denouncing the Garcia administration
as wasteful and riddled with graft and corruption.
- In 1961, his party nominated him as its presidential candidate

Macapagal's Program.-

- Addressing the Congress on January 22, 1962, Macapagal outlined the

objectives of his socio-economic program as (1) immediate restoration of
economic stability, (2) the alleviation of the common man's plight, and (3)
the establishment of a "dynamic basis for future growth."
- He also delineated his administration's mission by setting forth five
(1) The solution of the problem of unemployment;
(2) The attainment of self-sufficiency in the staple food of our people, namely, rice and corn,
(3) The creation of conditions that will provide more income to our people - income for those who have
none and more income for those whose earnings are inadequate for their
elemental needs;

(4) The establishment of practices that will strengthen the moral fiber of our nation and reintroduce
those values that would invigorate our democracy and
(5) The launching of a bold but well-formulated socio-economic program that shall place the country on
the road to prosperity for all our people.

The "Midnight" Appointments.

- In the wake of the bitter presidential election, President Macapagal and his
men discovered to their dismay that on the eve of the turnover of
Malakanyang to him, Garcia appointed more than 200 of his and his
fellowers protege's to important positions in the government.
- One of the most important posts, that of Central Bank Governor, was given
to former Secretary of Finance Dominador Aytona by outgoing President
Garcia.

The Stonehill Scandal.—

- When Macapagal occupied Malakanyang, he vowed he would root out graft

and corruption which had plagued the government since 1945.
- Morality had gone down so low that even high government officials, from
cabinet members to congressmen and senators, were constantly the focus
of public attention owing to rumors of illegal and immoral transactions
involving millions of pesos.

Independence Day: June 12.-

- When Macapagal was campaigning for the presidency, most nationalists

looked upon him as a creature or landlords and imperialists.
- There was, therefore, keen disappointment in the nationalist ranks when
Macapagal was elected president.
- Six months after his election, however, Macapagal surprised the nationalist
camp with his Executive Order shifting Philippine Independence Day from
the traditional July 4 to June 12, the day when, in 1898, the Declaration of
Independence was read at Kawit, Cavite,

The Land Reform Code.-

- Having seen poverty and peasant degradation at clo3e range, Macapagal,

who was fond of calling himself the "poor boy from Lubao," saw the need
of radical changes in the economic and social status of the peasants.
- The situation was desperate and desperate situations call for desperate
measures.
- Statistics show that 78.4% of the people earn less than P2,000 a year and
17.1% earn less than P5,000. 0 the labor force of about 11.2 million, only
8,2 million were, and still are, employed.
Initial Results.

- Despite dire predictions of some critics of the land reform program, the
initial results of Macapagal's efforts are encouraging. In Plaridel, Bulakan,
which Macapagal proclaimed as the first land reform area, the leaseholders
have improved her having conditions.
- Said the Manila Times: The overwhelming bulk of Plaridel respondents in a
Robot-Gallup survey showed that land reform in their view had materially
improved local living conditions.

The Election of 1965.-

- The continued rise in the prices of consumer goods, the seemingly insoluble
problem of peace and order, the rampant graft and corruption, and the
continued smuggling of dutiable goods, led the people, particularly the
common man, to believe that the Macapagal administration

Marcos Program.-

- On January 24, 1966, President Marcos addressed the joint session of

Congress and promptly admitted that the country was in a crisis. "Today,"
he said, "I come to Congress as a partner in a great enterprise."
- Forthwith, he painted a very dismal picture of society and the economy.
- The daily income of the government was P4 million, while its expenditure
was P6 million, the ash daily deficit of a cool P2 million.

The Vietnam Aid Law.-

- The most acrimonious controversy that arose during the first year and a
half of Marcos' administration was his decision to send a military
engineering battalion, with armed support, to the war in Vietnam in which
the United States has been deeply involved.
- Many of Marcos' sympathizers and political supporters during the
presidential election of 1965 criticized him for changing his stand.
- Late in 1964 and in 1965, Marcos, then Senate President, opposed the
Macapagal-sponsored bill providing for the sending of a military
engineering battalion to the war in Vietnam.

Deterioration of Peace and Order.-

- The condition of peace and order which all previous administrations failed
to solve satisfactorily worsened during the first two years of the Marcos
administration.
- Daily, newspapers publish in screaming headlines cases of murder,
homicide, rape, robbery, holdup, mayhem, and smuggling

The Huk Resurgence.—

- The capture of Dr. Jesus Lava, the last "brains of the original Hukbalahap,
left the Huk movement destitute of ideological basis, for his successor as
Supremo, Pedro Taruc, Luis Taruc's nephew, did not come up to the
intellectual level of the Lava brothers and William J. Pomeroy, a former
American soldier turned Huk.

The Manila Summit."-

- In September 1966, President and Mrs. Ferdinand Marcos went to the

United States for a state visit, "not to beg, the President was careful to
explain.
- Except for Magsaysay, all post-war Filipino presidents, from Roxas to
Marcos, have made it a point to get invited to the United States to make a
pilgrimage to that country.
- Consequently, during the absence of any of the presidents, the local
problems, which cried out loud for immediate solutions, were swept under
the rug.

The "Summit" Documents.

- The meeting at Malakanyang was strictly secret, but "inside stories" leaked
out.
- It was clear to the "Insiders that Johnson was the "big boss calling the
shots.
- During the deliberations, Johnson was reported to have pounded the oval
desk several times using "You folks," You boys, and "You fellows," which
were expressions of condescension.
- At one point, he pounded the oval desk and said: "If you have a better
diplomat than Dean Rusk or a better treaty writer than Harriman, and if you
can produce better proposals than we have, then, I will follow you." Said
Amando E. Doronila, one of the few Filipino newspapermen with integrity:'

The October 24 Anti-"Summit"" Demonstration.

- While meticulous preparations for the "Summit'" were being made,

including the sprucing up of Manila which is like a beautiful woman with
dirty face and feet, preparations against it were also being plotted by the
students of Manila and the suburbs under the leadership of those enrolled
at the University of the Philippines and the Lyceum of the Philippines.

The Witch-Hunt.

- The millitant student demonstration October 24 led the intelligence

agencies and Congress to conduct so-called investigations.
- From the very beginning, it was obvious to many perceptive people that the
investigations were not meant to go deep into the police brutality which,
the students complained, was perpetrated upon them without reasonable
cause.

27. PROFILE OF THE ECONOMY- The destruction of the national

economy as a rebuilt of the war posed serious problems of subsistence
and of peace and order. In such circumstances the leaders of the nation
could only rely on the United States for financial and other material aid.
The hundreds of millions of dollars given to the Philippines by the
United States in the form of cash and surplus property were used to
rehabilitate agriculture, commerce, trade, and industry. Some of it,
however, went to the pockets of dishonest officials.
Agricultural Production."

- The destruction caused by people and their standard of living. With

financial help from the United States, however, the government, in the first
ten years of the Republic, had succeeded in at least partially solving the
mino-economic problems.
- Thus, for instance, crop production from 1946 to 1956 increased from
3,507,200 metric tons to almost the double the amount of 6,274,900 metric
tons.

Domestic Trade. –

- Added to the grave economic problems resulting from the war, the
economy also suffered from alien control of the domestic trade. It was to
lessen this alien hold on domestic trade that the government passed
remedial measures.
- These measures, known as nationalization laws, included the Market Stalls
Act (1946), which provides that citizens of the Philippines "shall have
preference in the lease of public market stalls" the Retail Trade
Nationalization Law (1954), which provides that no person, partnership,
association, or capital which is not wholly owned by Filipino citizens shall
engage in the retail trade; the Filipino Retailers' Fund Act (1955), which

provides that credit facilities be extended to Filipino retailers; the NAMARCO Act
(1955), which provides for the establishment of the National Marketing
Corporation (NAMARCO), a government corporation charged with assisting
Filipino retailers and businessmen by supplying them with goods at prices that
would enable them to compete in the open market.

Foreign Trade and Commerce,-

- The first effect of the war on the national economy can easily be seen in the
predominance of imports over exports, the main characteristic of the post-
war foreign trade of the Philippines.
- This characteristic is best reflected in the unfavorable balance of trade
during the ten-year period from 1946 to 1955, which amounted to
P2,877,531,744.
- The highest imbalance in foreign trade was recorded in 1949 when the
unfavorable balance amounted to P625,686, 000.

Mineral Production.

- The extensive mineral wealth of the country has not been fully exploited
owing principally to the lack of sufficient Filipino capital.
- This mineral wealth can be gleaned from the report of the Bureau of Mines
in 1956:

- 15 million tons of gold and silver reserves worth P250,000,000;

- 1.2 billion tons of iron ores worth P12,000,000,000,
- 22 million tons of copper worth P320,000,000;
- 10 million tons of chrome ores worth P270,000,000;
- 0.2 million tons of manganese worth P12,000,000;
- 12 million tons of coal worth P180,000,000; and
- 60 million tons of other minerals and non-metals worth P738,000;000.

Financial Institutions.

- The financial position of the count before 1950 was so serious that
economists and financial experts advocated the establishment of a Central
Bank to ensure the economic progress and financial stability of the nation
and to provide a firm basis for political sovereignty.
- It took sometime tor the government to appreciate the wisdom of such a
step, for it was not until 1948 that a bill providing

Unfavorable Features of the Economy.-

- The comparative rise in gross national output and national income and the
expansion of trade and commerce for the last ten years do not necessarily
mean the healthy growth of Filipino economy.
- For while the gross national output and national income may reflect
growth, this growth, nevertheless, is not necessarily Filipino
- The Census of 1948 shows that the total foreign assets of the country, while
Filipinos owned 51.9% of the total assets.

Economic Nationalism.

- The predominant role of aliens in n Philippine economy and their growing

influence in the political sphere met with opposition from, at first, a small
sector of the intellectuals and Filipino businessmen under the leadership of
Senator Claro M. Recto.
- The latter's assaults on the then popular theory of foreign investments in
the Philippines in order to improve the national economy were looked
upon with suspicion not only by foreign investors and their dummies
among the Filipinos, but also by President Magsaysay himself who was too
polite to American powerful figures to oppose their impositions on the
Filipinos.

End of Parity.-

- For twenty years since its approval in 1954, the Laurel-Langley Agreement
had been the basis of the special trade relations between the Philippines
and the United States.
- According to Section 11, Article XVII of the Constitution of 1973, the rights,
and privileges granted to Americans under the parity provision of the 1935
Constitution, as amended, shall thus, at midnight automatically terminate
on July 3, 1974.

The Growth of Labor Unions.

- The growth of labor unions in the Philippines is essentially an upshot of the
American occupation. Labor unions were unknown during the Spanish
period, for aside from the limited industrial and commercial opportunities
the Colonial Government did not encourage any movement that would
tend to undermine the Spanish view of peace and order.
- On February 2, 1902, however, mainly owing to the American influence and
to the free access of the Filipinos to books and periodicals carrying items
about labor movements in the United States and elsewhere, a group of
radical and progressive Filipinos, led by Isabelo de los Reyes, Dominador
Gomez, Aurelio Tolentino, Hermenegildo Cruz, Lope K. Santos and others,
founded the first labor union in the Philippines, the Union Obrera
Democrática de Filipinas.

Labor Gains.

- Through united action, labor made significant gains, among the first being
the creation of the Bureau of Labor and, later, of the Department of Labor,
and the enactment of legislation providing for the prosecution of usurers,
the protection of domestic help, the payment of compensation to workers
injured in ne of duty, and the protection of women and children working in
factories.

Bad Features of Philippine Labor.-

- On paper, labor is united and, therefore, strong.

- Actually, however, Philippine labor is divided against itself owing mainly to,
first, differences in principles, and second, personal ambitions of Mergers
of union have failed in the past because of the insistence of some labor
leaders on a certain degree of autonomy from the parent organization, a
demand that was not taken seriously by those in power,
28. EXTERNAL AFFAIRS- An independent country, the Republic of the
Philippines has anchored her foreign policy on three paramount planks:
close association with the United States, sympathy for the aspirations
of all dependent countries, particularly of Asia, and close cooperation
with the United Nations. These three planks have been, and continue to
be, implemented in various ways. The first plank has been criticized by
the nationalists for its subservience to the United States in the belief
that the interests of the Republic do not always coincide with the
interests of the United States.
Foreign Policy Planks-

- When the Philippines finally regained her independence on July 4, 1946,

she found herself, so to speak, balancing on a bamboo pole placed across a
river.
- Destitute and suffering from the effects of the recently concluded war, her
political leaders could only look to America for assistance and economic
salvation, for it was with America that the country had conducted the
experiment in mass democracy and with whom she had fought the grim
war.

First Plank: Implementation.-

- The first plank of Philippine foreign policy revolved around Filipino-

American relations.
- The change from colonial status to independence necessitated read.
- Adjustments in the relations between the Philippines and the United States.
- Consequently, the two countries entered into treaties and agreements
designed to continue the close friendship that has existed between them
approximately since 1902.
Problems of F1-American Relations.-

- Despite the highly touted "Identity of Filipino-American interests and the

close friendship that has characterized their experiment in democratic
partnership, several irritants have cropped up to make the "honey-moon
sour”
- In the first place, the so-called identity of Filipino-American interests is
more sentimental and rhetorical than real and substantial.

Attempts at Relaxation of Tension-

- With the advent of the Garcia Administration, a modification in the

Philippine foreign policy was initiated.
- The modification, in the words of Secretary of Foreign Affairs Felix Berto
Serrano, lay in a policy of "respectable independence." The year 1959 was
fateful, for it saw the beginnings of a nationalistic orientation, along Recto's
line of thinking, not only in foreign policy, but also in the national economy.

Re-assessment of RP-US Relations.-

- Owing mainly to the American military's unseemly behavior in their

dealings with Filipino civilians, especially inside the military bases, many
thinking Filipinos have in recent years begun to doubt the reality of the so-
called special relations with the United States.
- The Filipinos as a people were, however, more to blame than the
Americans for they, the Filipinos, had not learned the lessons of their
history and had not realized that in international relations the first duty of a
people is to protect their national interests.

Second Plank: Implementation:

- Though it is pure rhetoric to say that the Philippines occupies a "central

position.
- In the evolving political and economic pattern of Asia," she is nevertheless,
only tangent to such pattern and, therefore, cannot afford to remain
isolated from her Asian neighbors.
- In the implementation of the second plank, the Philippines supported the
cause or Indonesian independence, and sponsored or actively participated
in conferences concerning cultural, economic, and social questions that
were and continue to be of paramount importance to the Orient, such as
the New Delhi Conference of 1949, the Baguio Conference of 1950, the
conferences of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE),
and the Bandung Conference of 1955.

The Manila Pact.-

- Probably the post significant event in the relations among some Southeast
Asian nations was the conclusion of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATOD).
- Popularly called the Manila Pact, in 1954. The signing of this treaty
proceeded from an awareness of the relentless march of communism in
Asia.
- At the conclusion of World War II, Western imperialism in Asia suffered a
setback and a wave of nationalism swept over that part of colonized Asia.
- In this post war confusion, communism stepped in and, identifying itself
with the struggling colonials, acquired large supplies of weapons.

Third Plank: Implementation-

- The United Nations as an international body dedicated to the preservation

of universal peace and to the promotion of the idea of One World was
bomb of bleeding humanity groping for deliverance from pain, hunger, and
hatred.
- From the moment of the birth of the United Nations in San Francisco in
1945, the Philippines has played an active role in its deliberations and
activities.
Anti-Communism as a Policy

- The first intimation of the official policy on communism may be gleaned

from President Manuel Roxas' speech at Clark Field on April 15, 1948.
- It was the time of the ""cold war" and the United States, now hostile to
Soviet Russia, was exerting efforts to win nations to her side.
- The United States could not afford to lose the ideological war.
- Roxas was invited by the American military at Clark Field, an American
enclave in the Philippines, to speak before the American soldiers to spell
out officially the Philippine stand on the Russia-American "cold war."

Maphilndo.-

- Philippine foreign policy has not changed since 1946.

- Its second plank, that of cultivating closer relations with Asian countries,
has been implemented haphazardly
- In 1962, however, Macapagal took an active interest in bringing together
the peoples of Malay stock.
- He proposed a "summit conference among the leaders of the Philippines,
Indonesia, and Malaya.
- First, that they reaffirm their adherence to the principle of equal rights and
self-determination of peoples as enunciated in the United Nations Charter
and the Bandung Declaration,
- Second, that they are determined, in the common interest of their
countries, to maintain fraternal relations, to strengthen cooperation among
their peoples in the economic. social and cultural progress and social well-
being in the region, and to put an end to the exploitation of man by man
and of one nation by another,
- Third, that the three nations shall combine their efforts in the common
struggle against colonialism and imperialism in all their forms and
manifestations and for the eradication of the vestiges thereof in the region
in particular and the world in general;
- Fourth, that the three nations, as new emerging forces in the region, shall
cooperate in building a new and better world based on national freedom,
social justice, and lasting peace, and
- Fifth, that in the context of the joint endeavors of the three nations to
achieve the foregoing objectives, they have agreed to take initial steps
towards the establishment of Maphilindo by holding frequent and regular
consultations at all levels to be known as Mushawarah Maphilindo.

The Breakup.-

- The jubilation that followed the creation of Maphilindo, which Western and
some Asian observers criticized as racially inspired, was short lived,
however.
- ln preparation for the creation of the Federation of Malaysia, which would
include, besides Malaya and Singapore, Sabah (North Borneo) and Sarawak,
it was agreed, in the spirit of Maphilindo, that the peoples of the last two
territories should determine in a plebiscite whether they would join the
contemplated Federation.

The Dispute Over Sabah.—

- No sooner had the Philippines re-established diplomatic relations with

Malaysia than a bitter controversy arose between them. In accordance with
the understanding between the two countries (see preceding paragraph),
the Philippines renewed its claim over Sabah, the former North Borneo.
- The Philippine claim was based on the following historical facts:

1. The "sultan of Sulu acquired sovereignty over North Borneo (Sabah) from the
Sultan of Brunei in the early 17th century from the former helped in suppressing a
rebellion;

2. In 1878, the Sultan of Sulu leased* North Borneo (Sabah) to an Austrian

national, Gustavus von Overbeck, who organized the North Borneo Company with
Alfred Dent, an English-man, as his business partner. The Company administered
the disputed territory from 1878 to 1946 and during this period it paid the Sultan
of Sulu an annual rental of 5,000 Malayan dollars, which was increased in 1903 to
5,300 dollars:

3. The fact that the disputed territory was leased by the Sultan of Sulu shows that
he exercised sovereignty over the territory;

4. In 1903, the North Borneo Company, a private company, asked the "Sultan of
Sulu to execute a confirmatory deed to confirm the contract of 1878 (the Lease
Agreement)" and "expressly recognized that the Sultan of Sulu was sovereign in
Sabah'";

5. According to British sources, the North Borneo Company did not acquire the
territory of Sabah for the British crown, for when Spain and the Netherlands
raised objections over the activities of the North Borneo Company, Lord Granville
and the Marquis of Salisbury, who were during their time Foreign Ministers of
Britain, explained to Spain and the Netherlands that *the British Government
assumed no dominion or sovereign rights in Borneo which was occupied by the
Company and that it did not purport to grant to the Company any powers of
government" over the disputed territory;

6. The annexation of North Borneo by Britain in 1946, eleven days after Philippine
independence, was illegal in the sense that the North Borneo Company, from
which the British Government took Sabah, had no right of sovereignty over Sabah;
consequently

7. Britain had no right to tum over Sabah to Malaysia in 1963 because she, Britain,
had no sovereign right over Sabah. On the other hand, the Malaysian government
anchored its claim over Sabah on the fact that:

1. Great Britain turned over Sabah to Malaysia in 1963, thereby making Malaysia
the heir of Britain to Sabah;

2. In a plebiscite conducted in 1963 under the auspices of the United Nations, the
Sabahans voted to be a part of the Federation of Malaysia; and
3. The Philippine Constitution does not include Sabah in the delineation of the
geographical limits of the Philippines.

Association of Southeast Asia,-

- With the reestablishment of diplomatic relations with Malaysia, many Asian

observers of Southeast Asian development and politics felt that the late
Maphilindo with its alleged racial overtones, should be replaced with a
regional association that would include non-Malay peoples.
- Hence the establishment of the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA), which
was the brainchild of then President Carlos P. Garcia and Malayan Prime
Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman.

1. To establish an effective machinery for friendly consultations, collaboration and

mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, scientific and administrative
fields;

2. To provide educational, profession al, technical and administrative training and

research facilities in their respective countries for nationals and officials of the
associated countries,

3. To exchange information on matters of common interest or concern in the

economic, cultural, educational, and scientific fields;

4. To cooperate in the promotion of Southeast Asian studies,

5. To provide a machinery for fruitful collaboration in the utilization of their

respective natural resources, the development of their agriculture and industry,
the expansion of their trade, the improvement of their transport and
communication facilities, and generally raising the living standards of their
peoples

6. To cooperate in the study of problems in international commodity trade; and

7. Generally, to consult and cooperate with one another to achieve the aims and
purposes of the Association, as well as to contribute more effectively to the work
of existing international organizations and agencies
The ASEAN.

- The efforts of the Southeast Aslan nations to rise from the confines of their
colonial past and to meet the challenge of the social, economic, and
cultural conditions of the region led to the founding of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) which was formally established in
Bangkok, Thailand, on August 8, 1967, when the Joint Declaration was
signed by the foreign ministers of five countries Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. The Joint Declaration, known as the
ASEAN Declaration, outlined the objectives and purposes as:

1. To hasten the economic, social, and cultural progress

2. To promote regional peace and stability through the rule

3. To promote assistance and collaboration among the member-states in the

social, economic, cultural, technical, scientific, and administrative fields;

4. To assist one another in the form of "training and research facilities in the
educational, professional, technical and administrative spheres"; and

5. To encourage the study of Southeast Asian history and culture.

Relations with Other Countries-

- The Philippines has maintained and seeks to maintain friendly relations

with other countries of the world. She has resumed her relations, now on
the level of equality, with Spain, with whom she concluded a treaty of
friendship on September 27, 1947, and a cultural treaty on March 4, 1949.
- As a result of these and other agreements with the former colonizer,
Philippine-Spanish relations have been cemented resulting in the
continuous pilgrimage of Filipino students and professionals to Spain,
29. THE CULTURAL AND SOCIAL SCENE- The almost half a century of
the Americans in the Philippines was not ended with political
independence in 1946. On the contrary, many features of colonialism
remain today. For one thing, education is predominantly American.
English remains the language of instruction except in the first grades or
the primary level in some provinces.
Education,-

- The Philippines has an educational system that is patterned after the

American tradition of education.
- At First primarily conditioned to the basic concepts of American democracy,
the educational system emphasized Americanism rather than Filpinism.
- The change of status from colony to Commonwealth, and from
Commonwealth to Republic, has not so far radically changed the old
educational pattern, for even today any modification in the American
system is exultantly followed in the Philippines years later when the
modification has lost its validity in the United States.

Higher Education.

- Appetite for higher education since the end of the last war has been
whetted.
- The result has been erased college and university enrollment.
- The University of the Philippines, because of. its rigid rules and regulations
governing scholarship and because of its limited funds, could not
accommodate the growing population of college students.

The Community Schools-

- One of the significant change in the educational field was the introduction
of the concept community schools.
- In 1948, some enterprising and resources superintendents of public schools
started experimenting the community Schools.
- The division superintendents of Bataan, Bulakan, Cebu, Cagayan, Iloilo, and
Pampanga began to apply more thoroughly than it had been attempted
before this concept of education by which the activities of the schools are
integrated into those or the community.

The Language Situation.-

- The Philippines has been both fortunate and unfortunate in having been
conquered by foreign Powers.
- The almost four centuries of foreign domination have made many Filipinos
polyglots.
- Through the acquisition of Spanish and English, educated Filipinos have
come into contact with the cultural and scientific works of the most
advanced countries of the world.

The Filipino Language,-

- The bitter controversy that rose from the national language issue led the
authorities of the Department of Education to propose a solution by using
Pilipino, instead of Tagalog, as the national language.
- The reason is based not on any scientific explanation but on purely practical
ground, namely, to neutralize the bull-headed opposition of the
professional anti-Tagalog by not mentioning the word Tagalog.

Tagalog Literature-

- The ascendancy of Tagalog in the mid-1930's led to a literary activity that

even the Japanese were not able to arrest.
- The writers, though chafing under external restraints imposed by the
conquerors, were nevertheless free to write on any subject save the ugly
side of the occupation.
Filipino Literature in English.-

- Filipino writing since independence has acquired a distinction that even

foreign writers like Wallace Stegner and Hortense Calisher have noted.
- As in the preceding epochs, the American colonial and the Commonwealth,
the Filipino writers in English have been more interested in poetry and the
short story than in the novel and the drama, although in these latter types a
few have tried their hand and succeeded creditably, within the limitations
of language.

The Social Scene.-

- The stratification or Filipino society after the last war has become so
marked that one finds the base of the triangular structure widening, while
the apex remains practically the same as before the war.
- One significant change in the structure, however, is the growth of the
middle class.
- Many who, before the war, occupied the lower middle-class until now
belong to the middle or upper middle class.

Beginnings of a New Elite.

- The thrust made by the bourgeoisie during the Japanese Occupation into
the social vacuum continues up to the present and promises to develop a
class new élite.
- The "fall of the old agrarian aristocracy has been caused partly by the
development of commerce and industry
- Aggressive and, to a certain extent, imaginative men of the lower and
middle classes have gone and are still going into commerce and industry
with a perseverance never before witnessed.

Student Power.-

- The phenomenon or contemporary history which has been appearing in

many university and college campuses all over the world is the student
demonstration.
- Demonstrations were not unknown in Manila long before the second world
war, for the students of the University of the Philippines, described by
intelligence agencies as the hotbed of radicalism, held demonstrations
against the actuations of those in power.

30. UNDER MARTIAL LAW- The increasing difficulties besetting the

country and the failure of the successive administration to cope with
the continuing crises, especially in the socio-economic field, led to
massive discontent that found eloquent expressions in student
demonstration. The late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s saw the
development of what has been termed student power. The "parliament
of the streets," as the student demonstrations were called, was
basically anti-government and generally speaking.
Proclamation No. 1081.-

- The critical situation of the country since 1965 or thereabouts led to

widespread discontent and pessimistic forebodings that were not alleviated
by promise on the part of the administration to lift the burden from the
people's back and thus make their life less miserable and hopeless.
- The violence of the demonstrations and the frequency of their occurrence
led at times to disruption of classes in the Greater Manila area and to
clashes between the students, on the one hand, and the officers of the law,
on the other.

Initial Measures.

- Having done away with the traditional politics Which, in the past, had
dissipated many attempts by conscience-stricken legislators to improve the
social and economic condition of the masses, President Marcos moved
swiftly to implement further his land reform program.
- In Presidential Decree No. 2, dated September 26, 1972, he proclaimed the
entire Philippines as land reform area.
The New Constitution.-

- When martial law was declared, the Constitutional Convention, which had
been meeting since the first week of June 1971 to frame a new constitution
to replace that of 1935, met on September 25, 1972 and *voted
unanimously to "continue deliberations on vital issues."
- A motion was presented in the Convention to adjourn the plenary meeting
until the lifting of martial law.
- The proposal was defeated.
- Consequently, the convention continued its sessions.
- When the new charter was finished, President Marcos referred it to the
Citizens Assemblies numbering 26,000 all over the country.

Distribution of Wealth. –

- The obvious disparity in the distribution of wealth in which the wealthy

became wealthier and the poor poorer was one of the causes of discontent
among the poor.
- Social stability was thus threatened and what Marxists call a "revolutionary
situation" seemed to prevail in a society that was largely feudal.
- In order to diffuse the growing discontent which might erupt into an armed
uprising or revolution, President Marcos issued an order urging business
corporations and companies to open their doors to the public, which is to
say, ownership of the corporations and companies should not be limited to
the family circle and to a narrow circle of friends, but should be dispersed
to those who were willing to become stockholders of such business firms

Peace and Order.-

- The disorders prevalent during premarital law period were conspicuously

absent after the declaration of martial law.
- Curfew, as noted, was enforced strictly so that the usual nocturnal activities
of lawless elements were minimized.
- The streets were now deserted and night clubs everywhere tumed out their
customers even before the approach of the curfew hour.
Infrastructure.-

- President Marcos, realizing the necessity for financial capability to

underwrite his infrastructure program decided to put teeth to tax laws
which, in the past, had been ignored blithely or else circumvented to avoid
payment of correct income tax.
- The Bureau of Internal Revenue, the biggest money maker, of all the
departments of the government, and the Bureau of Customs, the second
biggest money maker were placed in the hands of dedicated officials who
were willing to run after prominent and influential tax payers

The Shift in Foreign Policy.-

- As has been noted in a previous chapter, Philippine foreign policy since

1946 had been anchored principally on reliance on the United States, so
much so that the late Statesman, parliamentarian, poet, and nationalist
Claro M. Recto, described such a policy as "mendicant policy.
- Recto severely criticized this mendicant policy and pleaded for an
independent foreign policy which would do justice to Philippine sovereignty
as an independent nation and to Filipino dignity.

Labor and Human Welfare.-

- The martial law government has given importance to the role of labor in
private and government affairs and has, according to a high labor official,
"metamorphosed [it] into a major objective of government economic
policy."
- The construction of roads, bridges, airports, and other forms of
infrastructure led to increased employment.
- In 1956, there were 10.2 million in the labor force, of whom 14.5 million or
96.2 per cent, were employed, while 577.6 thousand or 3.8 percent, were
unemployed.
- On the other hand, underemployment remained at 9.2 per cent, of the
total labor force.
The Economy: Gains and Losses.

- The recessionary tendency in 1975 all over the world affected the
Philippines.
- Even so, the country has to date (1976) withstood the ill effects of the
recessionary pressures and has maintained the growth rate of 1974.
- Therefore, the Philippines recorded an economic gain of 5.8 per cent. The
National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) estimated that the
country increased its gross national product (GNP) from P40,847 million in
1974 to P43,203 million in 1975. In gross capital formation, the country
posted.

Land Transfer and Leasehold.-

- Three years after the land reform program under the martial law regime
was initiate, the yield per hectare planted to rice increased by 40-45
percent over that of the pre-martial law period.
- On the other hand, the gross income of farmers increased by almost one
hundred percent.
- On land transfers (from owners of lands more than seven hectares), some
365,000 hectares were transferred to 207,991 farmers as of November,
1975.

31. THE EDSA REVOLUTION- A political crisis had gripped the nation
since August 21, 1983, when Benigno Aquino, Jr. was assassinated
minutes after his return to the Philippines from exile in the United
States and while under military custody. Demonstrations against the
authoritarian" regime of Ferdinand Marcos escalated in intensity and
the "parliament of the streets" became common occurrences. To
defuse the situation and to once again "legitimize his presidency,
Marcos called for snap presidential elections in February 1986. Marcos
and his running mate, Arturo Tolentino, were proclaimed elected by the
Batasang Pambansa, using as basis official results issued by the
Commission on Elections.
People Power Revolt-

- Marcos superior organizational capability," and machine politics delivered

the elections to him, amidst revelations that violence and fraud marked
election day.
- Marcos proclamation by the Batasang Pambansa on February 16 did not
sound convincing to Cory supporters.
- Cory announced a program of economic boycotts and non-violent actions
to dramatize her posture as the winner betrayed.

After EDSA: The Revolutionary Interlude

- President Aquino proceeded to establish a revolutionary government under

the terms of a "Freedom Constitution" which legally established the
structure of government, pending the adoption of a democratically drafted
constitution for Cory's "Bagong Demokrasya."

The Constitutional Imperative; Problems

- To ensure the stability of government, the Aquino administration

appointed a Constitutional Comm1ssion in late 19s draft a new
Constitution.
- The Constitution thus drafted, replaced the "Freedom Constitution, was
ratified on February 7, 1987. The congressional and local elections that
followed.
Exercises:
Essay.

What did you learn throughout the six chapters of the book?