Psychiatry

Interpersonal and Biological Processes

ISSN: 0033-2747 (Print) 1943-281X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/upsy20

The Germinal Cell of Freud’s Psychoanalytic

Psychology and Therapy

Paul Bergman

To cite this article: Paul Bergman (1949) The Germinal Cell of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Psychology
and Therapy, Psychiatry, 12:3, 265-278, DOI: 10.1080/00332747.1949.11022739

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1949.11022739

Published online: 11 Nov 2016.

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The Germinal Cell of Freud's Psychoanalytic
Psychology and Therapy
Paul Bergman *

T HERE ARE MANY WAYS in which a student may try to assimilate and under-
stand the work of a genius. He may acquaint himself with all the details of his
work and allow the impressions to sink into his own mind. He then trusts that an
unconscious process of selection and organization will take place, which will favor
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those elements which are objectively significant and can become meaningful to him
subjectively. Or he may engage in the particular type of activity or follow the way of
life that the great creative person traced and learn to understand by doing. Another
way consists in attempting to find out whether there was an original experience, or
observation, or concept, that sent the creative mind out on its way, illuminating, as
it were, the world with the light gained at that one focal point. If there was an ex-.
perience of this kind, the attempt to reconstruct the course of the genius may result
in the student's arranging as logical steps and interrelationships what historically
may have been a vaguely conscious, tortuous, and sometimes inconsistent process.
The greatness of a speculative system be that a scientist is considered great only
may consist precisely in its organic unity if his thinking shows that particular or-
and self-consistency, while at the same ganic unity and power which stem from
time it embraces, reveals, or. _explains the passionate-and at least to some de-
significant aspects of the real world. In gree successful-pursuit of truth on one
philosophy, for example, Plato's thinking single path. This is the way that the
can be understood as developing from the genius of a Darwin, a Pasteur, an Ein-
core of the experience of bliss that the stein is perceived. I believe that Freud
philosopher must have felt when conceiv- belongs to the same group.
ing of a world of ideas as immovable and The germinal cell of Freud's system,
more real than the changing world of as I see it, is an observation which Freud
perception. Outstanding thinkers in the made repeatedly when he approached the
earlier Christian tradition start with the zenith of his life. Before that time he had
conviction of the sinfulness of human been a good research man, a successful
nature and weave widespread nets of doctor, no doubt a most attractive and
thought around and from this source. The cultured gentleman. But from the time
germinal cell of Rousseau's thinking may that the germinal observation fell into
have been the feeling of the goodness of his rich mind, where affinities of unusual
nature and the depravity inflicted upon potential energy lay dormant, the system
it by human institutions and civilization of psychoanalysis developed.
in general. "As life closes, all a man has This germinal observation, I believe, at
done seems like one cry or sentence," first consisted of several parts that can be
wrote William James. 1 distinguished from each other, and that
The thinking of great scientists seems in fact came to Freud at different times
to grow from a similar focal point. It may but grew in his mind into a complex and
1 Quoted by F. O. Mathiessen in ,The James Family;
powerful unity. First, Freud was im-
New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1947; p. 133. pressed by the fact that gaps in a per-
• Ph.D. Univ. of Vienna 20; M.A. Univ. of Indiana 43; Senior Psychologist, Research Department, The
MennInger Foundat10n, Topeka 43-. Diplorna~e American DOal:'<1 Of Examiners 1n prOfeSS10nai P$:\f¢,t).Ol()!tV';
Associate Member 'l'opeka Psyehoa~lytlc SOciety. J!'or blbl1ography, see lteference LIsts sect10n of this issue.
[265 ]
266 PAUL BERGMAN

son's (patient's) memory could be filled the "mental apparatus," that is to say,
under certain conditions, particularly un- of the scientific ideal of a machine model
der hypnosis. Second, he became im- that would explain how the human mind
pressed by the fact that certain symptoms dealt with incoming stimuli. The second,
and tensions disappeared when these gaps not quite as intensive an interest, was
of memory were filled. Finally, he ob- in relaton to therapy: how to help people
served that the previously lost memories in trouble, on condition that it could be
very frequently contained scenes in which done on the basis of correct understand-
the patients had struggled intensely ing of the way their mental apparatus
against their own sexual impulses. worked. To Freud it was, from this time
The germinal observation, as it built on, out of the question to be concerned
itself in Freud's mind into a nucleus of with the therapeutic possibilities to the
unforeseen energy and power of develop- exclusion of his understanding of the
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ment, can be formulated thus: For a mental apparatus.

variety of reasons a person may experi- That therapy to Freud was quite defi-
ence intense conflict concerning a sexual nitely of secondary importance can be
impulse. The tension or displeasure at seen from many a passage in his writings.
this moment may be so overwhelming that Most clearly it is reflected in this one: "I
the person eliminates the experience from have told you that psycho-analysis began
the context of his memory. The memory as a therapeutic procedure, but it is not
of the person in fact shows a gap--or a in that light that I wanted to recommend
patently wrong substitute-for this point it to your interest, but because of the
or period of time, which seems to protect truths it contains, because of the informa-
the person from re-experiencing the in- tion it gives us about that which is of the
tense (traumatic) conflict. Yet the or- greatest importance to mankind, namely
ganism from then on, or soon afterwards, his own nature, and because of the con-
shows serious signs of malfunctioning nections it has shown to exist between the
(symptoms). These symptoms can be most various of his activities." 2
dissolved when the patient can be made The germinal observation had shown
to remember what really happened and how a human being, without being aware
how he felt when it happened. The ex- of it, can be under the influence of a
cluded and walled-off part of the patient's part of his own past. A piece of the pres-
past is thus reintegrated. The current of ent could be understood if a piece of the
life is freed of a more or less strangling past was elucidated. A young girl's hal-
obstacle. lucination of cigar smell could, for ex-
How should this observation be evalu- ample, be traced to the repressed memory
ated? Is it just a curious item that one of a moment when the girl struggled
would have to keep in mind when study- against her own sexual wishes aroused by
ing the more general problem of how the kiss of a cigar-smoking man. '
people change-for the worse, and for the Under the impression of such observa-
better~and would one likely find a great tions, Freud conceived the task of his
many other ways by which people change psychology to be the genesis of all phe-
-for the worse, and for the better? Or nomena of the human mind. First, ob-
did this observation contain an element viously, he attempted to understand in
basic to a great variety of changes in this way the abnormal phenomena. But,
people that at first sight may look very as he was unable to find a clear and
different? Freud, possibly without ever convincing demarcation between normal
allowing this question much weight, en- and abnormal phenomena in the border-
gaged himself for the second alternative. region of psychopathology in which he
Two strong interests, waiting in his worked, he saw the possibility that one
mind, took hold of the germinal observa- set of laws might account for both nor-
tion. The foremost interest was the de-
~ Fl'('url, Ncw' rntronuctnry I,ccturell 011 J'llycho-
::lire Lu au! ve at a hypothetIcal picture of analysis; New York, W. W. Norton Co., 1933; p. 214 f.
GERMINAL CELL OF FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY 267

mal and abnormal phenomena. In a most In many cases investigated by Freud

fruitful step he turned to an application during the eaI'ly years of his system-build-
'of the genetic principle to all phenomena ing activities, childhood memories pro-
.of the mind. ,How does love for the par- duced by patients had to be recognized
ents, or love in general, or any affect or as false and impossible because of exter-
attitude in general come about? He ex- nal evidence or internal inconsistency.
pected the answers to come from investi- When Freud became aware of this fact;
gations of the antecedents of thephe- he thought for a while it closed the way
nomenon. of thinking 'which he had followed since
His genetic psychology was meant to making the germinal observation. "At
be at the same time a causal psychology. that time I would gladly have given up
The germinal observation contains the the whole thing. . . . Perhaps I perse-
past not only as predecessor of the pres- vered only because I had no choice and
could not then begin again at anything
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ent, but also as its cause. The two other

directions in which functional relation- else." 8 But' then he decided that what
ships might be looked for, namely the he had uncovered was memory of fantasy.
present (the structure of the "psycho- This was a significant extension of Freud's
logical field" in a later terminology), and previous understanding of the germinal
the future (a part of the "psychological observation.
field"-the purposes), are less clearly There followed further extensions, even
represented in the germinal observation. more bold and stunning than the first
Freud's thinking, therefore, at first goes one. Certain elements in the adult pa-
almost exclusively the way of causal laws tient's communications-certain fantasies,
in the form of A happened at this time dreams, attitudes, segments of behavior-
because B happened in the past. He re- could not be referred to an earlier mem-
mained throughout his life more inter- ory, of consciously experienced fact or
estedin finding concrete examples of this fantasy. Freud's new conception was that
kind of law than in any of the other types the "Unconscious"-a concept which be-
of psychological laws, be they structural, gan to be regarded as a definite topologi-
purposive, or stimUlus-response laws. cally defined part of the "mental appa-
The search for genetic, causal determi- ratus"-contained elements that were
nation soon led Freud from the near past both determinable as to their content and
to the distant past. There are childhood dynamically' active, but had never been
memories that have the same convincing conscious to the individual. These ele-
relationship to the particulars of a neu- ments could, for example, be "unconscious
rotic symptom as the kiss of the cigar- fantasies" assumed to be generated at all
smoking man had to the subsequent ol- times that a' person lives and acts, with-
factory hallucination in the case of the out his being aware of more than the
young woman patient. Sometimes a chain conscious "surface" of his psychic activi-
of memories seems to lead back from ties. Or they could be fantasies stemming
the present through various periods of from such an early time in the child's
life, finally losing itself in the dim and 'life that no conscious awareness can be
distant past of early childhood. Where assumed to have existed. 4 Or they could
the configuration. of these memories be- be mental contents stemming from a
longing to different ages has constant ele- phylogenetic heritage, a racial uncon-
ments, Freud, following the model of, the scious.5
germinal observation, takes the later ones 8 Freud, "On the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement" in Collected Papers, vol 1, p. 299; Lon-
to be shaped by the earlier ones, and don, Hogarth Press, 1924.
tends to assume the earlier ones are less • This mode of extension is not characteristic of
Freud. himself, but of the school of British psycho-
distorted representations of the same dy- analysts who eonsider it a logical consequence of
namic constellation. Childhood, and par- Freudian assumptions. Freud does not seem to
have' clearly indicated where he would draw the
ticularly early childhood, becomes there- limits of the applicabU1ty of his methodological
tools. .
fore the period of primary interest. • This mode of extension is less characteristic of
268 PAUL BERGMAN

One might well pause at thiS point and impulses underground in many a sensi-
admire the hardly surpassable boldness tive person. Second, the sexual element
and originality of this kind of thinking. appeared where science which suffered a
Freud had .just finished explaining the scotoma"':"'for after all science was also a
reality of a present experience by the still function of the same civilization---did not
dynamically active reality of a past expe- want to see it: namely, in childhood. One
rience. He then proceeded to explain the after another of Freud's patients produced
reality of a present experience by a con- memories that unquestionably showed
struct which at no time had experiential that sexual perceptions and experiences
reality. He then declared this construct~ had taken place long before adolescence-
the Unconscious-to constitute the real the time when the official science of that
psychic reality in relation to which the time allowed for such happenings. Next
phenomena of conscious experience were there were memories in which different
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purely "surface" products of inner per- kinds of organ pleasure seemed to be

ception, with little ability to inform us involved; there was pleasure to be sure,
about psychic reality. This conscious ex- but not of the sexual organ. Freud, when
perience was as little to be trusted as Par- faced with this situation, widened the
menides or Plato had once trusted outer concept of sexuality-"libido"-to include
perception, since they had doubted that a great variety of organ pleasures, out-
it could inform one about the reality of standingly, of course, pleasure of the oral
the physical world. 6 and anal zone. 7 Thus memories that re-
I have so far followed the trends of called the pleasures one had found in
thought by which Freud wove one aspect eating, elimination, fighting, biting, suck-
of the germinal observation, namely the ing, scratching, and many others,were
past surviving and influencing the person by definition regarded as sexual.
without his awareness, into a system of Similar memories were observed in
psychology. Let us see now what he did which no pleasure was recalled. Freud
with the fact that in his observation it assimilated this type of memory in the
was sexual conflict that caused the dis- germinal observation in two different
turbance. Here, for something like thirty ways: First, by assuming that the real
years, Freud used his genius for generali- event back in the past had contained the
zation to elaborate the doctrine of the pleasure element, but that repression
sexual content of the unconscious. First, could hit only the affective aspect of a
of course, quite a few of the uncovered total experience while leaving the mem-
pathogenic memories of his hysteric pa- ory of the actual behavior and happen-
tients of that time were obviously sexual. ings intact. Second, by assuming that
Such memories, and such types of pa- the remembered event, though it may
tients, appeared in later years with de- not have contained any pleasure element
creasing frequency in the analysts' offices. at the time of its happening, points to an
They were possibly products of a civiliza- event further back in the past that is
tion and education that, through rigorous no longer remembered. The remembered
condemnation of sexual impulses and event and the not-remembered Qne would
through their consistent association with at best have everything in common ex-
the vile and contemptible, forced these cept the affective pleasure element, .as-
sumed to have been present in the not-
Freud than of Jung. But Freud, while disapproving remembered earlier event. At worst they
of the wide use of this method by Jung, clearly
accepts its prinCiple and uses it with intense· sub- • It is noteworthy that Freud himself never came
jective conviction, for example, in his last book on to include all organ pleasure in his concept of
Moses and Monotheism (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, sexuality. Othel" psychoanalysts, however, have
1939). made this step that seems consistent with the
• "The unconscious Is the true psychic reality; in progress of Freud's thinking. Thus, for example,
its inner nature it is just as much unknown to us E. H. Erikson includes all pleasure derived from
as the reality of the external world, and it is just use of the motor and sensory functions of the
as Imperfectly communicated to us by the data of organism with sexuality in Freud's sense. "Prob-
consciousness as is the external world by the re- lems of Infancy and Early Childhood" in CyeZo-
ports of our sense-organs." Freud, The Interpreta- pMUl of Medtctne: Surgery and SpecialtUe8; :Phila-
tion. of Dreams; Nllw York, Mucmillan, 1039; p. 562. delphia, Davis, 1989.
GERMINAL CELL OF FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY 269

would at least have in common a mini- mostly sexual wishes, assumed to be in-
mum of configuration of essential ele- herent in the nature of childhood.
ments. This would be the case in the Parapraxes, finally, in a rather close
so-called "screen-memories" with their parallel to dreams and symptoms, are
symbolic representation of the assumed explained as effects of the unconscious
dynamically affective unconscious back- upon the conscious mind. Insofar as the
ground. unconscious in Freud's concept preserves
I have mentioned pathological phenom- the tendencies of the past, one may say
ena (symptoms) on the one hand, and that in parapraxes emotional attitudes
normal phenomena (affects, attitudes) on rooted in the past, incompatible with the
the other as the material to which Freud present purposes of the person, can affect
applied his scheme of explanation. Though the present. They are, by the bright light
I do not intend to go into detail into the of everyday life, momentary eruptions
well-known border zone between these from the depths of the unconscious, mak-
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two fields, where Freud reaped some of ing the person act differently from what
his most important triumphs, I should he had intended, or preventing the act
like to discuss briefly two areas of minor he had intended.
abnormal functioning of the mental appa- Thus far I have described the original
ratus: the dreams and the parapraxes. core of Freud's psychoanalytic psychol-
The germinal cell of Freud's dream psy- ogy, as its creator developed it with a
chology was again closely akin to the dogged logical persistence from the ger-
scheme of the germinal observation: A minal observation. I will now briefly
dream represents usually a "wish" of sex- review the additions which Freud intro-
ual nature stemming from distant child- duced in the course of the years. His own
hood and finding associative links with, experience mainly, plus the criticism of
and more or less distorted expression a hostile world, forced him to add new
through, psychic material belonging to factors to his system. It still represents
the dreamer's present or recent past- a faSCinating spectacle to trace the steps
"day-residues." That is to say, according by which Freud, while opening himself
to the Freudian scheme one may interpret and his thinking to new observations, pre-
a dream similar to the way one interprets served the essential structure which he
a·neurotic symptom. There may be many perceived to be contained in the germinal
layers that have to be gone through, but observation. He widened the system at
the task is not only solvable, but satisfac- two opposite sides, at the side of the
torily solved in principle, when the layer repressed and at the side of the repressing
of unconscious, sexual, childhood wishes forces. Let us examine first what Freud
is reached. These three qualifications added to the side of the repressed forces.
came to stand, for a certain period of Freud had originally conceived of the
Freud's thought, in such close association repressed forces as consisting of sexual
that it seems almost unnecessary to enu- instincts in a narrow sense. Soon he gave
merate them separately. The unconscious a broader meaning to the word, including
at that time represented to Freud the particularly "pregenital" sexuality. He
dynamically, forever active, sexual ten- again expanded the content of his libido
dencies of the distant past. Repressed concept, for the last time as far as he per-
sexual wishes of the immediate or near sonally was concerned,S when he brought
past, such as the germinal observation in the concept of "narcissism." He under-
contained, were now reinterpreted as late stood this concept as meaning all varieties
consequences of primal repressions which of positive interests in all aspects of the
must have taken place in the earliest years own self, physical, mental, and social. In
of life. Thus a conceptual scheme is ready his unique way of, synthesizing, Freud
which receives the endless variety of evolved the concept of the Hnarcissistic"
dream phenomena and reduces them step 8 I havfl mentioned above certain expansions ot
the libido concept hy nthl;'r Pllycho:lnnlyst9. nef~l"
by step to u smull number of imltil'lr.t.l1al, lInca rUlll,III1!.!! 1.
270 PAUL BERGMAN

libido to be the fountainhead of all libid- call the "Id." There, as in the interior
inous development, which he assumed to of a volcano, pressure might surpass
proceed in a sequence of regular, predict- counter-pressure, and result in destructive
able steps to the final level, "genital ma- eruptions.
turity." In this way, he conceived of the Relatively the largest part of Freud's
task of describing phenomena of an psychological thinking during the closing
adult's life stream in terms of the place decades of his life was devoted to the
on the axis of libidinal development to repressing forces of man's personality, as
which the relevant memories of the past seen from the vantage point of the germi-
seemed to refer. Suppose a person wanted nal observation. For years he had been
to have a good library; this could be on satisfied to reaffirm again and again in
the basis of a narcissistic, an oral, an anal, each individual instance the part of re-
or a phallic interest; or it could be "over- pression, while concentrating his interest
determined" by several of these instinc- on the repressed memories, affects, in-
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tual sources. In cases in which the libido stincts. But in the last two decades of
or parts of .it seemed· to be attached to his life he began to be fascinated by the
any stage other than the one of final variety of defenses that he· now thought
genita\ maturity. Freud considered that he was able to differentiate. Freud re-
fixation at that stage, and/or regression mained faithful to the structure of the
from a later stage, had taken place. germinal observation as he saw it. He
In the last period of his thinking Freud held fast to the scheme of thought which
gave up the heroic attempt to which he explained a phenomenon under scrutiny
had clung through several decades of his as a product of historically determined
life. He no longer regarded all repression vicissitude of instinct. But repression
to be in the last analysis repression of now appeared to him to be only one of
sexual, libidinous content. The germinal possible vicissitudes of instinct, though
observation somehow lost its sway over some characteristics of repression went
his mind. Powerful experiences from vari- with a variety of other defenses like pro-
ous sources finally burst· the magic ring. jection, turning against the self, and so
The change of social scene with the ad- on. He learned to distinguish modes of
vent of the First World War may have defense where repression in the original
been paramount among these experiences. sense did not occur at all. The mechanism
However that may be, Freud now, for the of isolation, for example, served the pur-
:first time, after having time and again pose of defepse without forcing the
enlarged the concept of libido, decreased warded-off memory out of consciousness.
it by taking out what had been con- Thus analysis of defenses, and of ego
sidered the libido's sadistic and maso- tendencies in general, gradually emerged
chistic tendencies. In his final instinct into the foreground in Freud's later years.
theory, he gave a distinct and equipotent In the germinal observation the con-
dynamic place to aggression-or to the flict had obviously been between the ego
death instinct to be more exact. and the instinctual impulse. Closer scru-
Yet, even after this change, the basic- tiny of the repressing part of the person-
content quality associated with the germi- ality showed that another conflict was
nal observation remained unaltered. It frequently involved, a conflict between the
was no longer sex alone, but the duality person's ego and his ethical standards and
of sex and aggression against which the aspirations, represented by his conscience.
human being had to defend himself. But This type of conflict was quite conscious
the human being was still under the tragic in some cases; in other cases it seemed to
fate that made him damage himself as a be only marginally conscious; and in still
consequence of the necessity to struggle others there was no trace of such conflict.
against the core of his own being, the With another of his bold strokes of genius,
wild instincts forever seething in that part Freud conceived of the hypothesis that
of the personality that Freud came to such conflict was ubiquitous, that its
GERMINAL CELL OF FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY 271

minor role or relative absence in the con- does. And, again, the structure of the
sciousness of some people was due to unconscious ego is explained mainly, by
essentially the same mechanisms of de- the history of the earliest pressures ex-
fense by which the "Ego" wards off con- erted upon what must be considered· a
sciQuS awareness of its struggle with the constitutionally predisposed stratum.
instincts. Thus Freud came to posit the
"Super-Ego," with conscious and uncon- In this last half of my paper I will
scious dynamic effects, as one of the attempt to show how Freud's ideas about
constituent parts of the personality. But, therapy developed logically, in a consis-
characteristically, he was less concerned tent-if you want, stubbornly consistent-
with the relationship of the superego to way from the germinal observation. An-
the cultural influences than with its rela- ticipating the results of the search, I
tions to the environment at the time of might say that Freud did not neglect
early childhood. Cultural influences must the most remote possibility of putting to
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necessarily, to a high degree, determine therapeutic use what seemed to him-at

what a person considers as "oughts" and least in rudimentary form--contained in
"ought nots." The adult figures of the the germinal observation; but he refused
child's environment embody and transmit with equal consistency and determination
culturally conditioned standards. But to assimilate any element into the theory
Freud's interest turned mainly towards of therapy that could not be fitted into it."
the problem of how the conscious and The followi~g quotation may give the
unconscious parts of conscience, the super- reader a feeling for Freud's reluctance to
ego, became historically determined by use therapeutic means outside of what he
childhood experiences. Seen from the considered legitimate analysis (in my in-
vantage point of the germinal observa- terpretation, the intellectual system built
tion the following becomes apparent: the upon the germinal observation):
prohibition of the sexual impulse as well
as the impulse had a history, and accord- Perhaps it [the outcome of treatment] may
depend, too, on whether the personality of
ing to Freud, the history of a person con-' the analyst allows of the patient's putting
tained the explanation of. both the im- him in the place of his ego·ideal, and this
pulse and the prohibition in their actual involves a temptation for the analyst to play
interaction, the earliest history standing the part of prophet, saviour, and redeemer
to the patient. Since the rules of analysis are
higher in explanatory value. diametrically opposed to the physician's mak-
Freud finally completed his topology of ing use of his personality in any such manner,
the major dynamic centers of the mental it must be honestly confessed that here we
apparatus when he added to the uncon- have another limitation to the effectiveness
of analysis. . . .10
scious id (instinctual impulses) the un-
conscious superego (conscience impulses) Let us once more recall the elements
and the unconscious ego. In one sense contained in the germinal observation:
this seems to be an obvious deduction an event of the patient's life had been
from the germinal observation, in which traumatic; although the memory con-
the ego of the patient did not know with tained no trace of the event, there was a
what it was dealing or what means it was pathological symptom; when memory was
using for what reasons. However, it illus- restored, the symptom disappeared.
trates again Freud's consistency and bold- Originally Freud's therapy was exclu-
ness in theory formation. In his final sively directed towards recovery of mem-
formulation he ascribed to the uncon- ories. Thus it already appears in the
scious ego (in anthropomorphic language)
8 This discussion is only concerned with Freud's
such qualities as one would assume to theory of therapy. It would be of extraordinary
exist in a person (within the person) who interest to discuss Freud's actual practice of ther·
would be subjected to pressures from the apy, but this would hardly be possible as very little
material on what Freud actually did, felt, and spoke
outcr world, supercgo and id, and would wit.h hiR pllt.ipnta I~ uvtliltlblc.
10 Freud, The Ego and the Jd; London, Hogarth
react to them in the way that the ego PrallE, 1929i p. 72.
272 PAUL BERGMAN

paper that is generally felt to mark the tances, any more than either hypnosis
threshold of psychoanalysis proper-the or urging alone could do it. Nor did the
"preliminary communication" of 1893: 11 "technical artifices"-such as laying the
hand on the patient's forehead-work too
We found, at first to our greatest surprise, well.
that the individual hysterical symptoms im-
mediately disappeared without returning if At the time of his contributions to the
we succeeded in thoroughly awakening' the Studies in Hysteria, Freud had already
memories of the causal process with its ac- found that passive waiting for the patho-
companying affect, and if the patient circum- genic memories frequently did not yield
stantiaily discussed the process in the most
detailed manner and gave verbal expression the desired results, even when the pa-
to the afJect.12 tient cooperated to the' best of his capac-
ity. He therefore chose to let "directive"
At that time Freud (and Breuer) techniques alternate with "nondirective"
thought that a state of hypnosis was ones, as one would say in modern termi-
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needed in order to reintegrate the dis- nology. Having come to regard the pa-
oriented memories. 1s Yet two years later, tient's memories as stratified in layers of
when Studies in Hysteria was published, different resistance potential.,...,.the patho-
Freud had. already essentially given up genic nucleus carrying the highest poten-
hypnosis, having found this technique of tial, the most closely connected or asso-
limited use.14 He then resorted to forcibly ciated memories being next highest, and
urging the patients to remember: so on-Freud proposed the division be-
tween directive and nondirective tech-
. . . and as this urging necessitated much
exertion on my part, and showed me that I niques in the following way:
had to overcome a resistance, I, therefore, . . . I could perhaps say that one should
formulated the. whole state of affairs into himself undertake the opening of the inner
the following theory: Through my psychic strata and the advancement in the radial
work I had to overCome a psychic force in direction, while the patient should take care
the patient which opposed the pathogenic of the peripheral extension.l1
idea from becoming conscious (remem-
bered).lS "Radial direction" means direction of
higher resistance, "peripheral extension"
In addition to urging, Freud tempo- the addition of memory material of the
rarily used various minor "technical arti- same potential of resistance, as it were.
fices" as reinforcements of suggestion for It is the analyst then whom Freud
the task of overcoming the patient's psy- believed must select, first, the weak points
chic forces of "resistance," as he came to at which to depart from the material...;;..
name them.16 He soon chose "free associa- thoughts, feelings, memories-which the
tion" as the technique he considered best patient offers, and who must point out
suited to enable patients to relax the the gaps and flimsy constructions' in the
vigilance of the resistances and to allow patient's explanations: -
for the emergence of the repressed mem-
ories. Yet it was clear that free associa- One, therefore, tells the patient, 'You are
tion alone could not overCOme the resis- mistaken, what you assert can have nothing
to do with the thing in question; here we
11 Breuer and Freud, "The Psychic Mechanism of
will have to strike against something which
Hysterical Phenomena" In Studies in Hysteria; New will occur to you. . • . ' 18
York, Nervous and Mental Disease Monograph No.
61, 1947; chapter 1. . Second, Freud, at least in later stages
.. Reference footnote 11; pp. 3-4. ItaUcs in original
text are sometimes omitted in quotations in this of the analysis, believed the analyst should
paper. suggest to the patient the direction in
lS"Our observations have often taught us that a
memory which has hi.therto provoked attacks be- which to look for the pathogenic mem-
comes incapable of it when it is brought to reaction ories:
and associative correction in a hypnotic state."
Reference footnote 11: PP. 10-11. In these later stages of the work it is of
•• "I was, therefore, forced to dispense with hyp-
notism and yet obtain the pathogenic reminiscences." advantage if one can surmise the connection
neferenee footnote 11; p. 200.
111 Reference footnote 11; p. 201. '7 Reference footnote 11; p. 221.
10 Reference footnote 11; p. 202. lS Reference footnote 11; p. 222.
GERMINAL CELL OF FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY 273

and tell it to the patient before it has been And 30 years after the Studies in Hys-
revealed to him. If the conjecture is cor- teria:
rect, the course of the analysis is acceler-
ated. . . .19 You must know that the correct reconstruc-
tion of such forgotten experiences in child-
Freud apparently considered this tech- hood [in analysis] always results in a tre-
nical device very essential for psycho- mendous therapeutic effect, no matter whether
analysis. He returns to its discussion such reconstructions may be objectively con-
many times in later years. Thus, for in- firmed or not. 23
stance, with all desirable clarity, in a Finally, at the end of his life, more than
work written 10 years after the Studies forty years after the Studies in Hysteria,
in Hysteria, he states: Freud wrote a paper especially for the
In a psycho-analysis the physician always purpose of stressing this same point of
gives his patient (sometimes to a greater and therapeutical technique which seemed to
sometimes to a less extent) the conscious. him of paramount importance:
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anticipatory images by the help of which

he is put in a position to recognize and to The analyst finishes a piece of construction
grasp the unconscious material. For there and communicates it to the subject of the
are some patients who need more of such analysis so that it may work upon him; he
assistance and some who need less; but there then constructs a further piece out of the
are none who get through without some of it. fresh material pouring in upon him, deals
Slight disorders may perhaps be brought to with it in the same way, and proceeds in
an end by a person's unaided efforts, but this alternating fashion until the end . . .
never a neurosis. . . .20 one lays before the subject of the analysis
a piece of his early history that he has for-
The same note is struck again 15 years gotten, in some such way as this: 'Up to
after the Studies in Hysteria: your nth year you regarded yourself as the
sole and unlimited possessor of your mother;
The treatment is made up of two parts, out then came . . .' and so on.24
of what the physician infers and tells the
patient, and out of the patient's work of as· Gradually, as Freud gained in experi-
similation, of 'working through,' what he
hears. The mechanism of our curative method ence, he became impressed with the possi-
is indeed quite easy to understand; we give bilities of influencing the dynamiC inter-
the patient the conscious idea of what he may play of forces in the patient from the side
expect to find (bewusste Erwartungsvor- of the resistances as well as from the side
stellung), and [through] the similarity of this of the unconscious material.
with the repressed unconscious one leads him
to come upon the latter himself.21 [He found that it helped to] obtain his [the
patient's] collaboration and cause him to view
The point is again made in a work writ:. himself with the objective interest of the
ten 25 years after the Studies in Hysteria: investigator. . . . [The analyst] does as well
as he can as an explainer . . . as a teacher,
In quite a number of cases . . . the analysis as a representative of a freer and more su-
divides itself into two clearly distinguishable perior philosophy of life, and as a confessor,
stages: in the first, the physician procures who through the continuance of his sympathy
from the patient the necessary information, and his respect imparts, so to say, absolution
makes him familiar with the premises and after the confession. One endeavors to do
postulates. of psycho-analysis, and unfolds to something humane for the patient as far as
him the reconstruction of the genesis of his the range of one's own personality and the
disorder as deduced from the material brought measure of sympathy which one can set apart
up in the analysis. In the second stage the for the case allows. 25
patient himself lays hold of the material put
before him, works on it, recollects what he But:
can of the apparently repressed memories,
and behaves as if he were living the past . . . one can hardly dispense with oneaffec-
over again.22 tive factor, that is, the personal equation of
,. Reference footnote 11; p. 223. the doctor, and in a number of cases this
.. Freud, "Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old alone is enough to break the resistance. 26
Boy," in Collected Papers, vol. 3, p_ 246; London,
Hogarth Press, 1924 . .. Freud, The Problem of Lay Analyses; New York,
.. Freud, "The Future Prospects of Psycho-Analytic Brentano's, 1927.
Therapy" in Collected Papers, vol. 2, p. 286. .. Freud, "Constructions in Analysis," Int. J_ Psy-
.. Freud, "The Psychogenesis of a Case of Homo- choanalysis (1938) 19: p. 380 .
sexuality in a Woman," in Collected Papers, vol. 2, •• Reference footnote 11; p. 213.
p.208. .. Reference footnote 11; pp. 213-214.
5
274 PAUL BERGMAN

The emotional attachment of the pa· In this same paper he also summarizes
tient to the physician, while it is the most succinctly the means-ends relationships
powerful tool in overcoming the resis· obtaining between transference, over-
tance, soon also proved in many cases coming of resistances, and memories.
to be a serious obstacle to the. task of
remembering. For, more and more regu· From the repetition-reactions which are ex-
hibited in the transference the familiar paths
larly, Freud found that the "painful ideas lead back to the awakening of the memories,
emerging from the content of the analysis which yield themselves' without difficulty
would be transferred to the physician," 21 after the resistances have been overcome. so
would be "deceptively" experienced as
present, not as past, as associated with To summarize the last part of the dis-
the physician's person, not with the per- cussion one might say: Whether the
son to whom they originally-in the trau- patient actually remembers or whether
matic scene of the past-referred. Freud he repeats old patterns of behavior and
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originally regarded this transference as feeling-in his relationship to the analyst

a disturbance in remembering. But after or to other persons of his contemporary
some time, when he became convinced life sphere--the task of the analyst, ac-
that the pathogenic material of the ear- cording to Freud, remains the same: he
liest years of life could not be safely re- should help the repressed past to emerge
covered as memories, he turned the table into consciousness, either as memory or
on the situation by the ingenious idea of as construction of the past. In the latter
moving the transference into the center case it is important that the patient accept
of his therapeutic attention. What could the construction not only intellectually
not be remembered was, he felt, made but also emotionally.31 Timing of the
accessible, since in all essentials the trans- interpretations and constructions offered
ference seemed to preserve the traits of by the analyst therefore becomes of im-
the distant past. portance.

. . . here the patient remembers nothing of . . • psycho-analysis . . . prescribes that two

what is forgotten and repressed, but that he conditions are to be fulfilled before it is done.
expresses it in action. He reproduces it not First, by preparatory work, the repressed
in his memory but in his behavior; he re- material must have come very near to the
peats it, without of course knowing that he patient's thoughts, and secondly, he must be
is repeating it. . . . We soon perceive that sufficiently firmly attached by an affective
the transference is itself only a bit of repeti- relationship to the phYSician (transference)
tion, and that the repetition is the trans- to make it impossible for him to take fresh
ference of the forgotten past not only on to flight again [that is, to repress again].82
the phYSiCian, but also on to all the other In the course of his work Freud de-
aspects of the current situation . . . while
the patient lives it through as something real veloped a variety of techniques that at-
and actual, we have to accomplish the thera- tempted to attack the pathological equi-
peutic task, which consists chiefly in trans- librium of the patient not so much by
lating it back again into terms of the past.ls calling forth the repressed past, but rather
·Freud described this turnabout with by weakening, devaluating, or destroying
all possible precision as a change of tac- the opposing "resistances."
tics, not as a change of goal: The main instrument Freud now b&-
lieved should be used against the strength
The tactics adopted by the physician are of the resistances was again interpreta-
easily justified. For him recollection in the tion; and, consistently enough, he con-
old style, reproduction in the mind, remains
the goal of his endeavors, even when he .. Reference footnote 28; p. 375.
knows that it is not to be obtained by the 81 Difficulties arise at this point because Freud
newer method. 29 offers no satisfactory operational definition of "emo-
tional acceptance." The temptation Is here to judge
by the therapeutic effect, and to neglect all testi-
"Reference footnote 11; p. 230. mony of the patient as to his "emotional acceptance"
.. Freud, "Further Recommendations in the Tech- of a construction if he does not improve in his
nique of Psycho-Analysis" in Collected Papers, vol. condition.
2, pp. 369 ff. .. Freud, "Observations on 'Wild~ Psycho-Analysis"
.. Reference footnote 28; p. 373. in Collected Papers, vol. 2, p. 302 .
GERMINAL CELL OF FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY 275
ceived of demonstration of the historical patient's mind enabling the phobia to be
(childhood) pattern of the resistance as solved.as
the main type of interpretation. . Freud considered a similar, but even
stronger, active pressure against the dy~
••. our work is aimed directly at finding out
and overcoming the 'resistances', and we can namic force of the resistances to be neces-
with justification rely on the complexes com- sary in cases of obsessiV'e and compulsive
ing to light as soon as the resistances have neurosis.
been recognized and removed. . . . In male
patients the most important resistances to In severe cases of obsessive acts a passive
the treatment seem to be derived from the waiting attitude seems even less well adapted
father-complex and to express themselves in • . • in their analysis there is always the
fear of the father, and in defiance and in- danger of a great deal coming to light with-
credulity towards him.aa out its effecting any change in them. I think
there is little doubt that here the correct
Freud, of course, did not believe that technique can only be to wait until the treat-
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finding and naming the resistance did ment itself has become a compulsion, and
then with this counter-compulsion forcibly to
away with it. suppress the compulsion of the disease.81
One must allow the patient time to get to In his masterpiece of clinical discussion,
know this resistance of which he is ignorant. the famous "From the History of an In-
to 'work thrOUgh' it, to overcome it, by con- fantile Neurosis," Freud described how
tinuing the work according to the analytic
rule in defiance of it. Only when it has come he for the first time used another tech-
to its height can one, with the patient's co- nique of pressure against resistance, ob-
operation, discover the repressed instinctual viously the most forcible type of pressure
trends which are feeding the resistance; and available to an analyst.
only by living them through in this way will
the patient be convinced of their existence Only one way was to be found of overcoming
and their power.s, . it [the patient's shrinking from an indepen-
dent existence]. I was obliged to wait until
In certain cases he considered it neces- his attachment to myself pad become strong
sary to use special pressures to overcome enough to counter-balance this s~rinking, and
then played off this one factor against the
the tenacity of the resistance-for in- other. I determined ... that the treatment
stance, in cases of anxiety hysteria. must be brought to an end at a particular
fixed date, no matter how far it had advanced.
• . . the analytic technique must undergo cer- . . . Under the inexorable pressure of this
tain modifications according to the nature of fixed limit his [the patient's] resistance and
the disease and the dominating instinctual his fixation to the illness gave way. . ..88
trends in the patient. Our therapy was, in
fact, first designed for conversion-hysteria; In one of his last works Freud again
in 'anxiety-hysteria (phobias) we must alter discusses this technical device. Here the
our procedure to some extent. The fact is reader gets the impression that Freud
that these patients cannot bring out the ma- felt rather ambivalent about setting a
terial necessary for resolving the phobia so
long as they feel protected by retaining their term.as
phobic condition',85
At this point it remains for me to dem-
One can hardly ever master a phobia if one onstrate how Freud, as he developed his
waits till the patient lets the analysis infiu- system of dynamic psychology, described
ence him to give it up . . . one succeeds
only when one can induce them [the agora- his therapy in terms of this system, that
phobic patients] . . . to go about alone and is, in dynamic terms, yet did not at any
to struggle with their anxiety while they time give up the reference base of the
make the attempt. One first achieves, there- germinal observation.
fore, a considerable moderation of the phobia,
and it is only when this has been attained 88 Freud, "Turnings in the Ways of Psycho-
by the physician's recommendation that the Analytic Therapy" in, Collected Papers, vol. 2, pp.
associations and memories come into the 399-400.
8' Reference footnote 36; p. 400.
88 Freud, "From the History of an Infantile Neu-
88 Reference footnote 21; pp. 288-289. rosis" in Collected Papers, vol. 3, pp. 477-478.
"Reference footnote 28; p.375. "" Freud, "Analysis Terminable and Interminable,"
85 Reference footnote 21; p 289. Internat. J. Psychoanalysis (1937) 18:, p. 375-.
276 PAUL BERGMAN

An early paper, written in 1904,made Similarly, the transference sttuation,

clear the equivalence between the earlier previously described in terms of decep-
formulations in terms of memory and tive present mental content that has to
availability to consciousness, arid the later be diagnosed as originating in the past
formulations, in terms of instincts and and put into memory context, was now
their reintegration into the total person- seen as the field of opposing dynamic
ality. . forces; instincts that from the uncon-
scious seek for discharge, the repressing
The task which the psycho-analytic method forces, the analyst's demands for rational
tries to perform may be formulated in differ-
ent ways, which are, however, in their es- evaluation.4s
sence equivalent. It may, for instance, be Another dynamic evaluation of the
stated thus: the task of the cure is to re- transference stressed not its character as
move the amnesias. When all gaps in mem~ the thing to be analyzed-and iIi this way
ory have been filled in, all the enigmatic
eventually yielding the pure metal of
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products of mental life elucidated, the con-

tinuan~ and even the renewal of the morbid analytic therapy, namely the repressed
condition is impOSSible. Or the formula may memories-but its character as force that
be expressed in this fashion: all repressions allies itself to the analyst's demands for
are to be undone; the mental condition is
then the same as if allamnesias are removed. rational evaluation and gives· power to
Another formulation reaches further; the the patient's own rational and realistic
problem consists in making the unconscious tendencies. One must asslime that Freud
accessible to consciousness, which is done by herewith meant certain aspects of posi-
overcoming the resistances.40
tive transference.
A still more concise .formula, from a
paper written in 1914, states it in these . . . the patient's intellectual interest and un-
derstanding . . . alone is hardly worth con-
words: sideration by the side of the other forces
engaged in the struggle, for it is always in
The aim of these different procedures [used danger of succumbing to the. clouding of
by Freud in the course of developing the reasoning power under the influence of reo
psychoanalytic technique] has of course re- sistances. Hence it follows that the new
mained the same throughout: descriptively, sources of strength for which the sufferer is
to recover the lost memories; dynamically, to indebted to the analyst resolve themselves
conquer the resistances caused by repres- into transference, mid instruction (by ex-
sion.41 planation). The patient only makes use of
the instruction, however, in so far as he is
In the framework of Freud's dynamic induced to do so by the transference. 44
psychology the repressed memories are
now considered to be the hiding places In Freud's mind-if I understand it
of the withdrawn, regressed, or fixated rightly-the dynamic formulations never
libido. . superseded his fundamental faith that
the germinal observation contained the
The libido (entirely or in part) has found essential aspect of man's freeing himself
its way back into regression .and has re-
animated the infantile imagos; and thither from mental illness and disturbance. At
we pursue it in the arialytic treatment, aim- the end of his long life and work he
. . ing always at unearthing it, making it acces- summed up his thinking on analytic ther-
sible to consciousness and at last serviceable apy in the remarkable work on "Analysis
to reality. Wherever. in our analytic delving
we come upon one of the hiding places of the Terminable and Interminable."
withdrawn libido, there ensues a battle; all At one point in this paper he asked the
the forces which have brought about the re- question whether one can ever "be cer-
gression of the libido will rise up as 'resis- tain that no further change would take
tances' against our efforts in order to main·
tain the new condition.'2 place in him [the patient] if his analysis
were continued." The initial part of
40 Freud, "Freud's Psycho-Analytic Method" in Freud's answer is relevant:
Collected. Pape7's, vol. 1, p. 269.
41Reference footnote 28; p. 367.
.. Freud, "The Dynamics of the Transf~rence" in 48 Reference footnote 42; p. 322•
CQ1!sotutZ PupunJ, yul. 2, J,lJ,l. 3111·318. .. :Reference footnote 28; p. 364465.
GERMINAL CELL OF FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY 277
The implication is that by means of analysis cussed exclusively upon therapeutic reSUlts
it is possible to attain to absolute psychic· and who employ analytic methods but only
normality and to be sure that it will be main- up to a certain point. An analysis oJ early
tained, the supposition being that all the childhood such as we are conSidering Is
patient's repressions have been lifted and tedious and laborious and makes demands
every gap in his memory filled. 411 both upon the physician· and upon the patient
which cannot always be met."
Absolute psychic normality appears to
be present when "every gap· in the mem- Whether Freud held strictly to his
ory has been filled." The further discus- theory of therapy in actual practice I do
sion confirms the stress placed on re- not know. There is no doubt that many
covery of memory as the specific factor of his closest collaborators and disciples,
of analytic therapy. Through evaluation even while Freud was still alive, prac-
of other factors, like strength of instinct, ticed psychoanalysis with a marked
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inherited qualities of the ego, and so on, change of empha,sis as compared to

Freud arrives at a pessimistic general Freud's theory of psychoanalytic therapy.
outlook for analytic therapy, as it ca,n- Not only the remainder of the early abre-
not deal with these factors. But traumatic action theory, but also the stress on
memories can be recovered. genetical reconstruction and recovery of
early memories took second place iri their
There can be no doubt that, when the aeti- hands behind structural analysis, that is,
ology of the neurosis is traumatic, analysis the attempt to acquaint the ego with the
has a far better chance. Only when the trau-
matic factor predominates can we look for unconscious mechanisms and the uncon-
that most masterly achievement of psycho- scious contents active in current life situa-
analysis, namely, such a reinforcement of the tions. This change of emphasis may pos-
ego that a correct adjustment takes the place sibly have become even more marked
of that infantile solution of the patient's early
conflicts which proved so inadequate. 46 since Freud's death.
However that may be, from the point
The therapy, then, that Freud worked of view of a general theory of psycho-
out, appears to be the logical extension therapy a reliable evaluation of the facts
of the paramount impression that the contained in the germinal observation re-
germinal observation had, once and for mains of great interest. Questions arise
all, made on his mind. Uncovering his- here in regard to Freud's interpretation
tory, and particularly earliest history, of the germinal observation and in regard
is its essence; recovery of memory, par- to the place that the kind of processes
ticularly of earliest memory, is the most taking place in the germinal observation
desired means and end. To Freud this may occupy in relation to other processes
interest in the earliest phases of the pa- seemingly bringing about changes in hu-
tient's development became the one fea- man beings.
ture by which he wanted to distinguish In regard to the interpretation of the
genuine psychoanalysis from. other psy- germinal observation, we should have
chotherapies which used an alloy of ana- more secure knowledge of the factors that
lytic and other methods, or used analytic make the disappearance of an event from
methods to an insufficient degree. memory pathogenic. Is all such disap-
pearance pathogenic, at least where strong
In my own writings and in those of my
followers more and more stress is laid upon emotions are involved, or can there be
the necessity for carrying the analyses of indifferent or possibly even beneficial for-
neurotics back into the remotest period of getting of such events? Probably in his
their childhood, the time at which sexual later years Freud would have accepted
life reaches the climax of its early develop- such different possibilities, as he no doubt
ment. . . . This requirement is not only of
theoretical but also of practical importance, would have accepted the possibility of
for it distinguishes our efforts from the work indifferent or even damaging effect of
of those physicians whose interests are fo-
~ Freud, "Some Psychological Consequences of the
.. Reference footnote 39; p. 376. AnatOmical Distinction Between the Sexes." Intemat•
M Reference footnote 39; p. 377. J. Psychoanalysts (1927) 8: p. 133.
278 PAUL BERGMAN

recovering emotionally highly cathected recovery of memories would have the

memories. Furthermore, still in regard to same therapeutic effect; or what happens
the interpretation of the germinal obser- to the patient if no recovery of memories
vation, one would like to know what part is attempted, yet the therapist offers his
abreaction plays in it; what part possible sympathetic attitude and "more superior
restructuring of the patient's self as he philosophy of life." .
permits himself to perceive a new aspect By raising these questions, however, I
of himself; what part the participation of have already overstepped the boundaries
the therapist in the situation, particularly of this paper. A casual treatment at this
when he acts "as a teacher, as a repre- time would be a great injustice to the im-
sentative of a freer and more superior portance of these questions for the gen-
philosophy of life, and as a confessor, eral theory of psychotherapy, as well as
who through the continuance of his sym- for the general theory of personality. A
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pathy and his respect imparts, so to say, more thorough discussion, on the other
absolution after the confession." 48 One hand, might well wait for a different, pos-
may wonder, for instance, whether with- sibly more systematic context.
out the therapist's sympathetic attitude THE MENNINGER FOUNDATION
.. See the quotation as referenced in footnote 25. TOPEKA, KANSAS