Chapter

1
The Atmosphere

A Definition of Meteorology. . . 3
Reasons for Studying Meteorology . . . 3
A Definition of the Atmosphere . . . 4
The Constituents of the Atmosphere (By Volume) . . . 4
Properties of the Earth’s Atmosphere . . . 4
The Structure of the Atmosphere . . . 5
The Significance of Tropopause Height . . . 6
Temperatures . . . 6
Atmospheric Hazards . . . 6
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) . . . 6
ISA Deviation . . . 8
The ICAO International Standard Atmosphere . . . 9
Questions . . . .10
Answers . . . .14

1
1 The Atmosphere

2
The Atmosphere
1
A Definition of Meteorology

“The branch of science dealing with the earth’s atmosphere and the physical processes
occurring in it.”

Reasons for Studying Meteorology

• To understand the physical processes in the atmosphere
• To understand the meteorological hazards, their effect on aircraft and how to minimize the
risks posed by those hazards
• To identify the weather information that is required for each flight
• To interpret actual and forecast weather conditions from the documentation provided
• To analyse and evaluate weather information before flight and in-flight
• To devise solutions to problems presented by weather conditions

Weather is the one factor in modern aviation over which man has no control; a knowledge of
meteorology will at least enable the aviator to anticipate some of the difficulties which
weather may cause.

Weather-influenced Accidents to UK Transport Aircraft

Table 1 Transport aircraft accidents, 1975 - 94

All accidents

Aeroplanes Rotorcraft All aircraft

Year Total WI Per cent Total WI Per cent Total WI Per cent

1975-79 52 17 32.69 9 4 44.44 61 21 34.43

1980-84 67 20 29.85 20 7 35.00 87 27 31.03
1985-89 95 22 23.16 20 3 15.00 115 25 21.74
1990-94 216* 25 11.58* 20 6 30.00 236* 31 13.13*
1975-94 430 84 19.53 69 20 28.98 499 104 20.84

* Includes ramp and other minor ground accidents, hence low percentage figures.
WI: Weather-influenced

Accidents excluding selected ramp and other occurrences

Aeroplanes Rotorcraft All aircraft

Year Total WI Per cent Total WI Per cent Total WI Per cent
1975-79 52 17 32.69 9 4 44.44 61 21 34.43
1980-84 67 20 29.85 20 7 35.00 87 27 31.03
1985-89 78 22 28.20 20 3 15.00 98 25 25.51
1990-94 101 25 24.75 20 6 30.00 121 31 25.62
1975-94 298 84 28.18 69 20 28.98 367 104 28.34

WI: Weather-influenced
3
1 The Atmosphere

Table 2 Weather-influenced accidents to transport aircraft by element of weather, 1975 - 94

All Accidents Fatal Accidents

Element No. Percentage of No. Percentage of

total total
Visibility 22 21.1 10 66.7
Icing/snow 22 21.1 3 20.0
Wind and turbulence 45 43.3 2 13.3
Rain/wet runway 12 11.5 0 0
Lightning 3 2.9 0 0
All cases 104 100 15 100

For this course a knowledge of advanced physics is not required, but a knowledge of the
elementary laws of motion, heating, cooling, condensation and evaporation will be useful.

A Definition of the Atmosphere

“The spheroidal gaseous envelope surrounding a heavenly body.”

The Constituents of the Atmosphere (By Volume)

Nitrogen 78.09% Argon 0.93%
Oxygen 20.95% Carbon Dioxide 0.03%

Plus traces of:

Neon Nitrous Oxide Helium Nitrogen Dioxide

Krypton Carbon Monoxide Xenon Sulphur Dioxide
Hydrogen Ammonia Methane Iodine and Ozone

Also present are solid particles and, in particular, water vapour which, from a meteorological
point of view, is the most important gas in the atmosphere.

The proportions of the constituents remain constant up to a height of at least 60 km (except for
ozone), but above this the mixing processes associated with the lower levels of the atmosphere no
longer exist and gravitational separation of the gases occurs. Although the trace of ozone in the
atmosphere is important as a shield against ultraviolet radiation, if the whole of the layer of ozone
were brought down to sea level it would only be 3 mm thick.

Properties of the Earth’s Atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally in:

• Pressure.
• Temperature.
• Density.
• Humidity.

The earth’s atmosphere is fluid, supports life only at lower levels and is a poor conductor.

4
The Atmosphere
1
The Structure of the Atmosphere
• The Troposphere:

• is the lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphere where temperature decreases with an
increase in height.
• consists of ¾ of the total atmosphere in weight.
• contains almost all the weather.

• The Stratosphere is the layer above the troposphere where temperature initially remains
constant to an average height of 20 km then increases to reach a temperature of -2.5°C at
a height of 47 km, then above 51 km temperature starts to decrease again. The reason for
the increase is the action of ultraviolet radiation in the formation of ozone. The boundary
between the stratosphere and the next layer, the mesosphere is known as the stratopause.
The average height of the stratopause is 50 km in temperate latitudes.

• The Tropopause:
• This marks the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere and is where
temperature ceases to fall with an increase in height. (Practically taken as the height
where the temperature fall is less than 0.65°C per 100 m (2°C per 1000 ft.)

• The height of the tropopause is controlled by the temperature of the air near the
surface. The warmer the air, the higher the tropopause. The colder the air, the lower
the tropopause. Therefore, temperature variations due to latitude, season, land and
sea, will all cause varying heights of the tropopause. There are two locations where the
tropopause abruptly changes height or “folds”. These are at approximately 40° and 60°
latitude. The average height of the tropopause at the Equator is 16-18 km with an average
temperature of -75°C to -80°C, and at the poles 8 km with an average temperature of
-40°C to -50°C. The average value at 50°N is 11 km (36 090 ft) with a temperature of
-56.5°C.

• The temperature of the tropopause is controlled by its height. The higher it is, the colder
the temperature at the tropopause. The lower it is, the warmer the temperature at the
tropopause. The temperature at the tropopause can be as high as -40°C over the poles
and as low as -80°C over the Equator.
Figure 1.1 The mean height of the tropopause at the Greenwich Meridian

5
1 The Atmosphere

The Significance of Tropopause Height

The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually marks:

• the maximum height of significant cloud.

• the presence of jet streams.
• the presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT). It is now referred to as TURB. •
the maximum wind speed.
• the upper limit of most of the weather

Temperatures
Temperature in the troposphere increases from the poles to the Equator.

Temperature in the lower stratosphere increases from the Equator to the poles in summer but
reaches max temperature in mid latitudes in winter.

Atmospheric Hazards
As aircraft operating altitudes increase, so concentrations of OZONE and COSMIC RADIATION
become of greater importance to the aviator.

Above 50 000 ft, normal concentrations of ozone exceed tolerable limits and air needs to be
filtered before entering the cabin. The heat of the compressor system will assist in the breaking
down of the ozone to an acceptable level.

Cosmic radiation is not normally hazardous, but at times of solar flare activity a lower flight
level may be necessary.

Advances in meteorological forecasting and communications should result in pilots receiving

prompt and accurate information regarding high altitude hazards, but it is important that they
should be aware of these hazards and prepared to take the necessary re-planning action.

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

Because temperature and pressure vary with time and position, both horizontally and vertically,
it is necessary, in aviation, to have a standard set of conditions to give a common datum for:

• the calibration of aircraft pressure instruments

• the design and testing of aircraft.

The standard atmosphere now used in aviation is the ICAO International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA). ISA defines an ‘average’ atmosphere from -5 km (-16 400 ft) to 80 km (262 464 ft). For
practical purposes we just need to look at the ISA between mean sea level and 20 km.

The ICAO International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is:

• a MSL temperature of +15° Celsius,

• a MSL pressure of 1013.25 hectopascals (hPa),
• a MSL density of 1225 grams / cubic metre,
• a lapse rate of 0.65°C/100 m (1.98°C/1000 ft) up to 11 km (36 090 ft), •
a constant temperature of -56.5°C up to 20 km (65 617 ft),

• an increase of temperature 0.1°C/100 m (0.3° C/1000 ft), up to 32 km (104 987 ft).

Note: Practically we use a lapse rate of 2°/1000 ft for calculations up to the Tropopause.

6
The Atmosphere
1

Figure 1.2 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).

7
1 The Atmosphere

ISA Deviation
To determine true altitude and for the assessment of performance data it is necessary to
determine the temperature deviation from the ISA at any specified altitude. To do this we
firstly need to determine what the ISA temperature is at a specified altitude, then calculate the
deviation from the ISA.

The ISA temperature at a particular pressure altitude is found by reducing the MSL temperature by
2°C for each 1000 ft above 1013 hPa datum:

ISA Temperature = 15 - 2× altitude (in 1000 ft)

e.g. find the ISA temperature at 18 000 ft:

ISA temperature = 15 - 2 × 18 = -21°C

Note: Remember the temperature is isothermal above 36 000 ft (11 km) in the ISA at -57°C.

Now to find the deviation from ISA we subtract the ISA temperature from the actual
temperature:

ISA Deviation = actual temperature - ISA temperature

So if the actual temperature at 18 000 ft is -27°C, then the deviation is:

ISA Deviation = -27 - (-21) = -6°

For the temperatures below, calculate the ISA deviations:

Height (ft) Temperature ISA Temperature ISA Deviation

(°C)
1500 +28
17 500 -18
24 000 -35
37 000 -45
9500 -5
5000 +15
31 000 -50
57 000 -67

If the limiting deviation for your aircraft at an airfield 5000 ft AMSL is ISA +10, what is the
maximum temp at which you can operate?

If the deviation at 3500 ft is +12, what is the ambient temperature?

(Answers on page 14)

8
The Atmosphere
1
The ICAO International Standard Atmosphere

Height (km) Height (ft) Temp (°C) Pressure Height Change Density (%)
(hPa) (per hPa)
32.00 104 987 -44.7 8.9 1.1
30.48 100 000 -46.2 11.1 1.4
27.43 90 000 -49.2 17.3 2.2
24.38 80 000 -52.2 28.0 3.6
21.34 70 000 -55.2 44.9 5.8
20.00 65 620 -56.5 56.7 7.2
15.24 50 000 -56.5 116.6 15.3
13.71 45 000 -56.5 148.2 19.5
11.78 38 662 -56.5 200 103 ft 26.3
11.00 36 090 -56.5 228.2 91 ft 29.7
9.16 30 065 -44.4 300 73 ft 36.8
5.51 18 289 -21.2 500 48 ft 56.4
3.05 10 000 -4.8 696.8 37 ft 73.8
3.01 9882 -4.6 700 36 ft 74.1
1.46 4781 +5.5 850 31 ft 87.3
0 0 +15 1013.25 27 ft 100

Note: The above height change figures show how the pressure against height change equation is
modified as altitude changes but the figures offered only relate to ISA conditions of Temperature
and Pressure. We can assess changes outside these conditions by using the following formula:

H = 96 ×T
P

where H = height change per hPa in feet

T = Actual Absolute Temperature at that level in kelvin (K) P =
Actual Pressure in hPa

Note: this formula is only valid for calculating the height change per hPa change in pressure at a specified
altitude; it cannot be used to calculate a change in height between two pressure levels, nor the change in
pressure between two altitudes.
9
1 Questions

Questions
1. How does the height of the tropopause normally vary with latitude in the Northern
Hemisphere?

a. It decreases from south to north

b. It increases from south to north
c. It remains constant from north to south
d. It remains constant throughout the year

2. What, approximately, is the average height of the tropopause over the Equator?

a. 8 km
b. 16 km
c. 11 km
d. 50 km

3. In the International Standard Atmosphere the decrease in temperature with height

below 11 km is:

a. 0.5°C/100 m
b. 0.6°C/100 m
c. 0.65°/100 m
d. 1°C/100 m

4. The 200 hPa pressure altitude level can vary in height. In temperate regions which
of the following average heights is applicable?

a. FL390
b. FL300
c. FL100
d. FL50

5. The temperature at FL110 is -12°C. What will the temperature be at FL140 if the
ICAO standard lapse rate is applied?

a. -6°C
b. -18°C
c. -9°C
d. -15°C

6. At a certain position the temperature on the 300 hPa chart is -54°C, and according
to the significant weather chart the tropopause is at FL330. What is the most likely
temperature at FL350?

a. -48°C
b. -60°C
c. -56.5°C
d. -64°C

7. What is the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere called?

a. Ionosphere
b. Stratosphere
c. Atmosphere
d. Tropopause

10
Questions
1
8. Which constant pressure altitude chart is standard for 4781 ft pressure level (FL50)?

a. 500 hPa
b. 300 hPa
c. 850 hPa
d. 700 hPa

9. An outside air temperature of -30°C is measured whilst cruising at FL200. What is

the temperature deviation from the ISA at this level?

a. 5°C colder than ISA

b. 5°C warmer than ISA
c. 10°C colder than ISA
d. 10°C warmer than ISA

10. What is the most likely temperature at the tropical tropopause?

a. -56.5°C
b. -75°C
c. -40°C
d. -25°C

11. Which one of the following statements applies to the tropopause?

a. It is, by definition, an isothermal layer

b. It indicates a strong temperature lapse rate
c. It is, by definition a temperature inversion
d. It separates the troposphere from the stratosphere

12. In the lower part of the stratosphere the temperature:

a. is almost constant
b. decreases with altitude
c. increases with altitude
d. increases at first and decreases afterwards

13. What is the approximate composition of the dry air by volume in the troposphere?

a. 10% oxygen, 89% nitrogen and the rest other gases

b. 88% oxygen, 9% nitrogen and the rest other gases
c. 50% oxygen, 40% nitrogen and the rest other gases
d. 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and the rest other gases

14. How does temperature vary with increasing altitude in the ICAO standard
atmosphere below the tropopause?

a. Remains constant
b. Decreases
c. Increases
d. At first it increases and higher up it decreases

11
1 Questions

15. How would you characterize an air temperature of -15°C at the 700 hPa level over
western Europe?
a. Within +/-5°C of ISA
b. 20°C below standard
c. Low
d. High

16. If you are flying at FL300 in an air mass that is 15°C warmer than a standard
atmosphere what is the outside temperature likely to be?

a. -15°C
b. -30°C
c. -45°C
d. -60°C

17. If you are flying at FL140 and the outside temperature is -8°C at what altitude will
the freezing level be?

a. FL75
b. FL100
c. FL130
d. FL180

18. What is the most important constituent in the atmosphere from a weather
standpoint?

a. Carbon dioxide
b. Oxygen
c. Water vapour
d. Methane

19. The average height of the tropopause at a latitude of 50° is about:

a. 8 km
b. 11 km
c. 14 km
d. 16 km

20. Between mean sea level and a height of 20 km the lowest temperature in the
international standard atmosphere (ISA) is:

a. -273°C
b. -44.7°C
c. -56.5°C
d. -100°C

21. The international standard atmosphere (ISA) assumes that the temperature will
reduce at a rate of:

a. 1.98°C per 1000 feet up to 36 090 feet after which it remains constant to 65
617 feet
b. 1.98°C per 1000 feet up to 36 090 feet and then will rise at 0.3°C per 1000 feet
up to 65 617 feet when it will remain constant
c. 2°C per 1000 feet up to 65 617 feet after which it will remain constant to 104
987 feet
d. 2°C per 1000 feet up to 36 090 feet and will then increase at 0.3°C per 1000
feet up to 65 617 feet

12
Questions
1
22. In the mid-latitudes the stratosphere extends on average from:

a. 0 to 11 km
b. 11 to 50 km
c. 50 to 85 km
d. 11 to 20 km

23. In relation to the total weight of the atmosphere, the weight of the atmosphere
between mean sea level and a height of 5500 m is approximately:

a. 1%
b. 25%
c. 50%
d. 99%

24. A temperature of +15°C is recorded at an altitude of 500 metres above mean sea
level. If the vertical temperature gradient is that of a standard atmosphere, what
will be the temperature at the summit of a mountain 2500 metres above mean sea
level?

a. 0°C
b. +2°C
c. +4°C
d. -2°C

13
1 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a b c a b b d c a b d a
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
d b c b b c b c a b c b

Answers to Questions on page 8

Height (ft) Temperature ISA Temperature ISA Deviation

(°C)
1500 +28 +12 +16
17 500 -18 -20 +2
24 000 -35 -33 -2
37 000 -45 -57 +12
9500 -5 -4 -1
5000 +15 +5 +10
31 000 -50 -47 -3
57 000 -67 -57 -10

Max temperature = +15°C

Ambient temperature = +20°C

14
Chapter

2
Pressure

Introduction. . . 17
Atmospheric Pressure. . . 17
The Barograph 19
Variations of Pressure. . . 20
Types of Pressure . . . 21
QFE. . . 21
QNH . . . 21
QFF 21
Summary. . . 23
Pressure Definitions. . . 23
Analysis Charts 23
Questions . . . 24
Answers . . . 28

15
2 Pressure

16
Pressure
2
Introduction
Variations in pressure have long been associated with changes in the weather - the ‘falling
glass’ usually indicating the approach of bad weather. The Handbook of Aviation Meteorology
makes the statement:

“The study of atmospheric pressure may be said to form the foundations of the science of
meteorology.”

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface in
contact with it. If pressure is considered as the weight of a column of air of unit cross-sectional
area above a surface, then it can be seen from the diagram that the pressure (weight of the
column above) at the upper surface will be less than that at the lower surface.

Thus atmospheric pressure will decrease with an increase in height.

Figure 2.1 The Weight of the Atmosphere on the Surface of the Earth

Units of Measurement
The standard unit of force is the NEWTON (N) and an average for atmospheric pressure at sea
level is 101 325 newtons per square metre (pascals). For simplicity this is expressed as 1013.25
hectopascals (hPa) because the earlier system of measurement was millibars (mb) and 1 hPa = 1
mb. In some countries millibars are still used. Other units which are still in use are related to the
height of a column of mercury in a barometer in inches or millimetres (see overleaf).

Note: mean sea level pressure in the ISA is 29.92 inches or 760 mm of mercury.

17
2 Pressure

Mercury Barometer
The basic instrument used for the measurement of atmospheric pressure is the mercury
barometer. The atmospheric pressure is measured by the height of a column of mercury, and
this height can be read in terms of any of the units shown above. The USA still uses inches of
mercury as their measurement of atmospheric pressure.

Figure 2.2 A Mercury Barometer

Aneroid Barometer.
A more compact means of measuring atmospheric pressure is the Aneroid Barometer. It
consists of partially evacuated capsules, which respond to changes in pressure by expanding
and contracting, and a system of levers, these changes of pressure being indicated by a pointer
moving over a scale.

Figure 2.3 An Aneroid Barometer

18
Pressure
2

Figure 2.4 Met Office Aneroid Barometer

The Barograph
To enable a continuous record of pressure changes to be made, a paper covered rotating drum is
substituted for the scale and the instrument then becomes a barograph. This instrument is used
by the meteorologist to measure what is known as pressure tendency, the rise and fall of
pressure over a period of time. Pressure tendency is an important forecasting tool.

Figure 2.5 A Barograph

19
2 Pressure

Variations of Pressure
Height
With an increase in height, the weight of air overlying the surface will reduce. Therefore
pressure will fall with height. The rate of change of pressure with height (the barometric lapse
rate) reduces as altitude increase (see table on page 9), or the height change per hPa
increases as altitude increases

However, temperature has a dramatic effect on the pressure change with height, i.e. the
pressure lapse rate. Warm air will cause pressure to fall slowly with height, i.e. decreasing
the pressure lapse rate, whereas cold air will cause pressure to fall rapidly with height, i.e.
increasing the pressure lapse rate. Therefore we would expect the pressure at any given height
to be higher over warm air and lower over cold air. The effect of temperature on the rate of
change of pressure with height is an important fact which we will return to in altimetry and
upper winds.

Shown below is how temperature affects the height difference with a 1 hPa change in pressure.
These values have been derived from the formula described in the chapter on the atmosphere.

H = 96T
P

ISA
27 feet at MSL
50 feet at 20 000 ft
100 feet at 40 000 ft

Diurnal Variation
There is a change in pressure during the day which although small (about 1 hPa in temperate
latitudes, can be as much as 3 hPa in the tropics) would need to be taken into account when
considering pressure tendency as an indication of changing weather. The variation is shown in
Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Diurnal Variation

The variation is difficult to explain, but is probably due to a natural oscillation of the atmosphere
having a period of about 12 hours, this oscillation being maintained by the 24 hour variation of
temperature.

20
Pressure
2
Types of Pressure
QFE
The atmospheric pressure measured at the aerodrome reference point. With QFE set on the
altimeter the altimeter will read zero feet when the aircraft is on the aerodrome.

Figure 2.7 QFE

QNH
This is the barometric pressure at the airfield (QFE), converted to mean sea level (MSL) using
the ISA temperature at the airfield and the ISA pressure lapse rate. This will provide a pressure
which does not account for any temperature deviation away from ISA. The correction to be
made to the surface pressure will depend solely upon the height of the airfield AMSL. QNH is
always a whole number without any decimal places and is always rounded down. When on the
aerodrome with QNH set the altimeter will read aerodrome elevation.

QFF
Because temperature affects the change of pressure over height QNH is not a true mean sea
level pressure (unless ISA conditions exist). The forecaster needs to know the true mean sea
level pressure in order to construct accurate analysis charts and to help with the forecasting of
future changes.

The meteorological offices, therefore, convert QFE to MSL using the actual temperature and
assuming isothermal conditions between the aerodrome and MSL. This pressure is known as
QFF and, because of the differential rate of change of pressure over height at different
temperatures, may differ from QNH.

We can determine, from the formula above, that at temperatures below ISA we have a relatively
small height change per 1 hPa change in pressure and a relatively large change at temperatures
above ISA.

21
2 Pressure

Example 1: What is the relationship between QFF and QNH at Oxford (270 ft AMSL) if the
QNH is 1020 hPa and the temperature ISA +10°?

Figure 2.8

The QNH is calculated using the ISA temperature and the QFF using the actual temperature.
Since the actual temperature is warmer than ISA the change in pressure over 270 ft will be
greater in the ISA than in the actual conditions. As we are above MSL this means that the QNH
will be greater than the QFF.

Example 2: What is the relationship between QFF and QNH at an aerodrome 69 m below MSL if
the QNH is 1005 hPa and the temperature is ISA-10°?

Figure 2.9

This time the change in pressure is greater for the calculation of QFF than for the QNH. As we are
reducing pressure this time it means the QNH will once again be greater than the QFF.

We can use similar arguments to show that at an aerodrome AMSL with a temperature colder
than ISA or at an aerodrome below MSL with a temperature greater than ISA the QFF will be
greater than the QNH. This is summarized overleaf:

22
Pressure
2
Summary
ISA

+- ++
QNH < QFF QNH > QFF
MSL
-- -+
QNH > QFF QNH < QFF

Same sign, above mean sea level and warmer than ISA (+,+) or below mean sea level and colder
than ISA (-,-) then QNH is greater than QFF. Otherwise the QFF is greater than the QNH.

Stations AT MSL Regardless of temperature QNH = QFF (=QFE)

The normal range of mean sea level pressure (QFF) extends from 950 to 1050 hPa. The lowest
recorded mean sea level pressure is 870 hPa in the eye of Typhoon Tip in the Western Pacific
in 1979. The lowest recorded in the North Atlantic is 882 hPa in the eye of Hurricane Wilma in
2005. The highest mean sea level pressure was 1085.7 hPa recorded in winter in Siberia in 2001.

Pressure Definitions
QFE The pressure measured at the aerodrome reference point.
QFF QFE converted to mean sea level using the actual temperature.
QNH QFE converted to mean sea level using the ISA.
ISOBAR A line joining places of the same atmospheric pressure (usually MSL pressure
QFF).

Standard Pressure Setting (SPS) 1013 hPa

Analysis Charts
Isobars on analysis charts
are corrected mean sea level
pressures (QFF) and are
drawn at a spacing which is
dependent on the scale of the
chart.

On larger area charts the

spacing may be expanded
to 4 or more hectopascals
but this will be stated on the
chart.

Figure 2.10 Isobars on an Analysis Chart

23
2 Questions

Questions
1. The barometric pressure at the airfield datum point is known as:

a. QFF
b. QNH
c. QFE
d. Standard Pressure

2. The instrument that gives a continuous printed reading and record of the
atmospheric pressure is:

a. barometer
b. hygrometer
c. anemograph
d. barograph

3. The pressure of the atmosphere:

a. decreases at an increasing rate as height increases

b. decreases at a constant rate as height increases
c. decreases at a decreasing rate as height increases
d. decreases at a constant rate up to the tropopause and then remains constant

4. When considering the actual tropopause which statement is correct?

a. It is low over the poles and high over the Equator

b. It is high over the poles and low over the Equator
c. It is the same height of 36 090 ft all over the world
d. It is at a constant altitude of 26 000’

5. Atmospheric pressure may be defined as:

a. the weight of the atmosphere exerted on any surface with which it is in

contact
b. the weight of the atmosphere at standard sea level
c. the force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface with which
it is in contact
d. a pressure exerted by the atmosphere of 1013.2 hPa

6. The QFF is the atmospheric pressure:

a. at the place where the reading is taken

b. corrected for temperature difference from standard and adjusted to MSL
assuming standard atmospheric conditions exist
c. at a place where the reading is taken corrected to MSL taking into account the
prevailing temperature conditions
d. as measured by a barometer at the aerodrome reference point

7. The pressure of 1013 hPa is known as:

a. standard pressure setting

b. QNH
c. QFE
d. QFF

24
Questions
2
8. The aircraft altimeter will read zero at aerodrome level with which pressure setting
set on the altimeter subscale:

a. QFF
b. QNH
c. SPS
d. QFE

9. The aerodrome QFE is:

a. the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the aerodrome

barometric pressure is set on the subscale
b. the reading on the altimeter on touchdown at an aerodrome when 1013 is set
on the subscale
c. the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the sea level barometric
pressure is set on the subscale
d. the aerodrome barometric pressure

10. When an altimeter subscale is set to the aerodrome QFE, the altimeter reads:

a. the elevation of the aerodrome at the aerodrome reference point

b. zero at the aerodrome reference point
c. the pressure altitude at the aerodrome reference point
d. the appropriate altitude of the aircraft

11. The aerodrome QNH is the aerodrome barometric pressure:

a. corrected to mean sea level assuming standard atmospheric conditions exist

b. corrected to mean sea level, assuming isothermal conditions exist
c. corrected for temperature and adjusted to MSL assuming standard
atmosphere conditions exist
d. corrected to MSL using ambient temperature

12. A line drawn on a chart joining places having the same barometric pressure at the
same level and at the same time is:

a. an isotherm
b. an isallobar
c. a contour
d. an isobar

13. An isobar on a meteorological chart joins all places having the same:

a. QFE
b. QFF
c. QNH
d. standard pressure

14. Pressure will _________ with increase of height and will be about __________ at
10 000 ft and ___________ at 30 000 ft.

a. Increase 800 hPa 400 hPa

b. Decrease 700 hPa 300 hPa
c. Increase 200 hPa 800 hPa
d. Decrease 500 hPa 200 hPa

25
2 Questions

15. An airfield in England is 100 m above sea level, QFF is 1030 hPa, temperature at the
surface is -15°C. What is the value of QNH?

a. Impossible to determine
b. Less than 1030 hPa
c. Same as QFF
d. More than 1030 hPa

26
Questions
2

27
2 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c d c a c c a d d b a d
13 14 15
b b b

28
Chapter

3
Density

Introduction. . . 31
Effect of Changes of Pressure on Density . . . 31
Effect of Change of Temperature on Density . . . 31
Effect of Changes in Humidity on Density. . . 31
Effect of Change of Altitude on Density 32
Effect of Change of Latitude on Density 32
Effect of Changes in Density on Aircraft Operations . . . 33
Questions . . . 35
Answers . . . 36

29
3 Density

30
Density
3
Introduction
Density may be defined as mass per unit volume and may be expressed as: •

Grams per cubic metre.

• A percentage of the standard surface density - relative density.

• The altitude in the standard atmosphere to which the observed density corresponds -
density altitude.

Effect of Changes of Pressure on Density

As pressure is increased, the air will be compressed which reduces the volume and increases the
density. Likewise, if pressure is decreased, the air will expand which will increase the volume
and decrease the density.

(rho) = density

We can therefore say that:

DENSITY IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO PRESSURE.

In the atmosphere density can be decreased by raising the volume of air to a greater height
since we know that pressure decreases with an increase in altitude. Similarly, density can be
increased by lowering the volume of air to a lower height.

Effect of Change of Temperature on Density

If a volume of air is heated it will expand and the mass of air contained in unit volume will be less.
Thus density will decrease with an increase in temperature and we can say:

DENSITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE.

Effect of Changes in Humidity on Density

The molecular mass of water is less than that of nitrogen and oxygen. If we increase the
amount of water vapour in a fixed volume of air, then we are replacing the heavier nitrogen
and oxygen molecules with the lighter water molecules so the total mass of that volume will
decrease and hence the density will decrease.

DENSITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO WATER VAPOUR CONTENT

31
3 Density

Effect of Change of Altitude on Density

In the troposphere as altitude increases both temperature and pressure decrease but, although
they have opposite effects on density, the effect of pressure is much greater than the effect of
temperature so density decreases as altitude increases.

(In the ISA ρ = 100% at sea level, 50% at 20 000 ft, 25% at 40 000 ft and 10% at 60 000 ft)

Density will change by 1% for a 3 degree change in temperature or a 10 hPa change in pressure.

Effect of Change of Latitude on Density

At the surface as latitude increases temperature decreases so density will increase as we move
from the Equator towards the poles. At the Equator the surface temperatures are high so
the rate of change of pressure with height is relatively low compared to the poles where
temperatures are low and the change of pressure with height is relatively high. This means
that at, say, 50 000 ft the pressure over the Equator will be relatively high compared to the
pressure at 50 000 ft over the poles. The temperatures are lower at 50 000 ft at the Equator
than at the poles which means that the density at 50 000 ft at the poles will be less than at 50
000 ft at the Equator. So we can summarize the change of density as follows:

• at the surface density increases as latitude increases

• at about 26 000 ft density remains constant with an increase in latitude.

• above 26 000 ft density decreases with an increase in latitude. (Maximum deviation from
standard occurs at about 50 000 ft.)

Figure 3.1 The Effect of Latitude on Density

32
Density
3
Effect of Changes in Density on Aircraft Operations
a) Accuracy of aircraft instruments - Mach meters, ASIs.

b) Aircraft and engine performance - low density will reduce lift, increase take-off run,
reduce maximum take-off weight.

(L = CL ½ρV2S)
Where L = Lift

CL = Coefficient of Lift

ρ = Density

V = TAS

S = Wing area

Airfields affected would be:

• High Denver Nairobi Sana’a

• Hot Bahrain Khartoum Singapore

c) Humidity generally has a small effect on density (humidity reduces density), but must
be taken into account at moist tropical airfields, e.g. Bahrain, Singapore.

Figure 3.2 An Illustration of Pressure Decrease with Height in air masses with Different Temperatures and therefore
Different Densities

33
3 Density

34
Questions
3
Questions
1. Consider the following statements relative to air density and select the one which
is correct:

a. Because air density increases with decrease of temperature, air density must
increase with increase of height in the International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA)
b. At any given surface temperature the air density will be greater in anticyclonic
conditions than it will be when the MSL pressure is lower
c. Air density increases with increase of relative humidity
d. The effect of change of temperature on the air density is much greater than
the effect of change of atmospheric pressure

2. The tropopause in mid latitudes is:

a. lower in summer with a lower temperature

b. lower in winter with a higher temperature
c. lower in summer with a higher temperature
d. lower in winter with a lower temperature

3. Generally as altitude increases:

a. temperature decreases and density increases

b. temperature, pressure and density decreases
c. temperature and pressure increase and density decreases
d. temperature decreases and pressure density increases

4. In the troposphere:

a. over cold air, the pressure is higher at upper levels than at similar levels over
warm air
b. over cold air, the pressure is lower at upper levels than at similar levels over
warm air
c. over warm air, the pressure is lower at upper levels than at similar levels over
warm air
d. the upper level pressure depends solely on the relative humidity below

5. Density at the surface will be low when:

a. pressure is high and temperature is high

b. pressure is high and temperature is low
c. pressure is low and temperature is low
d. pressure is low and temperature is high

6. Which of the following combinations will give the lowest air density?

a. Low pressure, low humidity, low temperature

b. High pressure, high temperature, high humidity
c. High pressure, low temperature, low humidity
d. Low pressure, high humidity, high temperature

35
3 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6
b b b b d d

36
Chapter

4
Pressure Systems

Introduction. . . .39
Buys Ballot’s Law . . . .39
Advection . . . .39
Depressions . . . .39
Troughs . . . .41
Depression Weather .42
Anticyclones . . . .42
Ridges . . . .44
Anticyclonic Weather . . . .45
Cols. . .46
Col Weather . . . .46
Pressure Systems Movement . . .47
Terminology . . . .48
Questions . . . .49
Annex A . . . .53
Annex B . . . .53
Annex C . . . .53
Answers . . . .54

37
4 Pressure Systems

38
Pressure Systems
4
Introduction
Isobars can form patterns, which when they are recognized, can help us forecast the weather.
These patterns are called pressure distribution systems. They include:

• Depressions, or lows.
• Anticyclones, or highs.
• Troughs.
• Ridges.
• Cols.

Buys Ballot’s Law

In the 19th century the Dutch scientist and meteorologist, Buys Ballot, produced a law based
on the observation of wind direction and pressure systems.

Buys Ballot’s Law states that:

If an observer stands with his back to the wind in the Northern Hemisphere then the low
pressure is on his left. (In the Southern Hemisphere low pressure is to the right.)

This law will prove to be a useful tool in both the study of wind and altimetry.

Advection
Advection is a meteorological term for horizontal movement of air.

Depressions
A depression is a region of comparatively low pressure shown by more or less circular and
concentric isobars surrounding the centre, where pressure is lowest. A depression is sometimes
called a low or a cyclone. In Europe the term cyclone is usually reserved for tropical revolving
storms. However, the term cyclonic circulation implies a low pressure system.

Buys Ballots’ law tells us that the wind will move around a low pressure system in an anti-
clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere.

39
4 Pressure Systems

Figure 4.1 A Depression in the Northern Hemisphere

There are two types of depression, frontal (large scale) found in our temperate latitudes and
non-frontal (small scale) depressions which can occur virtually anywhere.

In a depression air is converging at the surface, rising from the surface to medium to high
altitude (convection) then diverging at medium to high altitude.

Figure 4.2 Vertical Cross-section

40
Pressure Systems
4
Frontal depressions are known as Polar Front Depressions and form, in temperate latitudes,
in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres when warm, moist sub-tropical air masses
meet cold polar air masses. These depressions move from west to east and eventually, in the
Northern Hemisphere, lose their identity over the North American or Eurasian land masses. In
the N. Atlantic these depressions originate in the central to western Atlantic and move rapidly
eastward, eventually losing their identity over the steppes of central Asia. An example of a
polar front depression is centred over Greenland/Iceland on the analysis chart on the next
page.

Non-frontal depressions are usually formed by surface heating when they are known as thermal
depressions. They occur over land in summer as a result of strong surface heating. They also
occur over the warm sub-tropical oceans where they are known as tropical cyclones. In winter
they occur over sea areas in cold polar or arctic air masses. The different types of depressions
and their formation will be discussed in later chapters. On the analysis chart thermal depressions
(labelled TD) are seen over the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, formed in the cold air
coming out of central Asia

Figure 4.3

Troughs
A trough is an extension of a low pressure system. On the analysis chart there are two troughs
associated with the polar front depression centred over Greenland/Iceland. One extending
north across Greenland is a non-frontal trough. The other extending southward is a frontal
trough formed along the cold front. Troughs are very often associated with the fronts of polar
front depressions. The weather associated with a trough will be similar to that of a depression.

41
4 Pressure Systems

Depression Weather
Cloud extensive and may extend from low altitude to the tropopause

Precipitation may be continuous/intermittent precipitation or showers and intensity can

range from light to heavy dependent on the type of depression

Visibility Poor in precipitation, otherwise good due to ascending air.

Temperature dependent on type of depression and time of year. For example, a frontal
depression coming into Europe from the Atlantic in winter will bring warmer air,
but in summer will bring cooler air.

Winds Winds are usually strong - the deeper the depression and the closer the isobars,
the stronger the wind.

Anticyclones
An anticyclone or high is a region of relatively high pressure shown by more or less circular
isobars similar to a depression but with higher pressure at the centre.

Figure 4.4 An Anticyclone in the Northern Hemisphere

Isobars are more widely spaced than with depressions. There are five types of anticyclone,
warm, cold, temporary cold, ridges (or wedges) and blocking. Within an anticyclone, at high
altitude we have air converging, then descent of air within the anticyclone (subsidence) and
divergence at the surface.

42
Pressure Systems
4

Figure 4.5 Vertical Cross-section

Cold anticyclones occur as permanent features at the poles and as seasonal features over
continental land masses in the winter. In simple terms the air at the surface is cooled thereby
increasing its density and drawing more air down from above hence increasing the surface
pressure.

Warm Anticyclones
To understand the formation
of warm anticyclones we
need to look at the global
circulation of air. In the 19th
century a British scientist,
George Hadley, proposed a
global circulation based on
hot air rising at the Equator
then flowing up to the
poles at the tropopause,
descending at the poles and
flowing back to the Equator
at the surface. This model
was not quite correct because
in our temperate latitudes
pressure is predominantly
low because of the large Figure 4.6 Hadley Cell, Polar Front, and Associated Wind-Flows.
scale frontal depressions. An
American scientist, William Ferrel, proposed a modification to Hadley’s model introducing the

43
4 Pressure Systems

modification arising because of the low pressure systems in temperate latitudes. This gives
the three circulation cells, the Hadley cell between the Equator and the subtropics, the Ferrel
cell between the subtropics and temperate latitudes and the Polar cell between temperate
latitudes and the poles.

This circulation means that we have, at the tropopause, air flowing outwards from the Equator
towards the poles and from temperate latitudes towards the Equator. This creates an excess
of air at the tropopause in subtropical regions which is forced to descend, hence creating the
subtropical high pressure systems which are permanent features over the subtropical oceans, for
example the Azores high in the N. Atlantic.

Ridges
Ridges of high pressure are indicated by isobars
extending outwards from an anticyclone and
always rounded, never V-shaped as seen in a
trough.

Figure 4.7 A Ridge of High Pressure.

Temporary Cold Anticyclones

A temporary cold anticyclone is a ridge of high
pressure found in the cold air between two
frontal depressions. Because the depressions
are moving rapidly the influence of these
anticyclones will be experienced for up to a
maximum of about 24 hours.

Figure 4.8 A Temporary Cold Anticyclone.

44
Pressure Systems
4
Blocking Anticyclones

A blocking anticyclone is one which prevents the usual eastward movement of frontal
depressions, forcing these depressions to take up northerly tracks in the Northern Hemisphere.
These anticyclones are usually extensions of the warm subtropical anticyclones. They can
persist for weeks giving (usually) warm dry weather in summer and gloomy overcast conditions in
winter with a possibility of drizzle. Over Europe in winter they may be extensions of the
Siberian high giving (usually) cold clear conditions.

Figure 4.9 High from Azores to Scandinavia.

Anticyclonic Weather
SUMMER (and cold anticyclones in winter):

Cloud None except on the edge of the anticyclone.

Precipitation None.
Visibility Generally moderate with haze
Temperature Dependent on type.
Winds Light.

WINTER (warm anticyclones):

Cloud Extensive stratus with a low base and limited vertical extent.
Precipitation Possibly drizzle.
Visibility Generally moderate to poor with mist and fog likely
Temperature Relatively warm.
Winds Light.
45
4 Pressure Systems

Cols
Cols are regions of almost level pressure
between two highs and two lows. It is an area
of stagnation as illustrated in Figure 4.10 and
Figure 4.11.

Col Weather
Col weather is normally settled, but is
dependent on changing pressure.

In autumn and winter cols produce

poor visibility and fog, whilst in summer
thunderstorms are common. Figure 4.11 is an
example of a weather forecast for a day when
a col influenced the weather over the UK.

Figure 4.10 A Col.

Figure 4.11 Col Weather.

46
Pressure Systems
4
Pressure Systems Movement

Frontal depressions tend to move rapidly. The movement of non-frontal depressions depends on
type and location; they may remain relatively static or move at moderate speeds. Anticyclones
tend to be slow moving and will persist in more or less the same location for long periods. Cols
tend to be static.

Movement of the systems is the key to accurate forecasting.

The figures below show the movement of weather over a period of four successive days.

Figure 4.12 Maintenance of Shape.

47
4 Pressure Systems

Terminology
Depressions will fill up or decay as pressure rises.

Depressions will deepen as pressure falls.

Frontal depressions move rapidly, their average lifetime is 10 to 14 days.

Anticyclones will build up as pressure rises.

Anticyclones will weaken or collapse as pressure falls.

Anticyclones are generally slow moving and may persist for long periods.

Cols may last up to a few days before being replaced by other pressure systems.

48
Pressure Systems
4
Questions
1. A steep pressure gradient is characterized by:

a. isobars close together, strengthened wind

b. isobars far apart, decreased wind
c. isobars close together, temperature increasing
d. isobars far apart, temperature decreasing

2. QNH at Timbuktu (200 m AMSL) is 1015 hPa. What is the QFE? (Assume 1 hPa = 8 m)

a. 1000 hPa
b. 990 hPa
c. 1020 hPa
d. 995 hPa

3. In temperate latitudes in summer what conditions would you expect in the centre
of a high pressure system?

a. Thunderstorms
b. Calm winds, haze
c. Showers
d. Dense cloud

4. If the pressure level surface bulges upwards, the pressure system is a:

a. cold low
b. warm low
c. cold high
d. warm high

5. The QNH at an airfield 200 m AMSL is 1009 hPa; air temperature is 10°C lower than
standard. What is the QFF?

a. Not possible to give a definite answer

b. Less than 1009 hPa
c. 1009 hPa
d. More than 1009 hPa

6. QNH is defined as:

a. the pressure at MSL obtained using the standard atmosphere

b. the pressure at MSL obtained using the actual conditions
c. QFE reduced to MSL using the actual conditions
d. QFE reduced to MSL using the standard atmosphere

7. Landing at an airfield with QNH set the pressure altimeter reads:

a. zero feet on landing only if ISA conditions prevail

b. zero
c. the elevation of the airfield if ISA conditions prevail
d. the elevation of the airfield

49
4 Pressure Systems

8. Airfield is 69 metres below sea level, QFF is 1030 hPa, temperature is ISA -10°C.
What is the QNH?

a. Impossible to tell
b. Less than 1030 hPa
c. 1030 hPa
d. More than 1030 hPa

9. What is the vertical movement of air relating to a trough?

a. Descending and diverging

b. Ascending and diverging
c. Descending and converging
d. Converging and ascending

10. What is the vertical movement of air relating to a ridge?

a. Descending and diverging

b. Ascending and diverging
c. Descending and converging
d. Ascending and converging

11. What is subsidence?

a. Horizontal motion of air

b. Vertical down draught of air
c. Vertical up draught of air
d. Adiabatic cooling

12. Aerodrome at MSL, QNH is 1022 hPa. QFF is:

a. greater than 1022 hPa

b. less than 1022 hPa
c. same as QNH
d. cannot tell without temperature information

13. Air at the upper levels of the atmosphere is diverging. What would you expect at
the surface?

a. Rise in pressure with clouds dissipating

b. Rise in pressure with clouds forming
c. Fall in pressure with cloud dissipating
d. Fall in pressure with cloud forming

14. Subsidence would be described as:

a. vertical ascension of air

b. horizontal movement of air
c. the same as convection
d. vertical down flow of air

50
Questions
4
15. You are flying at FL170. The pressure level which is closest to you is the:

a. 300 hPa
b. 700 hPa
c. 500 hPa
d. 850 hPa

16. On a surface weather chart, isobars are lines of:

a. QNH
b. QFE
c. QFF
d. QNE

17. At FL60 what pressure chart would you use?

a. 700 hPa
b. 500 hPa
c. 800 hPa
d. 1000 hPa

18. (For this question use Annex B) A ridge is indicated by letter:

a. D
b. A
c. B
d. C

19. (For this question use Annex A) Which of the following best describes Zone D?

a. Ridge of high pressure

b. Anticyclone
c. Trough of low pressure
d. Col

20. (For this question use Annex A) Which of the following best describes Zone C?

a. Trough of low pressure

b. Depression
c. Ridge of high pressure
d. Anticyclone

21. (For this question use Annex B) Which of the following best describes Zone A?

a. Col
b. Ridge of High Pressure
c. Depression
d. Trough of low pressure

51
4 Questions

22. (For this question use Annex B) Which of the following best describes Zone B?

a. Ridge of high pressure

b. Depression
c. Anticyclone
d. Col

23. (For this question Annex C) The pressure system at position A is a:

a. trough of low pressure

b. anticyclone
c. col
d. secondary low

24. (For this question use Annex C) The pressure system located in area “B” is a

a. Ridge of high pressure

b. col
c. trough of low pressure
d. depression

25. At which average height can the 500 hPa pressure level be expected in moderate
latitudes?

a. 12.2 km
b. 3 km
c. 5.5 km
d. 9.0 km

26. The average pressure found at a height of 1620 m in mid latitudes would be:

a. 350 hPa
b. 400 hPa
c. 850 hPa
d. 950 hPa

52
Questions
4
Annex A

Annex B

Annex C

53
4 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a b b d d d d d d a b c
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
d d c c c b d d b b a b
25 26
c c

54
Chapter

5
Temperature

Introduction. . . 57
Measurement . . . 57
Instruments . . . 57
Heating of the Troposphere . . . 59
Temperature Variation with Height . . . 62
Lapse Rate. . . 62
Isotherm . . . 62
Inversions . . . 63
Surface Temperature . . . 64
Questions . . . 71
Answers . . . 74

55
5 Temperature

56
Temperature
5
Introduction
One of the important variables in the atmosphere is temperature. The study of temperature
variation, both horizontally and vertically has considerable significance in the study of
meteorology.

Measurement
There are three scales which may be used to measure temperature though only Celsius and
Kelvin are used in meteorology. The figures show the melting point of ice and the boiling point of
water (at standard pressure) in each scale.

• The FAHRENHEIT scale: +32 and +212 degrees.

• The CELSIUS (or Centigrade) scale: 0 and +100 degrees.

• The KELVIN (or Absolute) scale: +273 and +373 Kelvin.

Conversion factors:

°C = 5 × (°F - 32)
9

9
°F = × °C + 32
5

K = °C + 273

Instruments
The standard means of measurement on the
ground is a mercury thermometer placed
in a Stevenson Screen. Electrical resistance
thermometers may be used where the screen is
not readily accessible to the observer.

Figure 5.1 The Stevenson Screen

57
5 Temperature

A Thermograph (similar in its output to a barograph) will also be found inside the screen. The
Stevenson screen is a louvred box 4 feet (1.22 m) above the ground. This screen, shown in
Figure 5.1, is used worldwide.

Figure 5.2 Thermograph

Upper air temperature (and pressure and humidity) are measured using a Radiosonde, shown
in Figure 5.3, - a device transmitting continuous readings whilst being carried aloft beneath a
balloon. Rate of climb is 1200 fpm and maximum ceiling between 65 000 and 115 000 ft. Earlier
devices were tracked using radar to determine position and to determine wind speed. Modern
systems use GPS to provide a 3D position to send with the data.

Figure 5.3 A Radiosonde

Aircraft readings, though often the only way in which atmospheric temperature may be
measured over the oceans and other areas far away from meteorological stations, are not as
accurate as they are affected by compressibility and lag. The electrical thermometer will give
a digital readout of temperature and this can be automatically calibrated and transmitted on
some modern aircraft.

58
Temperature
5

Figure 5.4 Electrical Thermometer

Heating of the Troposphere

The main source of heat for the troposphere is the sun.

• Solar Radiation. Radiation from the sun is of Short wave-length (λ) and passes through the
troposphere almost without heating it at all.

λ = 0.15 - 4 microns (micron = µ = 10 -6 m)

Some solar radiation is reflected back to the upper air from cloud tops and from water
surfaces on the earth. The rest of this radiation heats the earth’s surface. The process
whereby the surface is heated by solar radiation is called insolation.
Figure 5.5 Solar Radiation

59
5 Temperature

There are four processes which heat the troposphere:

• Terrestrial Radiation.

The earth radiates heat at all times. It is relatively long wave radiation λ = 4 to 80 microns,
peaking at 10 m.

This radiation is absorbed by the so-called greenhouse gases giving rise to the lapse rate in
the troposphere, principally water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane. The increase in the
amount of carbon dioxide in the troposphere is one of the factors contributing to global
warming. (Note: the global warming phenomenon is much more complex than this.)

Figure 5.6 Terrestrial Radiation

• Conduction. Air lying in contact with the earth’s surface by day will be heated by conduction.
At night air in contact with the earth’s surface will be cooled by conduction. Because of the
air’s poor conductivity, the air at a higher level will remain at the same temperature as
during the day and an inversion will result.

Figure 5.7 Conduction

60
Temperature
5
• Convection. Air heated by conduction will be less dense and will therefore rise. This will
produce up currents called thermals or convection currents. These will take the warm air
to higher levels in the troposphere. This and terrestrial radiation are the two main processes
heating the troposphere.

Figure 5.8 Convection Currents

• Condensation. As the air is lifted it will cool by the adiabatic process and the water vapour
in the air will condense out as visible droplets forming cloud. As this occurs latent heat will
be released by the water vapour and this will add to the heating of the troposphere.

Figure 5.9 Latent Heat being released through Condensation

61
5 Temperature

Figure 5.10 Heat Processes in the Atmosphere

Temperature Variation with Height

We have seen that although our source of heat
is the sun, because of the troposphere’s virtual
transparency to insolation, it is in fact heated
(by long wave IR) from the surface upwards.

Thus as we move further and further from the

surface we would expect the heating effects to
diminish.

Lapse Rate
The rate at which temperature falls with an
increase in height is called the Lapse Rate.
Figure 5.11 Temperature Variation with Height
An ideal uniform atmosphere would show a
constant lapse rate rather like the ISA, which is
0.65°C/100 m (1.98°C (2°) per 1000 ft.)

Isotherm
If temperature remains constant with height it is called an isothermal layer.

62
Temperature
5
Inversions
Where the temperature increases with an increase in height, then we have what is called an
inversion. We have already seen that at night we can expect an inversion above the surface, but
this can occur in many different ways.

Radiation, on a night of clear skies, will also result in a temperature inversion above the surface.
This is called a Radiation Inversion.

When we look at cloud formation, we shall see that because of turbulence in the layer closest to
the surface we can have an inversion at a height of 2 or 3 thousand feet.

Quite often, at the tropopause instead of the temperature remaining constant, it may show a
slight rise for a few thousand feet.

At the higher levels of the stratosphere, temperature will show an increase with height (in ISA from 20
km to 32 km the temperature increases at 1°C per km).

In a high pressure system, air descends at the centre. As the air descends it will be heated
adiabatically (more of this later) and will be warmer than the air at a lower level. This is called a
Subsidence Inversion.

Figure 5.12 Inversions

63
5 Temperature

Surface Temperature
The surface air temperature measured in a Stevenson screen is subject to considerable variations:
Latitude Effect, Seasonal Effect, Diurnal Variation and multiple effects due to cloud and wind.

The Angular Elevation of the Sun

• Latitude Effect. At the Equator only a small area is heated by the sun’s radiation and
therefore will be subject to the greatest heat/unit area. At the poles the sun’s rays will cover
a larger area and there will be the least heat/unit area.

• The actual distance of polar regions from

the sun is only fractionally more than that
from the Equator, and the effect may be
ignored.

• Seasonal Effect. The Vernal (Spring) and

autumnal equinoxes occur about 21 March
and 21 September respectively. Then
the sun is directly over the Equator and
maximum heating will occur there. About
21 June the sun reaches its most northerly
latitude (Summer Solstice for the Northern
Figure 5.13 The Effect of Latitude
Hemisphere) and maximum heating will
occur in the Northern Hemisphere. But the
land (and sea) continues to heat up and
maximum temperatures are found around
late July or early August in temperate
latitudes. Around 21 December the sun
reaches its most southerly latitude (Winter
Solstice for the Northern Hemisphere) and
minimum heating occurs. But the land
(and sea) continues to cool down and
minimum temperatures are experienced
around late January or early February in
temperate latitudes.

Figure 5.14 The Seasonal Effect

Diurnal Variation - (Note: This Assumes Clear Skies and Light Winds and No Change in Air Mass)
• The sun is at its highest elevation at noon, but for two to three hours after this time, the
earth is receiving more solar radiation than it is giving up as terrestrial radiation. A balance
between incoming and outgoing radiation is reached on average at 1500 local time when
maximum temperatures can be expected.

Note: the actual time of maximum temperature varies with latitude and time of year, earlier in winter
later in summer, but 1500 local time is a good average for temperate latitudes.

64
Temperature
5
• From 15:00 onwards, the temperature falls continuously until a little after sunrise. The
lowest temperature occurs at about sunrise plus 30 minutes when once again we get a
balance between incoming and outgoing radiation.

• Diurnal Variation (DV) is greatest with clear skies and little wind. DV varies with a number
of factors, but in temperate latitudes is about +/- 6 degrees about the mean.

Figure 5.15 Diurnal Variation

• Cloud cover by day. By day some of the solar radiation is reflected back by the cloud tops
and maximum temperature (T Max) is reduced.

Figure 5.16 Cloud Cover by Day

65
5 Temperature

• Cloud cover by night. By night terrestrial radiation is absorbed and radiated back to the
earth’s surface from the clouds. T min is increased.

Figure 5.17 Cloud Cover by Night

• Effect of wind by day. By day wind will cause turbulent mixing of the warm air at the
surface with cold air above, reducing T max. Wind will also reduce the time the air is in
contact with the warm ground.

Figure 5.18 The Effect of Wind by Day

66
Temperature
5
• Effect of wind by night. By night there will normally be an inversion above the surface and
wind will cause cold air to be turbulently mixed with warm air above thus increasing T min.

Figure 5.19 The Effect of Wind by Night

In summary, wind or cloud cover will cause T max to be reduced and T min to be increased.
Therefore DV will be reduced.

• DV over sea. As the Specific Heat (SH) of water is unity, compared to other substances
whose SH is much less, and as the temperature rise is inversely proportional to the Specific
Heat, the diurnal temperature variation over the sea is small, generally less than 1°C.

Nature of the Surface

• Sea. The sea takes a long time to heat (and cool) and as we have seen has a very small DV.

Figure 5.20 Diurnal Variation Over the Sea

67
5 Temperature

The difference in DV values between land and sea is the cause of sea breezes. The minimal
DV of sea temperature is the reason why the most common form of fog, radiation fog,
never forms over the sea.

When the angular elevation of the sun is low, much solar radiation is reflected back to the
atmosphere.

• Land. Bare rock, sand, dry soil, tarred roads and concrete runways attain a higher temperature
by insolation than woods, lakes, grasslands and wet soil.

The temperature difference between air above concrete runways and adjacent grass can
be as much as 4 degrees. Higher temperature surfaces provide strong up currents called
thermals or convection currents.

Figure 5.21 July Average Temperatures

68
Temperature
5
In Figure 5.21 we may note that the sea temperature remains “cool” in July in the Northern
Hemisphere but the desert land areas of Africa and neighbouring Asia get very warm. Air
over snow covered surfaces is very cold. Some 80% of solar radiation is reflected from
snow surfaces.

Snow does not prevent the earth from radiating its heat. Hence surface air temperatures
over snow will become colder day by day. Temperatures in Siberia can reach -72°C after a long
cold winter. This very cold air results in high density and the development of anticyclones.

Location
• OverLand. Air in a valley will tend to be more static than air in an exposed position. Therefore
by night the air is in contact with the ground for a longer time and the air temperature is
lower than on a hill. Additionally, in a valley, cold air tends to sink from the hills above at
night, again causing lower temperatures. It is for these reasons that mist and fog tend to
form firstly in valleys.

Figure 5.22 Location Effect

• Over Oceans. The fact that seas tend to have a very small DV of temperature has been
stated above. On a wide scale this means that in winter the sea is warmer than the land and
thus there is a widespread movement of air from land to sea (monsoon effect). There is an
opposite tendency in summer.

Figure 5.23 Relative Airflow in Winter

69
5 Temperature

Origin of Air Supply

Air tends to retain its temperature and humidity for a considerable time, therefore air from
high latitudes will bring lower temperatures to UK. A southerly wind, however, will normally
provide an increase in temperature.

Figure 5.24 Origin of Air Supply

70
Questions
5
Questions
1. The measurement of surface temperature is made:

a. at ground level
b. at approximately 10 metres from ground level
c. at approximately 4 feet above ground level
d. at approximately 4 metres above ground level

2. The purpose of a “Stevenson screen” is to:

a. maintain a moist atmosphere so that the wet bulb thermometer can function
correctly
b. prevent the mercury freezing in the low winter temperatures
c. protect the thermometer from wind, weather and from direct sunshine
d. keep the wet and dry bulb thermometers away from surface extremes of
temperature

3. If temperature remains constant with an increase in altitude there is:

a. an inversion
b. an inversion aloft
c. uniform lapse rate
d. an isothermal layer

4. The surface of the earth is heated by:

a. convection
b. conduction
c. long wave solar radiation
d. short wave solar radiation

5. Cloud cover will reduce diurnal variation of temperature because:

a. incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial

radiation is reflected back to earth
b. incoming solar radiation is re-radiated back to space and atmospheric heating
by convection will stop at the level of the cloud layer
c. the cloud stops the sun’s rays getting through to the earth and also reduces
outgoing conduction
d. incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial
radiation is re-radiated from the cloud layer back to the surface

6. Diurnal variation of the surface temperature will:

a. be unaffected by a change of wind speed

b. decrease as wind speed increases
c. increase as wind speed increases
d. be at a minimum in calm conditions

71
5 Questions

7. Which of the following surfaces is likely to produce a higher than average diurnal
variation of temperature:

a. rock or concrete
b. water
c. snow
d. vegetation

8. Most accurate temperatures above ground level are obtained by:

a. tephigram
b. aircraft reports
c. temperature probe
d. radiosonde

9. The method by which energy is transferred from one body to another by contact is
called:

a. radiation
b. convection
c. conduction
d. latent heat

10. The diurnal variation of temperature is:

a. greater over the sea than overland

b. less over desert areas then over temperate grassland
c. reduced anywhere by the presence of cloud
d. increased anywhere as wind speed increases

11. The troposphere is heated largely by:

a. absorption of the sun’s short wave radiation

b. radiation of heat from cloud tops and the earth’s surface
c. absorption by ozone of the sun’s short wave radiation
d. conduction from the surface, convection and the release of latent heat

12. An inversion is one in which:

a. there is no horizontal gradient of temperature

b. there is no change of temperature with height
c. there is an increase of temperature as height increases
d. there is a decrease of temperature as height increases

13. The sun gives out________ amount of energy with _________ wavelengths.
The earth gives out relatively___________ amounts of energy with
relatively___________ wavelengths:

a. large, large, small, small

b. small, small, large, large
c. large, large, small, large
d. large, small, small, large

72
Questions
5
14. With a clear night sky, the temperature change with height by early morning is
most likely to show:

a. a steady lapse rate averaging 2°C per 1000 ft

b. a stable lapse rate of 1°C per 1000 ft
c. an inversion above the surface with an isothermal layer above
d. an inversion from near the surface and a 2°C per 1000 ft lapse rate above

15. Over continents and oceans, the relative temperature conditions are:

a. warmer in winter over land, colder in summer over sea

b. colder in winter over land, warmer in winter over sea
c. cold in winter over land and sea
d. warmer in summer over land and sea

73
5 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c c d d d b a d c c d c
13 14 15
d d b

74
Chapter

6
Humidity

Definition of Latent Heat. . . 77

Evaporation . . . 77
Saturation . . . 77
Condensation . . . 77
Freezing . . . 78
Melting 78
Sublimation . . . 78
Humidity Measurement 78
Bergeron Theory . . . 79
Measurement of Humidity . . . 81
Dry-bulb and Wet-bulb Hygrometer or Psychrometer . . . 81
Dew Point Temperature . . . 81
Diurnal Variation of Humidity . . . 82
Questions . . . 83
Answers . . . 86

75
6 Humidity

76
Humidity
6
Definition of Latent Heat
The latent heat of a substance is the heat absorbed or released without change of temperature
when the substance changes state. Latent heat differs according to the state of the substance.
When ice changes to water or water vapour, or water changes to water vapour, latent heat is
absorbed.

When water vapour changes to water or ice, or water changes to ice, latent heat is released.

Evaporation
Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to vapour. Latent heat is absorbed.

Evaporation can occur at any temperature. For a particular temperature there is a particular
amount of water per unit volume that the air can hold. When this maximum is reached,
evaporation will cease.

Figure 6.1 The Change of State from Solid to Liquid to Gas and Back Again.

Saturation
Air becomes saturated by adding more water vapour to it. Alternatively, as warm air can hold
more water vapour than cold, saturation can be achieved by cooling the air.

Air is saturated if it contains the maximum amount of water vapour that it can hold at that
temperature. If saturated air is cooled, condensation will occur.

Condensation
Condensation is the change of state from vapour to liquid. Latent heat is released.
Condensation causes cloud and fog to form. Condensation will require minute impurities or
particles called hygroscopic or condensation nuclei; these are usually present in abundance in the
troposphere.

77
6 Humidity

Freezing
If the water droplet is cooled below zero, then it may change state again to ice. The process
is called freezing. Freezing requires the presence of freezing nuclei; these are less common
in the troposphere than condensation nuclei, so it is possible to have water droplets in the
atmosphere with temperatures below 0°C. These are known as supercooled water droplets
and give us the icing hazard discussed in Chapter 16.

Melting
The opposite change of state, from solid to liquid, is called melting. (There is no superfrozen state).

Sublimation
Sublimation is the change of state directly from water vapour to ice without water droplets being
formed. Latent heat is released. This process is also known as deposition.

The change of state from ice directly to water vapour is also called sublimation.

Humidity Measurement
• Absolute Humidity is the weight of water vapour in unit volume of air. Absolute Humidity
is usually expressed in g/m3 .

• Humidity Mixing Ratio (HMR) is the weight of water vapour contained in unit mass of dry
air. The Humidity Mixing Ratio is usually expressed in g/kg. In unsaturated air, HMR remains
constant during ascent while temperature and pressure decreases.

• Saturation Mixing Ratio (SMR) is the maximum amount of water vapour a unit mass of dry
air can hold at a specified temperature.

• Relative Humidity (RH).

The ratio HMR

SMR × 100%
or more simply, the amount of water vapour present in a volume of air divided by the
maximum amount of water vapour which that volume could hold at that temperature
expressed as a percentage.

RH 100% = SATURATION

78
Humidity
6

Figure 6.2 The Amount of Water Vapour the Air can Hold when Saturated at Different Temperatures

Bergeron Theory
This is more accurately the (Wegener)-Bergeron-Findeissen theory, named after the 3 scientists
who discovered the relationship. Figure 6.3, next page, shows the partial pressure of water
vapour at saturation for temperatures from -30°C to +40°C. As we already know, the maximum
amount of water vapour the air can hold and hence the partial water vapour pressure at
saturation decreases as temperature decreases.

The small sub-diagram shows that at temperatures below 0°C the partial pressure at saturation
for the formation of water is greater than the partial pressure for the formation of ice. This
means that the air becomes saturated for the formation of ice before it becomes saturated
for the formation of water. In other words at temperatures below zero the water vapour will
go directly to the solid state without first going through the liquid state (the converse also
applies). This may be stated as: “the saturation vapour pressure over water is greater than
over ice”.

79
6 Humidity

Figure 6.3

The table shows the same effect in terms of relative humidity for water and ice, for example, at
-10°C when the air is saturated for the formation of ice the relative humidity for water is 91%.
The effect of this is that when supercooled water droplets exist (at temperatures below 0°C),
the water droplets will evaporate saturating the air (for the formation of ice) and the water
vapour will now sublime out as ice. This effect is important in the formation of precipitation in
clouds when the temperature is below 0°C and in the formation of fog.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT SATURATION FOR ICE

Temperature RH for water RH for ice
0°C 100% 100%
-05°C 95% 100%
-10°C 91% 100%
-15°C 87% 100%
-20°C 83% 100%

80
Humidity
6
Measurement of Humidity
Atmospheric humidity is measured using a dry bulb and wet bulb hygrometer or psychrometer
or an electrical hygrometer. The dry bulb and wet bulb hygrometer or psychrometer comprises
two thermometers. The dry bulb thermometer gives the ambient temperature. The wet bulb
thermometer has, around its bulb, a muslin cloth the other end of which is in a reservoir of
distilled water. The water rises up the muslin and evaporates drawing heat from the bulb and
hence reducing its temperature. So the wet bulb thermometer gives the lowest temperature to
which the air can be cooled by the evaporation of water. The rate at which the water evaporates
depends on the relative humidity. With high relative humidity the rate of evaporation will
be slow so the wet bulb temperature will be relatively high. Conversely if the air is dry the
evaporation will be rapid and the wet bulb temperature will be much lower than the dry bulb
temperature.

Dry-bulb and Wet-bulb Hygrometer or Psychrometer

• If air is dry, water will evaporate from the muslin covering the wet bulb and latent heat will
lower the temperature.

• If air is saturated, no evaporation will occur and thermometers will read the same.

• Dew point, relative humidity and HMR are read from tables or slide rule by entering with
the two temperatures obtained.

Figure 6.4 Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb Hygrometer or Psychrometer

Dew Point Temperature

Dew point (DP) is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure for
saturation to occur.
Note that the dew point temperature is not the same as the wet bulb temperature
(except at saturation).
The dew point has a lapse rate of 0.5°C/1000 ft
Wet bulb = dry bulb (= dew point) - 100% RH (saturation)

81
6 Humidity

Diurnal Variation of Humidity

By day, as the temperature increases, RH will decrease because the maximum amount of water
vapour air can hold increases as the temperature rises.

After 1500 hrs, the temperature will start to fall and the maximum amount of water vapour the air
can hold will fall and thus the RH will increase. The higher RH at night is the reason for the
formation of mist and fog after dark in autumn and winter.

Figure 6.5 Diurnal Variation of Humidity

RH is maximum approximately 30 minutes after sunrise when the temperature is minimum.

Figure 6.6 shows a graph of relative humidity at RAF Waddington over a number of years. The
maximum and minimum times and the sinusoidal curve confirm Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.6

By definition:
Saturated Air: RH=100%
Dry Air: RH<100%
E.g. RH=99.9% - Dry Air

82
Questions
6
Questions
1. Throughout the 24 hours of a day the Relative Humidity can be expected to:

a. increase during the day and decrease at night

b. stay reasonably constant throughout the 24 hours
c. reduce during the day and increase at night
d. only change with a change of air mass

2. During a night with a clear sky, surface temperature will ____________ RH

will______________ and dew point will___________.

a. fall, rise, rise

b. rise, rise, fall
c. fall, rise, remain the same
d. fall, fall, remain the same

3. A change of state directly from a solid to a vapour or vice versa is:

a. insolation
b. condensation
c. evaporation
d. sublimation

4. The instrument used for measuring the humidity of air is a:

a. hydrometer
b. hygrometer
c. wet bulb thermometer
d. hygroscope

5. The process of change of state from a gas to a liquid is:

a. evaporation in which latent heat is absorbed

b. evaporation in which latent heat is released
c. condensation in which latent heat is absorbed
d. condensation in which latent heat is released

6. The process of change of state from a liquid to a gas is:

a. condensation in which latent heat is released

b. evaporation in which latent heat is released
c. condensation in which latent heat is absorbed
d. evaporation in which latent heat is absorbed

7. Air is classified as dry or saturated according to its relative humidity. If the relative
humidity were 95% the air would be classified as:

a. conditionally saturated
b. partially saturated
c. saturated
d. dry

83
6 Questions

8. On a wet bulb thermometer in an unsaturated atmosphere there will be a

reduction of temperature below that of the dry bulb thermometer because:

a. heat is absorbed during the process of condensation

b. heat is released during the process of condensation
c. heat is absorbed by the thermometer during the process of evaporation
d. heat is released from the thermometer during the process of evaporation

9. Relative humidity is:

a. air temperature over wet bulb temperature × 100

b. air temperature over dew point temperature × 100
c. the actual amount of water vapour in a sample of air over the maximum
amount of water vapour that the sample can contain × 100
d. the maximum amount of water vapour that a sample of air can contain over
the actual amount of water vapour the sample does contain × 100

10. Absolute humidity is:

a. the number of water droplets in a given quantity of air

b. the amount of water vapour that a given quantity of air holds
c. the maximum amount of water vapour that a given quantity of air can hold
d. the maximum number of water droplets that a given quantity of air can hold

11. Wet bulb temperature would normally be lower than the dry bulb temperature
because:

a. condensation causes a release of latent heat

b. evaporation causes cooling
c. latent heat is absorbed by the bulb thermometer
d. of condensation on the muslin wick of the bulb

12. The wet bulb temperature:

a. is measured using a hydrometer

b. is the minimum temperature to which a thermometer bulb can be cooled by
the evaporation of water
c. measures the dew point of the air
d. is the minimum temperature reached by the surface of the earth as measured
by a thermometer placed 1.2 metres above the ground

13. Which one of the following statements relating to atmospheric humidity is correct?

a. If the air temperature falls then the absolute humidity must increase
b. The absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour contained in unit volume of
air
c. The diurnal variation of dew point temperature is greatest when skies are
clear at night
d. The dew point temperature is the temperature indicated by the wet bulb
thermometer

84
Questions
6
14. When condensation takes place, the higher the temperature, the __________the
amount of latent heat___________:

a. lesser; released
b. greater; absorbed
c. greater; released
d. lesser; absorbed

15. When water vapour changes to ice:

a. latent heat is absorbed

b. specific heat is released
c. latent heat is released
d. specific heat is absorbed

85
6 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c c d b d d d d c b b b

13 14 15
b c c

86
Chapter

7
Adiabatics and Stability

Adiabatic Temperature Changes. . . 89

The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate - DALR . . . 89
The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate - SALR . . . 89
Variation of the SALR with Temperature . . . 90
The Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) 90
Stability 90
Absolute Instability . . . 91
Absolute Stability . . . 92
Conditional Instability 93
Neutral Stability . . . 94
Stability Summary. . . 95
Examples. . . 96
Questions . . . 98
Answers . . . .102
Answers to Questions on Page 96 . . . .102

87
7 Adiabatics and Stability

88
Adiabatics and Stability
7
Adiabatic Temperature Changes
An adiabatic temperature change occurs
when a gas is compressed or expanded with
no external exchange of heat.

We can experience this in everyday life. When

we use a manual pump to inflate a bicycle
tyre we observe that the tyre valve gets hot.
The reason for this is that the compression of
the air in the pump raises its temperature and
this heat is transferred to the valve as the air
passes through.

The opposite effect is observed when a carbon

dioxide (CO2) fire extinguisher is discharged. Figure 7.1
The CO2 is under very high pressure in the

cylinder, when the release handle is operated the gas expands rapidly as it exits the cylinder
cooling as it does so. (In fact the expansion is so great that the fall in temperature is such that we
risk frost burns if we hold the horn.)

In each case the temperature has changed because of the expansion or compression of the gas; no
heat has been added from or removed to external sources.

In the atmosphere pressure decreases as altitude increases so if a parcel of air is forced to rise
it will expand as it rises and hence will cool by the adiabatic process. Similarly if a parcel of
air is forced to descend it will become compressed and hence heat up, again by the adiabatic
process.

The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate - DALR

The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the lapse rate for rising dry (i.e. unsaturated) air. It has a
constant value of 1°C/100 m (about 3°C/1000 ft) as illustrated in Figure 7.2.

The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate - SALR

Saturated air, when forced to rise will also cool, but as it cools condensation will take place,
releasing latent heat which slows the rate at which the air cools. The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse
Rate (SALR) is the lapse rate for rising air which is saturated (RH 100%) and has an average value
in temperate latitudes near the ground of 0.6°C/100 m (1.8°C/1000 ft), as seen in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3

89
7 Adiabatics and Stability

Variation of the SALR with Temperature

The amount of water vapour the air can hold is directly proportional to temperature. At high
temperatures the air can hold large amounts of water vapour so that when it cools a much
greater amount condenses releasing a lot of latent heat thus slowing the cooling process even
more. Conversely, at low temperature the air holds a relatively small amount of water vapour, so
little latent heat is released to slow the rate of cooling.

Hence the SALR increases as latitude and/or altitude increase, tending towards DALR at high
altitude and high latitude.

The difference between DALR and SALR is shown in Figure 7.4.

A comparison between SALRs at different latitudes is shown below.

Zone DALR TEMP SALR

°C / 100 m °C / 100 m
Polar Low Level; High Alt All 1 Cold >0.6
Latitudes

Mid Latitudes Low Level 1 Med 0.6

Equatorial Latitudes Low Level 1 Warm <0.6

Figure 7.4 SALR Differences

The Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)

The ELR is the actual temperature profile of the troposphere
as measured by radiosonde ascents. It varies with time and
position.

Figure 7.5 Variable ELR

Stability
Stability can be defined as being resistance to change. When dealing with atmospheric stability
we are looking at what happens to air in vertical motion. If a parcel of air is forced to rise, for
example over a mountain, when it gets to the top of the mountain there are 3 things it can do.
It may return to its original height, it may continue rising or it may remain at the height of the
summit. In the first case, in terms of the vertical position, the air is where it started so before
and after are the same so we have a stable situation. In the second case we have continual
change and hence instability. The third situation is a neutral or indifferent case, since the
parcel of air is remaining where it was moved.

Atmospheric stability is determined by comparing the ELR with the DALR and the SALR.

90
Adiabatics and Stability
7
Absolute Instability

Let us imagine a hill, 300 m high. A radiosonde ascent gives the ELR over the first few hundred
metres as 1.2°C/100 m so the environmental temperature at a height of 300 m is +16.4°C (see
diagram).

Figure 7.6

The wind blows a parcel of unsaturated air up

the hill and that air cools adiabatically at rate of
1.0°C/100 m and at 300 m has cooled to 17°C.
This air is now warmer than the environment
and hence less dense so will continue to rise.
This is an unstable situation.
Now the wind blows a parcel of saturated air
up the hill which cools at 0.6°C/100 m, cooling
to a temperature of 18.2°C at 300 m. This air
is also warmer than the environment and will
also continue to rise and is hence unstable.

In this scenario when the ELR is greater than

the DALR, the air is unstable for both dry and Figure 7.7
saturated air. We call this situation absolute
instability.

ELR > DALR: ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY

91
7 Adiabatics and Stability

Absolute Stability
Let us now take the same situation except that the radiosonde ascent shows a lapse rate of
0.4°C/100 m, giving an environmental temperature at 300 m of 18.8°C.

Figure 7.8

Once again the parcel of dry air is blown up the

hill cooling adiabatically to 17°C. This parcel
of air is now cooler and therefore denser than
the environment and will now descend on the
opposite side of the hill to its starting position.
Now we have a stable situation.

The saturated air as it is blown up the hill will

cool to 18.2°C and it too will be colder than
the environment and will roll down the other
side of the hill.

This time we have stable conditions for both

dry and saturated air which we term absolute Figure 7.9
stability.

ELR < SALR: ABSOLUTE STABILITY

92
Adiabatics and Stability
7
Conditional Instability

Now we will look at what happens when the radiosonde ascent shows an average lapse rate of
0.8°C/100 m over the first few hundred metres giving an environmental temperature of 17.6°C at
a height of 300 m.

Figure 7.10

The parcel of dry air is blown up the hill and

cools as before to 17°C. This air is now colder
than the environment and will descend on
the other side of the hill, the stable condition.

The saturated air will cool to 18.2°C as it is

blown up the hill. Now the saturated air
is warmer than the environment and will
continue to rise, the unstable condition.

The stability of the air is now dependent on

whether the air is saturated or unsaturated.
This state is known as conditional instability,
where the atmosphere is stable for Figure 7.11
unsaturated (dry) air and unstable for
saturated air.

DALR > ELR >SALR: CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY

Note: The term ‘conditional stability’ is not a meteorological term and, if seen in the answer to an
examination question, can be confidently deleted as an incorrect answer.
93
7 Adiabatics and Stability

Neutral Stability
If the ELR is the same as the DALR then the temperature at 300 m will be 17°C.

Figure 7.12

The unsaturated air blown up the hill will cool to 17°C as it rises. The uplifted air now has the
same temperature and hence density as the environment, so it will now remain at 300 m. This
situation is known as neutral (or indifferent) stability for unsaturated (dry) air.

A similar argument holds for saturated air, however this is less likely since the value of the SALR is a
function of both temperature and pressure and is more complex.

ELR = DALR: NEUTRAL STABILITY, for unsaturated (dry) air

(ELR = SALR: NEUTRAL STABILITY, for saturated air)

94
Adiabatics and Stability
7
Stability Summary

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELR AND THE DALR AND SALR DETERMINES STABILITY When

ELR < SALR we have absolute stability.

Stable Weather: Clear skies

Moderate to poor visibility

Light turbulence (except at any inversion and in mountain waves - see

chapter on turbulence)

OR

Stratiform cloud

Possibly fog, especially in winter

Continuous or intermittent light precipitation

• The clouds which form in

stable air tend to be small
in vertical extent and large
in horizontal extent - layer
clouds. Layer clouds may
include stratocumulus
as shown in Figure 7.13.
which is identified by
its well defined shape,
whereas stratus is ill
defined in shape but can
cover equally large areas.

Figure 7.13 Stratocumulus

95
7 Adiabatics and Stability

When ELR > DALR we have absolute instability.

Unstable Weather: Cumuliform clouds

Moderate to heavy showers

Potential for moderate to heavy precipitation

Good visibility except in showers

• The clouds which form in unstable

air tend to be large in vertical
extent and small in horizontal
extent - heap clouds.

Figure 7.14 Cumulus of moderate to strong vertical development

Examples
Assuming a constant lapse rate in the layer between 2000 ft and 5000 ft and ignoring the
effects of pressure change, what is the state of stability when:
TEMP AT TEMP AT RH STABILITY
2000’ 5000’ STATE
1 +7° +1° 60%
2 +15° +9° 100%
3 +12° +9° 100%
4 +16° +2° 75%
5 +11° +5° 100%
6 +11° +8° 100%
7 0° -9° 88%
8 +11° +4° 50%
9 +15° +3° 98%
10 +5° 0° 100%
11 +10° +10° 90%
12 +10° +15° 100%

What else is unusual about the environment with regard to questions 11 and 12?

Answers on page 102.

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Adiabatics and Stability
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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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7 Questions

Questions
1. If the ELR is 0.65°C / 100 m, the layer is:

a. atmosphere is conditionally stable

b. atmosphere is stable
c. atmosphere is unstable
d. atmosphere is stable when dry

2. ELR is 1°C / 100 m, the layer is:

a. neutral when dry

b. absolute stability
c. absolute instability
d. conditional stability

3. Why does air cool as it rises?

a It expands
b. It contracts
c. The air is colder at higher latitudes
d. The air is colder at higher altitudes

4. From which of the following can the stability of the atmosphere be determined?

a. Surface pressure
b. Surface temperature
c. DALR
d. ELR

5. When the upper part of a layer of warm air is advected:

a. Stability increases within the layer

b. Stability decreases within the layer
c. Wind speed will always decrease with increase in height in the Northern
Hemisphere
d. Wind will back with increase in height in the Northern Hemisphere

6. The temperature at the surface is 15°C, the temperature at 1000 m is 13°C.

The atmosphere is:

a. unstable
b. conditionally unstable
c. stable
d. cannot tell

7. Which of the following gives conditionally unstable conditions?

a. 1°C / 100 m
b. 0.65°C / 100 m
c. 0.49°C / 100 m
d. None of the above

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Questions
7
8. A mass of unsaturated air is forced to rise till just under the condensation level. It
then settles back to its original position. What happens to the temperature?

a. Temp. is greater than before

b. Temp. stays the same
c. Temp. is less than before
d. It depends on QFE

9. What happens to the stability of the atmosphere in an inversion? (Temp increasing

with height)

a. Absolutely stable
b. Unstable
c. Conditionally stable
d. Conditionally unstable

10. What happens to stability of the atmosphere in an isothermal layer? (Temp

constant with height)

a. Absolutely stable
b. Unstable
c. Conditionally stable
d. Conditionally unstable

11. What is the effect of a strong low level inversion?

a. Good visibility
b. Calm conditions
c. Turbulence
d. Unstable conditions

12. A layer of air can be:

a. conditional; unstable when unsaturated and stable when saturated

b. conditional; unstable when saturated and stable when unsaturated
c. neutrally stable when saturated and unstable when unsaturated
d. all of the above

13. What happens to the temperature of a saturated air mass when forced to descend?

a. It heats up more than dry because of expansion

b. It heats up less than dry because of evaporation
c. It heats up more than dry because of sublimation
d. It heats up less than dry because of latent heat released during condensation

14. In still air a lapse rate of 1.2°C / 100 m refers to:

a. DALR
b. SALR
c. ELR
d. ALR

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7 Questions

15. What happens to the temperature of a saturated air mass when descending?

a. It heats up more than dry because of expansion

b. It heats up less than dry because of evaporation
c. It heats up more than dry because of compression
d. It heats up less than dry because of latent heat released during condensation

16. The DALR is:

a. variable with time

b. fixed
c. variable with latitude
d. variable with temperature

17. An environment cooling at more than 1°C / 100 m is said to be:

a. conditionally stable
b. conditionally unstable
c. unstable
d. stable

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Questions
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101
7 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
d a a d a c b b a a c b
13 14 15 16 17
b c b b c

Answers to Questions on Page 96

Question Answer
1. Stable
2. Unstable
3. Stable
4. Unstable
5. Unstable
6. Stable
7. Neutral
8. Stable
9. Unstable
10. Stable
11. Stable
(isothermal)
12. Stable (inversion)

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