Compilation in (EDUC 321) Curriculum Development

2nd Semester, S.Y. 2019-2020

Submitted by: Maila K. Mamamagayan

Submitted to: Instr. RASID B. KINDI, LPT, MAed, MAed

Table of Contents
1. INRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM

1.1 What is Curriculum?

1.2 Concept, Nature and Purposes of Curriculum
1.3 Elements/Components of Curriculum
1.4 Major Foundations in Curriculum
1.5 Types of Curriculum
1.6 Approaches in Curriculum

2. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

2.1 What is Curriculum Development?

2.2 What is Curriculum Change?
2.3 What is Curriculum Planning?
2.4 Factors considered in Curriculum Development and Management
2.5 Two Schools of Thought in Curriculum Development
2.6 Steps in Curriculum Development
2.7 The need for Curriculum Framework
2.8 Phases of Curriculum Development

3. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ON THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE

PHILIPPINES

3.1 The Pre-Spanish Curriculum

3.2 The Spanish-Devised Curriculum
3.3 The American-Devised Curriculum
3.4 The Curriculum during Commonwealth
3.5 The Japanese-Devised Curriculum
3.6 The Curriculum During the Liberation Period
3.7 The Curriculum During the Philippine Republic
3.8 The Curriculum in the New York Society

4. CRAFTING THE CURRICULUM

4.1 What is Curriculum Design?

4.2 Models of Curriculum
4.3 Principles and Dimension of Curriculum Design
4.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design
4.5 Steps in Crafting the Curriculum
4.6 Persons Involve in the Crafting of Curriculum

5. IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM

5.1 The Role of Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

5.2 The Role of Teachers in Curriculum Implementation
5.3 The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum
5.4 Pilot Testing, Monitoring, and Evaluating and Implementation of Curriculum

6. CURRICULUM EVALUATION

6.1 What is Curriculum Evaluation?

6.2 Types of Curriculum Evaluation
6.3 Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
6.4 Role of Evaluation in Curriculum Development
6.5 Intended vs Implemented vs Achieved Curriculum
6.6 Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation
6.7 Tools to Evaluate Curriculum
6.8 The models of Curriculum Evaluation
6.9 Need for Curriculum Evaluation
6.10 Steps in Conducting the Curriculum Evaluation
6.11 Strategies in Evaluating Curriculum

7. ADDRESSING THE FUTURE: CURRICULUM TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS

7.1 Curriculum Innovation: Local and Global Trends

7.2 Educational System of Other Countries (Select 5 Countries in the South East Asia)
7.3 The K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum in the Philippines
7.4 Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education
7.5 Indigenous People Education in the Philippines
7.6 Bilingual Education
7.7 Early Childhood Care and Development
7.8 Global Education
7.9 Education for All/Inclusive Education /No Child Left Behind
7.10 Environmental Education
7.11 Peace Education: Its Impact to Basic Education, Economic, Political and Social
Development in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
(BARMM)
1.1 What is Curriculum?

 The term curriculum has been derived from a Latin word ‘Currere’ which means
a ‘race course’ or a runway on which one run to reach a goal. Accordingly, a
curriculum is the instructional and the educative programmed by following which
the pupils achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations of life.

1.2 Concept, Nature and Purposes of Curriculum

 Concept of Curriculum

 In a narrow sense, it is viewed merely as a listing of subjects to be taught in school.

 In abroad sense, it refers to a total learning experiences of individual not only in schools
but in society as well.
 Systematic group of courses of sequence of subjects required for graduation or
certification in a major field of study.

 Nature of Curriculum

 The courses or study embodying outlines of knowledge to be taught.

 All experiences provided under the guidance of the school.

 Purposes of Curriculum

 Drives daily instructions it’s a framework for teaching and learning.

 Guideline the creation of the lesson plan.
 Provides guidelines for pacing.

1.3 Elements/Components of Curriculum

 It is the nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized may
comprise which we call a curriculum design.
FIVE KEYS OF ELEMENTS
1. Situational Analysis – The analysis conditions such as emotional, political, cultural,
religious and geographical condition of a country.

2. Formulation of Objective

4 Main Factor for Formulating

a) SOCIETY
 Children and young people are our most precious asset they come to embody our
culture and their values and capabilities will determine the ways in economy and
society will evolve.

b) THE KNOWLEDGE
 The aim of education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes help to
adjust properly in one’s our own environment.

c) LEARNER
d) LEARNING PROCESS
 In education learning objectives are brief statement that describe what students will
be expected to learn by the end of school year, course unit, lesson.

3. Selection of Content – One of the most important elements is the selection of content
for a subject.

 Available sources and resources

 Demand of society
 International needs
 Level and age of the learner of the student
 Methods of content organization
 Number of course offered
 Quantity and Qualification of teaching staff
 Scope of subject matter
 System of examination
 Type of society and culture

4. Strategies and Method of Teaching

 This will certainly not fair to ask a teacher for achieving certain objectives
w/o giving any guidelines.

5. Evaluation
 One of dynamic process curriculum evaluation is not a student. It is a broader
term being used to make judgement about the worth.

COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM

 In wider frame curriculum includes aims, learning methods and subject matter
sequencing.
 Broader concept of curriculum describes it as a sophisticated blend of
educational strategies, course content, learning outcomes, educational
experiences, assessment, the educational environment and the individual
students learning style, personal timetable and program work.

 Curriculum not only covers the formal teaching/learning but also the other
aspects of human development associated with institutional life. It will
transform a student into a productive citizen.

 In the time of information explosion, the curriculum planners must not only
decide what should be taught but also what can be eliminated from the
curriculum, hence the need to define minimum essential knowledge and skills
i.e. core knowledge and skills.

1.4 Major Foundations in Curriculum

 Philosophical
 Historical
 Psychological
 Social

1. Philosophical Foundations
 It helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how
students should learn and what materials and methods should be used.
PERENNIALISM
 Aim of Education – To educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect.
 Role of Education - Teachers help student think reason.
 Focus in the Curriculum – Classical subjects’ literary analysis and curriculum is constant.
 Curriculum Trends – Use of great books and return to literal arts.
ESSENTIALISM
 Aim of Education – To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a
competent person.
 Role of Education -The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field of
specialization.
 Focus in the Curriculum – English, Math, Science, History, and Foreign Language.
 Curriculum Trends – Excellence in the Education, back to basic and cultural literacy.
PROGRESSIVISM
 Aim of Education – To promote democratic and social living.
 Role of Education – Knowledge leads us to growth and development of lifelong learners
who actively learn by doing.
 Focus in the Curriculum – Students interest, human problems and affairs.
 Curriculum Trends – School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, humanistic
education.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM
 Aim of Education – To improve and reconstruct society education for change.
 Role of Education – Teacher acts as agent of change and reform in various educational
projects including research.
 Focus in the Curriculum – Focus on present and future trends and issues of national and
international interest.
 Curriculum Trends – Equality of educational opportunities in education, access to global
education.

2. Historical foundations
 The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes,
principles and content of the curriculum.

 Franklin Bobbit
 Presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on student’s need.
 Believes that objectives with corresponding activities should be grouped and
sequenced.

 Werret Charters
 Agrees with Bobbit’s point of view.
 The subject matter and the activities are planned by the teacher.

 William Kilpatrick
 Curriculum are purposeful activities which are child-centered.
 He introduced the project method where teacher and students plan the activities.
 Believed that the curriculum develops social relationships and small group
instruction.

 Harold Rugg
 Believed that curriculum should develop the whole child.
 Emphasized social studies and the teacher plans curriculum in advance.

 Hollis Caswell
 Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized
knowledge and learner’s interest.
 Believes that curriculum is a set of experience.
 Subject matter is developed around social functions and learner’s interest.

 Ralph Tyler
 Believes that curriculum is an extension of school’s philosophy.
 Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
 The curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialist.

3. Psychological Foundations
 Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process.

 Behaviorist Psychology
 Learning should be organized in order that students can experience success in the
process of mastering the subject matter.

 Cognitive Psychology
 Learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.

 Humanistic Psychology
 Curriculum is concerned with the process not the products; personal needs not
subject matter; psychological meaning and environmental situations.
4. Social Foundations

 Societal culture and shapes the schools and their curriculum.

 Schools are not the only institution that educate the society.
 Schools curricula should address diversity, explosion of knowledge, school
reforms and education for all.
 Curricula should also imbibe the changes brought by the formal institutions called
schools.

1.5 Types of Curriculum

 Explicit Curriculum
 The subject that will be taught, and the knowledge and skills that the school
expects successful students to acquire.

 Implicit Curriculum
 The lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes,
and expectations that characterize that culture.
 Extracurricular Curriculum
 All of the schools-sponsored programs (athletics, band) that are intended to
supplement the academic aspect of the school experience.

 Null Curriculum
 The options students are not afforded; the concepts and skills that are not a part of
their intellectual repertoire. (Eisner,1994, pp.106-107).

1.6 Approaches in Curriculum

 Behavioral Approach

 Anchored on behaviorist principles, usually based on a blueprint which goals and

objectives are specified, contents and activities are arranged.
 Aimed to achieved efficiency.
 Begins with educational plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives.

 Managerial Approach

 General manager(principal) sets the policies and priorities, establishes the

direction of the change and innovation, and the planning and organizing
curriculum and instruction.
 Less concerned about the content than the organization and the implementation.

 System Approach

 Influence by systems theory

 The parts of the total school district or school are examined in terms of how they
relate to each other.
 Represented by organizational chart.
 Shows the line -staff relationships of personnel and how decisions are made.

 Humanistic Approach

 Rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement.

 Considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden
curriculum.
 Learner is at the center of the curriculum.

2. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

2.1 What is Curriculum Development?

 Curriculum development is the organized preparation of whatever is going to be

taught in schools at a given time in a given year. They are made into official
documents, as guides for teachers, and made obligatory by provincial and territorial
departments.

2.2 What is Curriculum Change?

 With changing time, curriculum should also change reflecting the needs and
aspirations of the people. There cannot be a uniform curriculum for all the countries
for all the time. Curriculum content should be based on current information and not
on the past information there is need for constantly changing and updating the
curriculum content.

 Only in some countries, still the traditional curriculum is in vogue. In advanced

countries, as a result of knowledge explosion and with continuous research findings
and new inventions, the content of the school courses is being questioned.

 Strategies for Curriculum Change

 Changing curriculum and instruction should be a gradual process.

 Curriculum change should be worked with individual teachers at first, or with
small clusters of motivated individuals.
 Individuals respond uniquely (at times unpredictably) to new ways of doing
things, no matter how sensible or appealing the new ways might be.
 It takes time often years to successfully implement curriculum change.
 A number of organizations host websites and conferences dedicated to curriculum
improvement.

2.3 What is Curriculum Planning?

 The phrase “curriculum change” can mean one of two related things: either the
process of an individual teacher to build a class curriculum, or the means through
which school boards coordinate the various curricula being used by teachers in
order to achieve uniform goals. On its own, a curriculum is basically a lesson plan
that functions as a map for learning.

 Participants of curriculum planning get involved in variety of activities such as:

 Discussing common problems

 Making decisions
 Developing a functional philosophy
 Studying learners and the environment
 Keeping up-to-date with knowledge
 Studying ways to improve instructions
 Carrying research and evaluation

 Importance of Curriculum Planning

 Curriculum planning develop well-coordinated, quality teaching, learning and

assessment programs, which build student ‘knowledge, skills and behaviors in the
disciplines, as well their interdisciplinary and/or physical, personal and social
capabilities.

 Curriculum planning ensures:

 A shared vision
 Shared understanding and a common language in the school community
 Optimum coverage of all domains within the curriculum
 Continuity of learning between domains across year levels
 The full range of learning needs of students are addressed
 Students are given opportunities to develop deep understanding
 Cohesiveness in teaching, learning and assessment practices
 Elimination of repetition of learning activities without depth or breadth across
levels
 Improved student learning outcomes need
 A curriculum plan is one of the best ways for teachers to look objectively
 Organize an effective way to get from the beginning to end.
 Schools use curriculum plans to set overarching goals
 Curriculum plans are an easy way for teachers and schools to quickly monitor
progress.
 It is easy to notice when students are falling behind, or when objectives are being
missed.
 Planning is also an important way for schools to streamline student assessment
 Teachers are often required to incorporate certain assessment rubrics into their
curriculum planning.

2.4 Factors considered in curriculum Development and a Management

 Several factors affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21 st

century learners in both organized academic settings and corporation learning
centers. Factors affecting curriculum development include government rules,
which in turn brings other factors into the process. Valid curriculum development
requires awareness of the diversity of the target community socially, financially
and psychologically.

 Political
 Social
 Economic
 Technological
 Environmental
 Child Psychology

1. Political Factor

 Politics affect curriculum development in numerous ways. How politics influence

curriculum design and development start with funding. Both private and public
educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel, building and
maintaining facilities and equipment. All aspects of curriculum depend on local,
state and national political standards.

EXAMPLE:
 Politics affect curriculum development from defining goals, interpreting
curricular materials to approving examination systems.

2. Social Factor

 Society has its own expectation about the aims and objectives that should be
considered when designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the
product of the school system should look like. It is therefore necessary for
curriculum designers to take in to account these societal considerations.

EXAMPLE:
 Subjects which has gender education and political economy have proved difficult
to include in the curriculum because of the resistance from some religious groups.

3. Economic Factor

 Economic influences curriculum development. Curriculum developed for in the

house training in corporation focuses on educating employees for promotions that
bring better returns in profits. Nations financing education expect an economic
return from educated students contributing to the country’s economy with global
competition abilities in technical fields.

EXAMPLE
 Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated students
contributing to the country’s economy with global competition abilities in the
technical fields.

4. Technological Factor

 Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century. The
computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at
every level of learning.
Learning centers and the classrooms increasingly provide computers as requisite
interaction for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences
educational goals and learning experiences among students.

EXAMPLE
 Undergraduate and graduate degrees in computer technology increases in
popularity.

 DIVERSIRTY
 Curriculum development affect from diversity opens learning opportunities.
Social diversity including religion, culture and social groupings affect curriculum
development because these characteristics influence the types of topics and
methods for teaching information. Developing relevant curriculum takes into
account society’s expectations, accommodating group traditions and promoting
equality.

5. Environment

 Environment issues affect curriculum development World awareness and action

toward reversing and ending pollution continues affecting curriculum
development. Typical elementary classrooms teach recycling and healthy
environmental practices.

EXAMPLE
 Higher education in the sciences offer environmentally focused degrees.
Environmental degree, bio-technology etc.

6. Child Psychology

 Many students with a masters or PhD degree in developmental psychology work

in educational settings as school psychologists, which make sense when
considering the emphasis placed on the formative years. However, there re several
developmental psychology concentrations available on which students can focus;

 Developmental Studies for Educators

 Aging
 Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence
 Lifespan Development
 Biological Bases of Development

 The developmental psychology curriculum examines the changes in personality,

cognitive ability and behavior throughout the lifespan. Therefore, in addition to
preparing themselves for a rewarding career, students enrolled in developmental
psychology curricula will also learn and understand more about themselves as
they study the scientific conclusions made by experts in the field.
2.5 Two Schools of thoughts in Curriculum Development

 Two schools of thought predominated throughout the history of curriculum

development.

1. The Essentialist School

2. The Progressive School

1. The Essentialist School

 It considers the curriculum as something rigid consisting of discipline subjects.

 It considers all learners as much as the same and it aims to fit the learner into the
existing social order and thereby maintain the status quo.
 Its major motivation is discipline and considers freedom as an outcome and not
means of education.
 Its approach is authoritative and the teacher’s role is to assign lessons and recite
recitations.
 It is book-centered and the methods recommended are memory work, mastery of
facts and skills, and development of abstract intelligence.
 It has no interest in social action and life activities.
 Its measurement of outcomes are standards tests based on subject matter mastery.

2. The Progressive School

 It conceives of the curriculum as something flexible based on areas of interest.

 It is learner-centered, having in mind that no two persons alike.
 Its factor of motivation is individual achievement believing that persons are
naturally good.
 The role of the teacher is to stimulate direct learning process.
 It uses a life experience approach to fit the student for social action.
 Constant revision of aims and experimental techniques of learning and teaching
are imperatives in curriculum development in order to create independent
thinking, initiative, self-reliance, individuality, self-expression and activity in the
learner.
 Its measurements of outcome are now devices taking into consideration subject
matter and personality values.

2.6 Steps in Curriculum Development

 Ralph Tyler 4 Steps

 Formulation of Educational Objectives

 Selecting learning experience
 Effective and Efficient organization of Ing experience- theory and clinical
 Evaluation of Curriculum

 Educational objectives
 Statement of those desired changes in behavior as a result of specific teaching-
learning activity.

 Data for Objective

 Philosophy of Institution
 Social and Health needs of Society
 Needs of Student
 Resources available
 Level of students
 Designation after class
 Minimum requirements syllabus future trends
 Criteria for appearing other exams

 Stating Objective
 In terms of desired behavioral change
 Help to select learning experience and guiding teaching activity
 Desired behavior change should be in consistent with stated objective
 Subject objectives contribute to overall objective
 Attainable and practicable
 Worthwhile to society
 Considered needs ability and level of students
 Objectives of course, unit, topic and lesson should focus on development of
students
 Objectives should be motivating factors
 Should have continuity, sequence, correlation and integration
 Cooperatively planned
 Each statement has only single objective
 Should not too detailed
 Scheme of evaluation to be planned while formulating objective

 Steps
 Identify learners need
 Identify need of society
 Suggestion of experts
 Formulate a theory of learning
 Screen objectives through philosophy
 Define objectives in behavioral terms

 Types of Objectives
 Institutional objective
 Intermediate by curriculum committee
 Instructional by teacher
 Central objective for every topic lesson
 Contributory or specific objective

 Qualities of Objective
 Relevant
 Feasible and achievable
 Measurable
 Observable
 Unequivocal
 Logical

 Selection of learning Experience

 A deliberately planned experiences in selected situations where students actively
participate, interact and which result in desirable changes of behavior.
 Learning experience compromise both theoretical and practical aspects.

 Principles selection of learning Experience

 All learning need should be in relation to objective

 In relation to real life situation
 Effective integration between theory and practice
 Same learning experiences many outcomes and vice versa
 Selected in such a way that learners are constantly motivated
 Students get meaning and see relation by the past and present experiences and
focus to the future
 Learning is enhanced by utilizing wide variety of teaching learning methods
 Will learn effectively if experiences are satisfactory
 Should consider students ability to undergo change
 Learning experience selected should not be beyond stage of development
 Should be according to the need of students
 Same and equal chance for all students

 Characteristic of Learning Experiences

 Allow learning by doing
 Create motivation and interest
 Challenging to students
 Satisfy the needs of time
 Bring multiple outcomes in student
 Help to acquire knowledge, skill and attitude
 Helpful in gathering information
 Help to attain educational objectives

 Criteria of Selection

 Should be in consistent with philosophy of institution

 Variable and flexible enough
 Provide opportunity to practice
 Provide opportunity for development thinking, decisions making, self-discipline,
judgment
 Planned and evaluated co-operative by teacher and student

 Organizing of learning Experience

 Aim is to bring and relate various learning experience together to produce the
maximum cumulative effect in order to give a unified view of the whole so that
the educational objectives are achieved
 Should be done carefully, sequentially and systemically
 Learning experiences have o be vertically and horizontally organized
 Principles Organizing
 Succeeding experiences are built upon preceding ones
 Experiences in one area and other to be related
 Should utilize allotted time cost effectively
 Organized in broad areas to facilitate relating in allied areas
 Broad principles of education to be applied and emphasized
 Provide ample opportunities for students in each area
 Provide opportunity to concentrate on one or more electives
 Organize in terms of broad subject matters; humanities, behavioral science etc
 Neither too flexible or rigid
 Clinical experiences and assignments on the basics of student’s experiences
 Organized in such a way that students are able to practice nursing

 Elements

 Grouping learning experiences under subject heading

 Preparation of master plan for curriculum
 Placement of learning experience in the curriculum
 Preparation of correlation chart
 Organization of clinical experience
 Follow teaching system

1.Group Learning
 To provide optimum experience to students
 Group learning experience under subject heading
2.Preparation of Master Plan
 Master plan guide teachers in the placement of subject matters and clinical experience
 Gives a clear idea when to plan the subject
 Should be prepared in accordance to the requirements of council and university

 Organization of clinical Experience

 Clinical rotation plan is the statement which explains the order of clinical posting
of various group of students belonging to different classes in relevant clinical and
community setting.

 Factors influencing clinical rotation

 Requirements as stated by university or council
 Objectives of the course
 Number of students could be posted
 Infrastructure of the clinical area
 Availability of educators for supervision

 Evaluation of Curriculum
 An assessment of the philosophy of the institution
 Program goals of the institution
 Nursing content taught in each course
 Course evaluation methods and
 The relationship of non-nursing courses to the overall plan study.

2.7 The needs for Curriculum Framework

 The implementation of curriculum structure that is sari-sari and developed

through hula-hula, laks ng kutob, or gaya-gaya becomes problematic because of
the confusions that it creates, limiting its effectiveness in producing the desired
outcomes.

 Taking into account the considerable expense for major nationwide curricular
reforms for basic education, it is necessary to underscore the need for curriculum
developers to pay attention to a multitude of concerns during the planning stage to
avoid wastage.

2.8 Phases of Curriculum Development

 There are 4 phases:

 PLANNING
 CONTENT AND METHODS
 IMPLEMENTATION
 EVALUATION

 Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps
are not always separate and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently.
 Planning

 The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development
steps. The steps in this phase include:

 Identity issue, problem, or need.

 The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a
major issue or problem of one or more target audience. This section explores
some of the questions that need to be addressed to define the issue and to develop
a statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum
development team.

 Form curriculum development team

 Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of
the curriculum development team can be selected. Topics covered in this selection
include:

1. The roles and functions of team members.

2. A process for selecting members of the curriculum development team.
3. Principles of collaboration and teamwork.

 The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas included in the scope of curriculum
content among the team members and develop an effective team.

 Conduct needs assessment and analysis

 There are two phases in the need’s assessment process. The first is procedures for
conducting a needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward
learning what is needed and whom relative to the identified issue.

 Content Methods

 Determines intended outcomes what learners will be able to after participation in

curriculum activities, the content what will be taught, and the methods how it will
be taught. Steps include:

 State intended outcomes

 Once issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed,
analyzed and prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed,
and develop the intended outcomes or educational objectives. An intended
outcomes states what the learner will be able to do as a result of participating in
the curriculum activities.

 This section includes:

 A definition of intended outcomes

 The components of intended outcomes (condition, performance, and standards)
 Examples of intended outcomes.
 An overview of learning behaviors.

 Design experiential methods

 After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities to help the learner
achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and its
component are discussed in this section.

 Additional topics include:

 Learning styles and activities appropriate for each style

 A list of types of activities (with descriptions)
 An activity design worksheet for facilitators and
 Brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.

 Implementation

 Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual
production of curriculum materials begins. This section includes:
 Suggestions for finding and evaluating existing materials;
 Evaluation criteria and
 Suggestions for producing curriculum materials.

 Test and revise curriculum

 This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative
evaluation of curriculum materials during the production phase. A sample
evaluation form provided.
 Reporting and securing resources

 It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is

not provided for facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting
appropriate facilitators are provided with a sample three-day training program.

 Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to

occur without planning. Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are
discussed in this step.

 Evaluation

 Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as

specific step. Two types of evaluation are formative and summative, are
used during curriculum development.

 Formative Evaluation Strategies

 Evaluations are used during the need’s assessment, product, development,

and testing steps.

 Summative Evaluation Strategies

 Evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the

curriculum.

3.HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ON THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE

PHILIPPINES

 Touched on the religion, economic, political, and social influences and

social influences and events that took place in the country. Colonial rules
in the Philippines tailored the curriculum to serve colonial goals and
objectives.

3.1 The Pre-Spanish Curriculum

 The Filipino possessed a culture of their own.

 They had contacts with other foreign peoples from Arabia, India, China,
Indo-China, and Borneo.
 The inhabitants were civilized people, possessing their systems of writing,
laws and moral standards in a well-organized government.
 As shown in the rule of Barangay’s their code of laws-the code of
kalantiao and maragtas, their belief in Bathala, and the solidarity of the
family were obedience and respect had been practiced.

3.2 Pre-Spanish Devised-Curriculum

 The Spanish Missionaries aim to control of the Filipinos, both body

and soul.
 The curriculum then consisted of 3R’s to attain goals were the
acceptance of Catholicism and the acceptance of Spanish rule.
 The schools were parochial or convent schools
 The main readings were the catechism
 The method of instruction was mainly individual memorization.

3.3 American Devised Curriculum

 The motive of the American was to conquer the Filipinos not only
physically but also mentally.
 The curriculum was based on the ideals and traditions of American
and her hierarchy of values.
 English was the medium of instruction.
 The primary curriculum prescribed for the Filipinos consisted of three
grades which provides training in two aspects; Body Training and the
Mental Training.

3.4 The Curriculum during Commonwealth

 (1935-1946) considered as the period of expansion and reform in the

Philippine curriculum.
 The educational leaders expanded the curriculum by introducing
course in the farming, domestic, science, etc.
 Commonwealth Act 586, also known as educational Act of 1940,
recognized the elementary school system.

3.5 The Japanese Devised Curriculum

 The devised curriculum for the Filipinos to suit their vested interest.
 They introduced many changes in the curriculum by including
Nipponggo, and abolishing English as the medium of instruction and
as a subject.
 All textbooks were censored and revised
 It caused a “black out” in the Philippine education and impeded the
educational progress of the Filipinos.

3.6 The Curriculum during the Liberation Period

 (1945) Steps were taken to improve the curriculum existing before the
war, some steps taken were to restore grade VII to abolish the double-
single session, and most specially to adopt the modern trends in
education taken from the U.S.
 The curriculum remained basically the same as before and was still
subject-centered

3.7 The Curriculum during the Philippine Republic

 Great experiments in the community school and the use of vernacular

in the first two grades of the primary schools as the medium of
instruction were some of them.
 An experiment worth mentioning that led to a change in the Philippine
Educational Philosophy was that of school and community
collaboration pioneered by Jose V. Aguilar
 Schools are increasingly using instructional materials that are
Philippine -oriented
 Memorandum No.30,1966 sets the order priority in the purchase of
books for use in the schools were as follows:
 Books which are contributions to Phil. Literature
 Books on character education and other library materials
 Library equipment and permanent features

3.8 The Curriculum in the New Society

 The emphasis of the new society is on moral values, relevance, proper

methods of teaching, retraining of teachers, vocational and technical
education, bilingualism, national consciousness and cultural values.
 To guarantee that the educational system would be relevant and
responsive to the challenges and requirements of national, provincial
and local development.
 Make schools responsive to the needs of the new society
 Tom train nation’s manpower in middle level in skills required for
national development
 Provide broad general education that will assist each individual in his
development as a whole human being useful his fellowmen and to his
country
 Develop high-level professions that will provide leadership for the
nation and advance knowledge through research.

4. CRAFTING THE CURRICULUM

4.1 What is Curriculum Design?
 Curriculum design is a statement which identifies the elements of a
curriculum, states what their relationships are to each other, and
requirement of that organization and requirement of that organization for
the administrative conditions under which it is to operate.

 Johnson identified 3 notions of curriculum designs:

 An arrangement of selected and order learning outcomes intended to be achieved

through instruction
 An arrangement of selected and ordered learning experiences to be provided in an
instructional situation
 A scheme for planning and providing learning experiences.

 In designing curriculum, we should consider the philosophical and

learning theories to determine if our design decisions are in consonance
with our basic beliefs concerning:
 People
 What and How They should learn
 How they should use their acquired knowledge

Components of design in designing curriculum

 We should consider the philosophical and learning theories to determine if our design
decisions are in consonance with our basic beliefs concerning: People What & How
they should learn How they should use their acquired knowledge
 We should also concern the nature and arrangement of four basic parts (Giles, H.H, 1942)
7 OBJECTIVES What should be done? CONTENT What subject matter should be
included? LEARNING EXPERIENCES What instructional strategies, resources &
activities should be employed? EVALUATION What methods & instruments should be
used to judge the results of the curriculum.

 Involves issues based on three base ideas; 8 Interpretation & Selection of objectives
Selection & organization of content Decisions about how to teach the contents Evaluation
of the developed curriculum Theoretical Philosophical Practical INFLUENCE.

SOURCES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

 Contains only observable & quantifiable elements. Priority: Problem solving & thinking
strategies Emphasizes learning how to learn Why? Because the knowledge increase so
rapidly, the only constant seems to be the procedures by which we process knowledge.

 Society as a source draw idea from analysis of the social situation Operates within social,
economic, & political contexts Priority: Address Students’ unique needs diverse social
groups Emphasis: Collaboration among diverse individuals & groups Why? School is an
agent of society, -> we must consider current & future society.

 Doctrine as a source considering the relationship between knowledge & people’s

spirituality. Guided by religious texts Priority: Questions about the nature of the world,
the purpose of life, what it means to be human & knowledgeable Emphasis: Develop
empathy & compassion, consider & promote welfare of others, welcome different
viewpoints.

 Learner as a source curriculum derived from our knowledge of students. How: They
learn, form attitudes, generate interest, develop values Priority: Seeks to empower
Students & foster their individual uniqueness. Emphasis: Draw ideas from psychological
foundations, especially how minds create meaning Why? Every learner is unique,
educational environment physically affect brain development.

Guidelines for Curriculum Design

 Create a curriculum design committee. Create a schedule meeting to make curriculum
design decisions. Gather data about educational issues and suggested solutions. Process
data on available curriculum designs, compare cost, scheduling, students’ characteristics
and academic strengths, learning environments, whether community accept the design.
Schedule time for reflection on the design. Schedule time for revision of the design.
Explain the design to educational colleagues, community members, if appropriate
students.

4.2 Model of Curriculum

 3 Curriculum Model

 The Tyler Model

 The Taba Model
 The Saylor and Alexander Model

 Tyler Model

 From Tyler’s model of curriculum development there are four basic questions:
 What is the purpose of the education?
 What educational experiences will attain the purposes?
 How can these experiences be effectively organized?
 How can determine when the purpose are met?
 Taba Models

 She believed that teachers who teach curriculum should practice or participate in
developing curriculum. Which led to the model she called grass-roots approach.
 Taba proposed 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would
have a major input throughout the curriculum development process.
 Taba said Tyler’s model was more of Administrative Model

 8 steps of the Taba model of curriculum development

 Identify the needs of the students

 Develop objectives
 Choose content that matches the objectives
 Organize content considering the learners experiences and background
 Select instructional method that promotes student engagement
 Organize learning experiences by sequencing content
 Evaluate to ensure mastery
 Checking for the balance and sequence.

 The Saylor and Alexander Model

 The curriculum planner must begin by setting educational goals and specific that
wish to accomplish, Saylor, Alexander classified sets of broad goals into four
domains under which learning experiences may take place: personal development,
social competence, continued learning skills, and specialization.
 Once the learning goals, objectives and domains have been established, the
planners can then move into process of planning the curriculum.
 The first step, curriculum designing is made by the curriculum planning groups.
Here the curriculum workers decide on the appropriate learning opportunities will
be made available.
 After the designs have been created, curriculum will be related to the learner.
 Finally, teachers and curriculum planners evaluate the curriculum. They evaluate
the total educational program and the evaluation program itself during this step of
the process. This process allows educators to determine whether not the goals and
learning objectives have been met.

4.3 Principles and Dimension of Curriculum Design

 Curriculum designs provide clear relationships between and among the different
elements of the curriculum:
 Objectives
 Contents
 Activities
 Evaluation

 Dimension of Curriculum Design

 SCOPE
 SEQUENCE
 CONTINUITY
 INTEGRATION
 ARTICULATION
 BALANCE

 SCOPE

 All the content, topics, learning experiences and organizing threads comprising the
educational plan
 The terms broad, limited, simple, general are few of the words that can describe the
scope
 It refers to the coverage of the curriculum
 The scope of the curriculum can be divided into chunks called units, sub units,
chapters or sub-chapters as the case may be.
 Each chunk is guided by the general curriculum objectives or goals.

 Considerations in determination of the Scope

 Curricular coverage
 Time
 Diversity
 Maturity of the learners
 Complexity of content
 Level of education

 SEQUENCE
 Contents and experiences are arranged manner.
 A particular order in which related events, movements, or things follow each
other

 4 principles for sequence

 Simple to complex learning – content and experiences are organized from simple
to complex concrete to abstract easy to difficult.
 Prerequisite Learning- there are fundamental things to be learned ahead.
 Whole to Part Learning – overview before the specific content or topics. Related
to gestalt principle
 Chronological learning – the order of events is made as a basis of sequencing the
content and experiences.

 CONTINUITY
 Vertical repetition and recurring appearances of the content provide continuity in the
curriculum. This process enables the learner to strengthen the permanency of learning
and development of skills. Gerome Bruner calls this “spiral curriculum” For learners to
develop the ideas, these have to be developed and redeveloped in a spiral fashion in
increasing depth and breadth as the learner’s advance.

 INTEGRATION
 Everything is integrated and interconnected. Life is a series of emerging themes.” This is
the essence of integration in the curriculum design. Organization is drawn from the world
themes from real life concerns. Subject matter content or disciplined content lines are
erased and isolation is eliminated.

 ARTICULATION
 Can be done either vertically or horizontally. In vertical articulation, contents are
arranged from level to level or grade to grade so that the content in a lower level is
connected to the next level. Horizontal articulation happens at the same time like social
studies in grade six is related to science in grade six.

 BALANCE

 Equitable assignment of content, time, experiences and other elements to establish

balance is needed in curriculum design. Too much or too little of these elements maybe
disastrous to the curriculum. Keeping the curriculum “in balance” requires continuous
fine tuning and review for its effectiveness and relevance.

4.4 Approaches to Curriculum Design

 The six Features of a Curriculum

 The Teacher
 The Learners
  Knowledge, Skills, Values
 Strategies and Methods
 Performance
  Community Partners 

 Child or Learner-Centered Approach

 This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying philosophy that the
child is the center of the educational process.
  Curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interests, purposes and abilities of
the learners
  Curriculum is also built upon the learner’s knowledge, skills, learning and
potentials

 This approach considers the following:

 A new respect for the child is fundamental
 A new freedom of action is provided
 The whole activity is divided into units of work 
 The recognition of the need for using and exploring many media for self-
discovery and self-direction is embraced

 Subject Centered- Approach

 Anchored on the curriculum design which prescribes different and separate

subjects into one broad field, this approach considers the following:
 The primary focus is the subject matter. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of
information which are detached from life. The continuing pursuit of learning
outside the school is not emphasized. Learning should only take place inside
the classroom.
 The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems in living. 

 Problem-centered Approach

 This approach is based on a curriculum design which assumes that in the process
of living, children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the
learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete or total development as
individuals.
 This approach is characterized by the ff. views and beliefs: 
 the learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving
problems, thus they become independent learners. the learners are prepared to
assume their civic responsibilities through direct participation and different
activities.
  At the curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems
and in seeking solutions. The learners are considered as problem solvers.

 Human Relations Approach

 Need for attention
 Social interaction 
 Individual achievement
 Intended as a move away from the “organization as machine” metaphor
 Management recognizes employees as humans. Employees are valued.

4.5 Steps in Crafting the Curriculum

 Crafting a curriculum is a challenging task. It involves different steps. Each steps
determine the learning outcomes need to be achieved, the content should be
included to achieve the learning outcome, learning experiences and resources should
be employed and how to measure the achieved learning outcomes.

 Behavioral Objectives or Intended learning Outcomes

 Begin with the end in view. The objective or intended learning outcomes are the
reasons for undertaking the lesson from student’s point of view; it is desired
learning outcome that is to be accomplished in a particular learning episode,
engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum
designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the outcomes to be achieved. In
this way, both the learner and the teacher are guided by what to accomplish.

 Content/Subject Matter

 The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered.
In selecting content, you should bear in mind the following principles:

 Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective

curriculum is purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes.
 Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An effective
curriculum is progressive, leading students towards building o previous lessons.
Contents which are too basic or too advanced for the development levels of learners
make either bored or baffled, and affect their motivation to learn.
 Subject matter should be up to date, if possible, should reflect current knowledge
and concepts.

 References

 The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has
been taken. The reference may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear
the author of the material and if possible, the publications.

 Teaching and Learning Methods

 These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to
keep in mind the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures,
laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and make them learn. The teaching-learning
methods allow cooperation, competition as well as individualism or independent
learning among the students.
 Examples:

 Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided
to learn on their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the teachers is
to guide the learners.
 Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility.
The degree of independence is enhanced. This appropriate for fast learners.
 Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in
a healthy manner allow learners to perform to their maximum.
 The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is recommended.
Online learning and similar modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but
these need to be planned carefully to be effective.

 Assessment/Evaluation

 Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they
receive information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process
which this information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:

 Self-assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate own

learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to
produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical.
 Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on which other’s learning. This
can be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and presupposes trust and mutual
respect. Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other’s work as
reliably as staff.
 Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives
feedbacks on the student’s performance.
 Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more)
or summative (expressing a judgment on the student’s achievement by references to
stated criteria).

4.6 Persons Involve in Curriculum

 A craft is a skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a trade or particular
art.

 Carl Rogers
 (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American psychologist and
among the founders of the humanistic approach to psychology. Rogers is widely
considered to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored
for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by
the American Psychological Association in 1956.
 The person-centered approach, his own unique approach to understanding personality and
human relationships, found wide application in various domains such as psychotherapy
and counseling (client-centered therapy), education (student-centered learning),
organizations, and other group settings. For his professional work he was bestowed the
Award for Distinguished Professional Contributions to Psychology by the APA in 1972.
Towards the end of his life Carl Rogers was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for his
work with national intergroup conflict in South Africa and Northern Ireland. In an
empirical study by Haggbloom et al. (2002) using six criteria such as citations and
recognition, Rogers was found to be the sixth most eminent psychologist of the 20th
century and second, among clinicians, only to Sigmund Freud.

 Abraham Harold Maslow

 (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. He is noted for his
conceptualization of a " hierarchy of human needs”, and is considered the founder of
humanistic psychology.
 Maslow created to explain his theory, which he called the Hierarchy of Needs, is a
pyramid depicting the levels of human needs, psychological and physical. When a human
being ascends the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. At the bottom of the
pyramid are the “Basic needs or Physiological needs” of a human being, food and water
and sex. The next level is “Safety Needs: Security, Order, and Stability.
 These two steps are important to the physical survival of the person. Once individuals
have basic nutrition, shelter and safety, they attempt to accomplish more.
 The third level of need is “Love and Belonging,” which are psychological needs; when
individuals have taken care of themselves physically, they are ready to share themselves
with others.
 The fourth level is achieved when individuals feel comfortable with what they have
accomplished. This is the “Esteem” level, the level of success and status (from self and
others). The top of the pyramid, “Need for Self-actualization,” occurs when individuals
reach a state of harmony and understanding. (The Developing Person through the Life
Span, (1983).

 John Dewey
 (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and
educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform.
Dewey, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of
the founders of the philosophy of pragmatism and of functional psychology.

 He was a major representative of the progressive and progressive populist[2]

philosophies of schooling during the first half of the 20th century in the USA.[3]<br
/>Although Dewey is known best for his publications concerning education, he also
wrote about many other topics, including experience, nature, art, logic, inquiry,
democracy, and ethics.
 Dewey's educational theories were presented in My Pedagogic Creed (1897), The School
and Society (1900), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education
(1916) and Experience and Education (1938). Throughout these writings, several
recurrent themes ring true.
 Dewey continually argues that education and learning are social and interactive
processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform
can and should take place. In addition, he believed that students thrive in an environment
where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students
should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning.
 Dewey also had specific notions regarding how education should take place within the
classroom. In the Child and the Curriculum (1902), Dewey discusses two major
conflicting schools of thought regarding educational pedagogy.
 The first is centered on the curriculum and focuses almost solely on the subject matter to
be taught.
 Dewey argues that the major flaw in this methodology is the inactivity of the student;
within this particular framework, “the child is simply the immature being who is to be
matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened” (1902, p. 13) [21].
 He argues that in order for education to be most effective, content must be presented in a
way that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening
the connection with this new knowledge.

 Fredrich Wilhelm August Frobel

 (April 21, 1782 – June 21, 1852) was a German pedagogue, a student of Pestalozzi who
laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have
unique needs and capabilities.

 He developed the concept of the “kindergarten”, and also coined the word now used in
German and English. Frobel’s idea of the kindergarten found appeal, but its spread in
Germany was thwarted by the Prussian government, whose education ministry banned it
on 7 August 1851 as “atheistic and demagogic” for its alleged “destructive tendencies in
the areas of religion and politics”. Other states followed suit. The reason for the ban,
however, seems to have been a confusion of names.

 Frobel’s nephew Karl Fröbel had written and published Weibliche Hochschulen und
Kindergartens (“Female Colleges and Kindergartens”), which apparently met with some
disapproval.

 To quote Karl August Varnhagen von Ense, “The stupid minister von Raumer has
decreed a ban on kindergartens, basing himself on a book by Karl Fröbel. He is confusing
Friedrich and Karl Fröbel.

 Henry Clinton Morrison

 (1871-1945) was the New Hampshire state superintendent of public instruction from
1904 to 1917, superintendent of University of Chicago Laboratory Schools from 1919 to
1928, professor of education, and an author.
 Morrison entered as the teaching principal at Milford High School from 1895 through
1899. He taught mathematics, Latin, history, and science but became known for his
ability to deal with misbehaved students.
 The reputation Morrison built led to the offer to be the superintendent of schools for
Portsmouth, New Hampshire from 1899-1904. Morrison married Marion Locke and the
two had three sons together.
 In 1904, Morrison was promoted to New Hampshire State Superintendent of Public
Instruction. He held this position for thirteen years and during that time he examined and
approved all schools throughout the state, served on the state medical board, examined
teachers, and supervised attendance and child labor laws.
 During the year of 1908, he was elected president of the American Institute of
Instruction. In 1912, the dean of the School of Education at the University of Chicago,
asked him to be the guest speaker for a summer session in Chicago. 
 Morrison later became great friends with the dean, Charles Hubbard Judd, which proved
to be important later in Morrison’s career. From 1917 to 1919 Morrison lived in
Connecticut and took a position on the Connecticut State Board of Education.
 After two years serving on the state board, the position of superintendent of the
University of Chicago Laboratory Schools became available. Charles Judd. the dean of
the college. was familiar with Morrison through their previous encounters and offered
Morrison the job.
 Morrison moved to Chicago and held the position of superintendent of Laboratory
Schools until 1928. He left the position as superintendent to become the Professor of
School Administration until 1937. Morrison is best remembered for the work and
research he did at the University of Chicago.

 He believed that the student learned best by adapting or responding to a situation.

 Morrison configured the secondary curriculum into five types: science, appreciation,
practical arts, language arts, and pure-practice. He also identified a five-step instructional
pattern: pretest, teaching, testing the results of instruction, changing the instruction
procedure, and teaching and testing again until the unit is mastered by the student. 
 Morrison’s landmark publication was the Practice of Teaching in Secondary Schools. 
This book is widely known as a way to use teaching from the 1920’s to the 1940’s. Morrison
retired from the University of Chicago in 1937 and later died of a heart attack in 1945.

5.IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM

5.1 The Role of Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation
 Stakeholders are individuals or institutions that are interested in the school curriculum.
Their interests vary in degree and complexity. They get involved in many different ways
in the implementation, because the curriculum affects them directly or indirectly.
 The learner is placed at the center.
 The learners are the very reason a curriculum is developed. They are the ones who are
directly influenced by it. Learners in all levels make or unmake the curriculum by their
active and direct involvement. How each individual learner contributes to the realization
of a planned curriculum would depend on the interactions and internalization of the
different learning experiences provided?
 The teacher designs, enriches, and modifies the curriculum to suit the learner’s
characteristics.  A teacher is a curriculum maker. 
 Teachers are empowered to develop their own curricula taking into consideration their
own expertise, the context of the school and the abilities of the learners. By so doing,
teachers become architects of school curriculum.
5.2 The role of Teachers in Curriculum Implementation
 Teachers know their students better than others involved in the curriculum process. 
 Teachers from multiple grade levels may collaborate to identify skills students need at
each level and ensure that the curriculum adequately prepares students to advance to the
next grade-level teacher’s role in the creation of the curriculum:
 A teacher can gauge whether an activity will fit into a specified time frame and engage
students. 
 Teachers should be allowed to provide input during the creation stage. As teachers
provide input, they will gain ownership in the product and feel more confident that the
curriculum was created with their concerns, and the needs of their students in mind.
 Teachers must implement the curriculum in their own classroom sticking to the plan that
has taken so much time, careful planning and effort to create. When a teacher fails to
properly implement a strong curriculum, she risks not covering standards or failing to
implement effective practices in the classroom.
 That does not mean a teacher can’t make minor changes. In fact, a strong curriculum is
designed to allow a teacher to be flexible to add a few personalized components, from a
selection of activities.
 Teachers may reflect on curriculum in multiple ways such as keeping a journal as they
implement the curriculum giving student reviews and surveys, analyzing results and
assessments, data about student’s individual performance. Not only can reflection serve
to improve a specific curriculum, it may guide the creation of a new curriculum.
 Teacher’s prior beliefs and practices can pose challenges, not only because teachers are
unwilling to change in the direction of the policy, but also because their understandings
may interfere with their ability to interpret and implement the reforms in ways consistent
with the designer’s intent.

5.3 The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum

 In delivering the curriculum the role of technology is very important.
 Right at the planning phase of any instruction, aside from formulating the objectives and
among other considerations, there is a need to identify what instructional media are to be
utilized in the implementation.
 Upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools. Increasing the capability of
the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for students to gain mastery of lessons
 Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional approaches
to formal and informal learning, such as Open Universities and lifelong learning to adult
learners.
 Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that give
importance to students-centered and holistic learning.

5.4 Pilot Testing, Monitoring, and Evaluating the Implementation of the Curriculum
 This process will gather empirical data to support whether the material or the curriculum
is useful, relevant, reliable and valid. Most field testing or try out follow some form of
research designs.
 Using the principles of curriculum writing and backed up by the content specialization of
the writers and the consultants, the modules were written. The printed modules were
reviewed by the consultants and peers, however, there was a need to try out or pilot test
the activities and the field practical by the users who are the student themselves.
 The try out or pilot testing assures the teachers and the schools that indeed the curriculum
materials are ready for printing and distribution.
 Modification and revision are inherent characteristics of a curriculum. The pilot test or try
– out is a developmental process that gives the signal as to whether the particular
curriculum can already be implemented with confidence.

 Curriculum Monitoring 
 Monitoring asks the question: How are we doing? Is the curriculum accomplishing its
intended purposes?
 Monitoring is also important to determine is the curriculum is still relevant and effective.
 Monitoring is a periodic assessment and adjustment during the try –out period. It is like
formative evaluation. It determines how the curriculum is working, such that the
monitoring report becomes the basis of a decision on what aspects have to be retained,
improved or modified.
 Monitoring also provides decision that would even end or terminate the program.
Usually, monitoring is done by the module writers, curriculum experts or outside
agencies. It is very important aspect of curriculum.

 Curriculum Evaluation

 Curriculum evaluation as part of total educational evaluation refers to a systematic

process of judging the value, effectiveness and adequacy of a curriculum: its process,
product and setting will lead of informed decision. Evaluation should be useful and
systematic. 

 School – Based Evaluation

 Is an approach to curriculum evaluation which places the content, design, operation, and
maintenance of evaluation procedure in the hands of the school personnel. The school
personnel participate in the planning and conduct of school evaluation activities. It is a
participative evaluation where the control and management of the process rest on the
school personnel themselves.

 Accreditation

 This is a voluntary process of submitting a curricular program to an external accrediting

body for review in any level of education: basic, tertiary or graduate school to assure
standard. Accreditation studies the statement of the educational intentions of the school
and affirms a standard of excellence.
 Graduation requirements

 Graduation means successful accomplishments of the curricular program of studies. A

student has to accomplish its academic program as prescribes in the program of studies
mentioned earlier. These requirements are clearly understood upon enrollment in college
by the students and by the parents for students in the elementary or high schools.

6. CURRICULUM EVALUATION

6.1 What is Curriculum Evaluation?

 Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a programmed to determine its value or
worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject, or revise the programmed. The
developer or planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum product. The public
want to know whether the curriculum implemented has achieved its aims and objectives
Teachers want to know whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective.
 Curriculum evaluation should be concerned with assessing the value of a program of
study and a course of study a field of study.

6.2 Types of Curriculum Evaluation

 Formative
 Formative evaluation – during the development of the program.

 Summative
 Summative evaluation at the end of the program for example, results of formative
evaluation may help in modification of on-going program elements.

6.3 Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation

 Examine and evaluate the historical, philosophical, ethical, social, economic and political
influence on curriculum. 
 Evaluate curriculum methods and structures in relation to national curricular standards
and to national value-added mandates.
 Relate cognitive and brain-based research to curricular methods, structure and intents.
 Analyze the compatibility of curriculum and related assessments. 
 Explore the effects of curriculum on teaching, learning, supervision and policy.
 Evaluate the curricular demands of a digital age.
 Define personal philosophy and approaches regarding curriculum design, development
and implementation.
6.4 Role of Evaluation in Curriculum Development

 Curriculum evaluation identifies the strengths and weaknesses of an existing curriculum

that will be the basis of the intended plan, design or implementation. 

 When evaluation is done in the middle of the curriculum development, it will tell if the
designed or implemented curriculum can produce or is producing the desired results.

 Curriculum evaluation will guide whether the results have equaled or exceeded the
standards, thus can be labeled as success.
 Curriculum evaluation provides information necessary for teachers, school managers,
curriculum specialist for policy recommendations that will enhance achieved learning
outcomes.

6.5 Intended vs Implemented vs Achieved Curriculum

 The intended curriculum

 refers to the curricular goals of the education system and the structures established to
achieve them.
 Intended curriculum (written).

 The implemented curriculum

 refers to the practices, activities, and institutional arrangements within the school and
classroom that are designed to implement the goals of the system.
 Implemented curriculum (taught).

 The achieved curriculum 

 refers to the products of schooling.
 Achieved curriculum (learned / attained).

6.6 Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation

 Significance
 Brings the content to the degree to which it contributes the basic ideas, concepts,
principles and generalization and to the development of particular learning abilities,
skills, processes and attitudes.

 Validity
 Refers to the degree of authenticity of the content selected and to the congruence of the
content in the light of the objectives selected.
 
 Interest
 Is the degree to which the content – either caters or fosters particular interest in the
students. 

 Learnability
 Is the appropriateness of the content in the light of the particular students who are to
experience the curriculum.

 Feasibility
 Refers to the question, “Can the selected content be taught in the time allowed,
considering the resources, staff and particular community?”

6.7 Tools to Evaluate Curriculum

 Strategies are the structures through which student knowledge and skills are assessed.
Finding out what students know and can do requires multiple sources of information and
differing types of assessment. The key is to match the learning and the assessment tool.
The selection of a strategy is determined both by what is to be assessed and the reasons or
purposes for the assessment. The phase of the learning process at which the teacher and
the students are working affects the selection of the assessment strategy and the tools
used as one tool may be unsuitable for different purposes.

PAPER-AND-PENCIL STRATEGY
 Is a writing sample used to assess student understanding and/ or how well students can
analyses and synthesize information? A student constructs a response to a question, topic
or a brief statement. Provides the student with the opportunity to communicate his/her
reasoning in a written response.
PERFORMANCE BASED STRETEGY
 Is the assessment which is requires students to demonstrate a skill or proficiency by
asking them to create, produce, or perform. -May be an observation of a student or group
of students performing a specific task to demonstrate skills and or knowledge through
open-ended, “hands-on” activities.

 THE EXHIBITION/DEMONSTRATION - Is a performance in which a student

demonstrates individual achievement through application of specific skills and
knowledge. - Is used to assess progress in task that require students to be actively
engaged in an activity.

OBSERVATIONAL STRATEGY
 Is a process of systematically viewing and recording student behaviors for the purpose of
making programming decisions; permeates the entire teaching process by assisting the
teacher in making the decisions required in effective teaching.

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGY

 Is a formal or informal meeting between/among the teacher and student and/or parent; -
Has a clear focus on learning for discussion. THE INTERVIEW - Is a form of
conversation in which all parties (teacher, student and parent) increase their knowledge
and understanding.

ORAL STRATEGY
 Are posed by the teacher to determine if the students understand what is being/has been
presented or to extend thinking, generate ideas or problem- solved. Answers: -To provide
opportunities for oral assessment when the student responds to a question by speaking
rather than writing.

REFLECTIVE STRATEGY
 Is the process of gathering information and reflecting on one’s own learning; -Is the
student’s own assessment of personal progress in knowledge, skills, processes, or
attitudes; -Leads a student to a greater awareness and understanding of himself or herself
as a learner.
COMBINATION OF STRATEGIES
 Is a purposeful collection of samples of a student’s work that is selective, reflective, and
collaborative; -Demonstrates the range and depth of a student’s achievement, knowledge,
and skills overtime and across a variety of contexts; -Has student involvement in
selection of portfolio materials as part of the process; -Is a visual presentation of a
student’s accomplishments, capabilities, strengths, weakness, and progress over a
specified time.

RECORDING DEVICES/ TOOLS 

 Recording devices provide various means of organizing the recordings of information
about student achievement. Teachers can choose or develop recording devices which suit
the teacher’s style, the students and the activity or learning being assessed. 

6.8 The Models of Curriculum Evaluation

ALADE’S SIX MODELS

 Alade (2006) classified models of curriculum evaluation into six, viz: 1. The Classical
Model, 2. Research and Development Model, 3. Illumination Model, 4. Briefing
Decision-Makers Model, 5. Teacher as Research (Professional) Model.

 OLAITAN’S FOUR MODELS

 In respect of vocational-technical education evaluation, Olaitan (1996) identified the
following evaluation models which had been employed by a good number of researchers.
They include:
 the Illumination Model
 the Goal-Free Model, • the Context, The Transactional Model.
 They had been found reliable as a guide for collecting evaluative data in curriculum
evaluation.

TYLER’S MODEL
 Selecting learning experiences Organizing learning experiences Evaluation of Students
Performance What educational goals should the school seek to attain? How can learning
experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these objectives? How
can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction? How can the
effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?
CIPP MODEL
 The CIPP model of evaluation concentrates on: Context of the programmed Input into the
programmed Process within the programmed product of the programmed.

6.9 Need for Curriculum Evaluation

 To provide a conceptual framework for specific purpose of the evaluation. Several

experts have proposed different models describing how and what should be involved in
evaluating a curriculum. Models are useful because they help us define the parameters of
an evaluation, what concepts to study and the procedures to be used to extract important
data.

 Why do need to evaluate the Curriculum?

1. Identify the weaknesses, and defect problems in the curriculum - identifying the weaknesses
not just knowing the strength because it can help the evaluator provide solutions immediately to
the possible and unexpected problem.
2. Guide if it can be labeled as success – monitoring what happens in the curriculum, and focus
what needed to guide it to have a successful curriculum.
3. Decision Making, must not forget what decisions of evaluator did in the first place of making
the curriculum, to avoid irrelevant decisions and that may affect the curriculum. The decisions
that can help the curriculum improved and develop.

6.10 Steps in Conducting the Curriculum Evaluation

 Strategy and the tools used as one tool may be unsuitable for different purposes.
Identifying primary audiences. 
 Curriculum Program Sponsors, Managers and Administrators, School Heads,
Participants (Teachers and Students) Content Specialist; other stakeholders.

Identifying critical issues/problems

 Outcomes (expected, desired, intended) Process (Implementation) Resources ( Inputs ).
Identifying data source.
 People (teachers, students, parents, curriculum developers) Existing documents;
Available records; Evaluation Studies.
Identifying techniques for collecting data
 Standardized Test, Informal tests; Samples of Students Work; Interviews; Participant
Observations, Checklist, Anecdotal records.

6.11 Strategies in Evaluating Curriculum

 Strategies are the structures through which student knowledge and skills are assessed.
Finding out what students know and can do requires multiple sources of information and
differing types of assessment. The key is to match the learning and the assessment tool.
The selection of a strategy is determined both by what is to be assessed and the reasons or
purposes for the assessment. The phase of the learning process at which the teacher and
the students are working affects the selection of the assessment.

7 ADDRESSING THE FUTURE: CURRICULUM TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS

7.1 Curriculum Innovation: Local and Global Trends
 2002 Basic Education Curriculum (BEC)

 The DO 25, S.2002 or the Implementation of the 2002 Basic Education Curriculum was
implemented on June 17, 2002.
The Department of Educations, envisions every learner to be functionally literate,
equipped with life skills, appreciative of arts and sports and imbued with the desirable values
of a person who is Makabayan, Makatao, Makakalikasan, at Maka-Diyos.This vision is in
line with the DepEd mission to provide quality basic education that is equitably accessible to
all and lays the foundation for lifelong learning and service for the common good.
*Parameters of the BEC*
a. Objectives- are expressed in terms of competencies in knowledge (cognitive
domain); skills (psychomotor domain); attitude (affective domain). These determine the
content which focuses on the process and skills of learning how to learn rather than on
the content coverage of facts and information.
b. Content- is delivered using a variety of media and resources. Content is
contextualized so that the curriculum is adjusted to the situation and local culture.
c. Materials- The use of multi-sensory materials is encouraging in teaching. The
use of local or community resources as well as technology-driven support materials are
utilized in the learning environment.
d. Teaching-learning process- considers the learners as active partners rather than
objects of teaching. The learners are constructors of meaning, while teachers act as a
facilitators, enablers, and managers of learning.
e. Evaluation- is encourage to schools. This will allow schools to make
adjustments with regards to objectives, content, materials, teaching-learning process in
order to achieve desired learning outcomes.

* Salient Features of the Curriculum*

Five Learning Areas
-English
-Mathematics
-Makabayan
-Science
-Filipino
Tool Subjects
-Filipino
-English
-Science
Develop Internationalism
-English
-Mathematics
-Science
Enhance Nationalism
-Makabayan
-Filipino
Laboratory of Life
-Makabayan
-Philippine History
-Politico-economic System
-Local Cultures
-Crafts
-Arts
-Music
-Games
*Makabayan in Elementary Schools*
 Grades 1-3
-Sibika at Kultura with MSEP
 Grades 4-6
 Heograpiya, Kasaysayan at Sibika (HeKaSi)
 Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP)
 Musika, Sining at Edukasyong Pangkatawan (MSEP)
 GMRC (Good Manners and Right Conduct) is integrated in all subjects.
*Makabayan in High Schools*
 Social Studies or Araling Panlipunan
-1st Year: Philippine History and Governance
-2nd Year: Asian Studies
-3rd Year: World History
-4th Year: Economics

 Technology and Livelihood Education(TLE)

 Music, Arts, Physical Education and Health (MAPEH)
 Values Education (VE) or
 Edukasyong Pagpapahalaga
2. Third Elementary Education Project(TEEP)
The DO 43, S. 1998 or the signing Authority for the Third Elementary Education was
conducted on May 14,1998.This was the flagship project of the Department of Education on
response to the Social Reform Agenda Initiatives of the government.The project was focused
only on the elementary level and the goals were improved learning achievement,improve
completion rates, access to quality elementary education.The TEEP aimed to build institutional
capacity of the Department of Education to manage change and actively involve
parents,teachers,community leaders as stakeholders for quality education.
This was funded by World Bank(WB) and Japan Bank for International Cooperation(JBIC),
TEEP began in 1996 and concluded in 2005.

*Major Educational Components of TEEP*

1. Advocacy
2. In-service training for teachers(INSET)
3. School Improvement and Innovation Facility(SIIF)
4. Students Assessments(SA)
5. Educational Management Information System(EMIS)
6. Procurement
7. Monitoring and Evaluation

3.Secondary Education Development and Improvement Project(SEDIP)

The DO 18,S. 2003 or Integrating the Secondary Education Development and
Improvement Project(SEDIP) with the Bureau of Secondary Education(BSE) was
implemented on March 18, 2003.
SEDIP is a curricular innovation which dovetailed the Third Elementary Education
Project(TEEP). Its purpose was to improve equitable access to secondary education in
poverty affected areas: a)improving teaching and learning b) improving access to Secondary
Education and c) facilitating decentralized Secondary Education Management.The SEDIP
innovation started in 2000 and ended in 2006. Initial results showed gains,and best practices
have been replicated in other divisions which were not participants in the project.

4.The New Teacher Education Curriculum for BEED and BSED.

This new Teacher Education Curriculum was implemented by CMO 30, S. 2004.These are
two teacher education degrees which are offered by the Teacher Training Institutions. These are
the BEED and BSED.
The BEED is structured to meet the needs of professional teachers for elementary schools
and special education programs and the BSED for the needs of professional teachers for high
schools in the Philippines.The BEED aims to develop elementary school teachers who are either
generalist who can teach across the different areas in grade school or who can teach as a whole
while the BSED aims to develop high school teachers who can teach in one of the different
learning areas in high school like Mathematics,Physical Science,Biological
Sciences,English,Filipino and among others.
The new teacher education curriculum is made up of three components. For both the BEED
and the BSED, a sixty three(63) unit general education is required. Professional education
courses for BEED is fifty four(54) units while the BSED requires fifty one(51) units. The
specialization or content of courses required for the elementary teachers is fifty seven(57) units
and those who will be teaching in the high school are required sixty(60) units of content. Both
degree courses require one hundred seventy four(174) units.The general Education Courses
continue to follow the existing general education courses for other than teacher education.This is
mandated in CHED Memo no. 59, S. 1996.
5. The Laddered Curriculum for Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE)
The Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education prepares teachers in technical-vocational
education. (TVET) and higher education institutions who are equipped not only with strong
theoretical understanding of teaching and technology but also with exposure to industry. The
curricular program of BTTE shall impart knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and experience that
will provide prospective teachers with the necessary competencies essential in effective teaching.
The specific body of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and experiences include general
education component, specialization component and instruction technology component.
a. general Education component is consistent of the CHED Memo 59 composed of sixty
units of courses in humanities, languages, natural and behavioral sciences, computer
proficiency, mathematics, logic and ethics which are all aimed to make a person broadly
educated, creative, cultured, morally upright and productive.
b. Professional studies component includes philosophy and aims technology education,
curriculum development and teaching- learning processes. It also includes clinical
experiences and teaching and the mastery of the Philippine Trainers Qualification
Framework (PTTQF).
c. Specialization component that includes the in-depth knowledge of content and specified
skills in the major fields including industry exposure.
d. Instructional technology component that include competencies in the use of technology in
teaching and training.

CURRICULAR MODEL A of BTTE

Model A is offered for high school graduate who could meet the admission requirements of
the College. The characteristics of the model are as follows:
a. The program of study for the general and professional education subjects is based on
CHED memo 30, s,2004.
b. The technology major subjects are based on the competency standards indicated in
the Training Regulations of the Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority (TESDA).
c. The interfacing of CHED and TESDA provides the student to exit after one, two or
three years with specific job opportunities and allows them to continue their studies
for the four years of BTTE giving full credits to all subjects taken in the previous
years.
d. If the student prefers to work after one year of study, he could exit the laddered
program with certificate of achievement. He/she is also qualified to take the
assessment for national certificate (NC) administered by TESDA.
e. Students who choose to finish the four-year BTTE degree should meet the criteria for
admission to the degree. After finishing the four years BTTE program, he/she can be
issued their Diploma which qualifies them to take the Licensure Examination for
Teachers (LET).

MODEL B of BTTE
Model B is offered to the graduate of the Two-Year Trace Technical Curriculum and the Three-
year Diploma of Technology Program in different area of specialization
The characteristics as follows:
a. Students will have at least one-year industry experience aside from the industry
immersions or the job training (OJT).
b. On the Job Training (OJT) or industry experience is requirement leading to a four-year
Baccalaureate degree.
c. Students in this model intend to become prospective teachers in their respective area of
specialization.
6. Instructional and Curricular Excellence in School Leadership and Management-DepED
EXCELS
ICeXCELS (Instructional and Curricular Excellence in School Leadership for South East Asia) is
a short course package of SEAMEO INNOTECH for elementary and secondary administrators
on developing instructional and development leadership. It addresses the need to develop and
strengthen the school heads role as an instructional leader in promoting or improving the quality
of teaching and learning in his/her school.

The course was based on a Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads which
SEAMEO INNOTECH developed and validated with the ministries of education from ten
SEAMEO member states. The framework consists of general and enabling sub-competencies
that describe what school heads are expected to do and improve on to make them more
successful on performing their work.
Special Features of the Innovation
1. Delivery of Instruction- Teaching in the Excels is primarily delivered through print self-
instructional modules augmented by the use of interactive tools such as chat, discussion forums
and mail, among other learning support system. To facilitate the use of the chat, discussions
forums and other communication features, learners should have valid email address.
Each module is made up of the components:
 Pre-organizers and advanced organizers,
 Module pre-test,
 Module post-test
 Pre/post self-rating competency checklist,
 Interactive learning methodologies such as activities, insight forming questions,
lecturettes and readings, discussion topics, summaries and other linked resources.
 Lesson review test
 Practical exercises and feedback on the tests
 A module assignment
 Glossary of terms
 List of references and suggested additional reading and links.
2.Learning Modality
After the students get their learning package, they can immediately study at their own pace and
time. Learners should be able to manage their time such that they will finish one module in two
weeks and two modules in four weeks. During the period, the students should study the printed
modules and check on the Discussion Forum on-line in the Iflex. Learners and tutors should
interact among themselves.
3.Evaluatrion System
Each learner will be given feedback in the forum of qualitative narratives by the tutors for their
outputs. They will also receive a rating for each major requirement and for their participation in
the discussion group. The ratings will be issued by the tutor which equivalent as follows:
a) A=3 Excellent
b) B=2 Pass
c) C=1 Deficient

Learners who successfully complete the courses will be awarded Certificate of Completion by
SEAMEO INNOTECH and academic credits from partner training institutions.
4.Time Table

The duration of time expected of all learners to finish the course is 50 hours which is
equivalent to a 3-unit course. The time spent includes self-study of the module,
participation in the online discussion, preparation and submission of the module activities
which are the contents of learning portfolio.

 Iflex DepED Excels is an example of distance education and e-learning.

 The UP Open University also embarked in various distance education programs
as well. It is popularly known as the UPOU Curricular Program.

GLOBAL CURRICULAR INNOVATIONS

Project Child
Project Child (Computer Helping Instructions and Learning Development)
 Is a research based instructional delivery system that enables one to intensify the
curriculum with technology on hands of learning.
 Originally developed at Florida State University by Dr. Sally Butzin, CHILD bridges
todays school with the school of the future.

The lives of the children today are shaped by the demands of the Information age in which
technology plays a central role. The future workplace requires the abilities to think critically,
solve problem use technology to access and organize information, and possesses the
interpersonal skills to work effectively and cooperatively with others.

CHILD goals are to:

 Modify the school structure and create classroom conditions conducive learning with
technology.
 Create a cohesive unit of work that foster strategies for thinking.
 Reign curriculum of reading, language arts and mathematics so as to cover legally
mandated content and integrating fully the use of computer in the curriculum.
It aims to increase academic performance, develop reasoning abilities, problem solving decisions
making and knowledge application, communicating effectively and emphasizes the development
of mathematics in early years.
Structure and Procedure of Child
CHILD focuses on K-5 self-contained teaching using a triangulated approach. Cluster of three
experts work across three grade levels to teach three basic formats in technology, hands-on and
paper and pencil.
One classroom is set up for reading one for writing and one for mathematics. Each of the three
teachers in each cluster becomes content specialist for one of the three Project CHILD subject
areas. HE/she is also responsible for one grade level classroom.
Learners from each grade level in the cluster move among the classroom to spend one hour per
day working in each of the three majors’ areas. Thus, the teacher will work in their specialized
field with the same learners for three years.
Six ‘station’ or learning centers in a Project CHILD classroom
 Computer station for the technology-based learning.
 Textbook station for written work
 Challenge station for activities in game formats
 The imagination station for hands-on activities
 Teacher station for additional instructional support
 Learners follow a precise management plan for moving from one station to the another.
Goals are set and activities are recorded in a book called ‘passport’. Required curriculum
content is covered in six-week thematic units.
Project Child Materials
 Station Planning Guidelines – The planning guidelines are organized in six weeks topical
units.
 Station activities/Task cards. A companion station planning guideline, provide ideas for
hands on station activities.
 Passport- The passport is brought home after the end of the six weeks unit for the parents
to look into. In this way the parents become an integral part of the learning team. Both
the parents and the learners will understand the academic significance of the station
activities.
 Teacher Manual – A complete guide to assist teachers in implementing the child
instructional program.
 Leadership Guide – It is composing the materials in making presentations to community
groups and strategies to involve the school adopting the effective practices in Project
CHILD.
 Special needs Inclusion Guide – A timely resource for both regular and exceptional
teachers to support the inclusion of special needs in classroom.
 Training Facilitator Guide – It includes comprehensive trainings, overviews,
transparencies and handouts for workshop participations.
All of the above materials are needed for the successful implementation of the curriculum.
2. Brain -Based Learning
In 1990’s, the brain was compared to a central switchboard. In 1970, the brain theory focused on
the right and left brain. According to TRIUNE THEORY, survival leaving is in the lower brain,
emotions were in the mid-brain and higher order thinking took place in the upper brain.
Classroom practices were modified using new theories of teaching and learning based on these
findings.
 Brain -based learning is an approach to teaching based on research in the neuroscience. It
suggests our brain learns naturally.
 Brain -based theory includes an electric mix of techniques.
Based Education
 The brain perceives whole and parts simultaneously.
 The brain is a parallel processor which can perform activities at once.
 Information is stored kin multiple areas of the brain and is retrieved through multiple
memory and neutral path ways.
 Learning engages the whole body. All learning is mind-body: movement, food, attention
cycles, chemicals modulate learning.
 Human’s search for meaning is innate.
 Search for meaning comes from patterning.
 Emotions are critical to patterning and drive our attention, meaning and memory.
 Meaning is more important than information.
 Learning involves focused attention and peripheral perception.
 We have two types of memory: Spatial and Rote.
 The brain is social. It develops better in concert with other brains.
 Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by stress.
 Every brain is uniquely organized.
 Learning is developmental.
Orchestrated immersion- Learning environments are created to provide authentic learning
experiences. For example, in the elementary level, teachers can use the school’s mini forest to
identify trees, animals and other plants and find out how they live together.
Relaxed alertness – In brain-based learning, efforts are made to eliminate fear while
maintaining a highly challenging environment. Teachers may play classical music when
appropriate to set a relaxed tone in the classroom. All learners are accepted with their various
learning styles, capabilities and disabilities.
Active Processing – The learners consolidate and internalize information by actually processing
this information. Prior learning has been given recognition as having connections to current
information. The teacher prepares the stage to attach new information learner’s to prior
knowledge.
Twelve Principles
 Need of rich stimulating environments which utilized student created materials and
products.
 Tables and desks are grouped together to develop social interactions, cooperation and
develop social skills. Learners must provide comfortable chairs and furniture for casual
and informal discussions areas.
 Indoor and Outdoor spaces should be linked so that students can moved out freely.
 Learners should be provided safe places so that threat will be reduced, especially in city
places.
 There must be variety of learning centers or nooks with varied lightings. Some children
prefer to work together in different nooks or corners by themselves.
 Display in the classroom should be change regularly to stimulate the brain-development.
 Provide multiple resource. Provide educational and variety of setting with in the
classrooms so that learning activities can be integrated easily.
 Flexibility is principle that has been recognized long before. The “teachable moment “
must be recognized and capitalized on.
 Active and passive places should be provided for students to develop their interpersonal
and intrapersonal intelligences.
 A person space of learners like locker, desk or a home base is provided by each child to
allow him/her to express his/her unique identity.
 The community is utilized as a primary learning environment.
 The brain can grow connections at any age.
 Optimizing learning through different media.
7.2 Educational of Other Countries (Select 5 countries in the Southeast Asia)
Cambodia
Education in Cambodia is controlled by the state through the Ministry of Education in a
national level and by the Department of Education at the provincial level.
The Constitution of Cambodia establishes that the state shall protect and upgrade citizen's
rights to quality education at all levels, guaranteeing that all citizens have equal
opportunity to earn a living (Article 66).[2] The state shall adopt an education program
"according to the principle of modern pedagogy including technology and foreign
languages," as well as the state controls public and private schools and classrooms at all
levels (Article 67).[2] The Cambodian education system includes pre-
school, primary, general secondary, higher education and non-formal education.[3] The
education system includes the development of sport, information
technology education, research development and technical education.[3] School
enrollment has increased during the 2000s in Cambodia.
Brunei
Brunei follows a 7-3-2-2 pattern of education. This means that there are seven years of
primary education (including one year of preschool), followed by a public examination
known as the Primary Certificate of Education. Lower secondary education is for three
years, followed by another public examination, the Lower Secondary Assessment
examination. Based on the performance of an individual student and following the ninth
year of schooling, he or she will be tracked into one of two streams. One stream leads to
technical or vocational education that prepares the student for immediate skill-based
employment after graduation; such education is provided at a number of technical and
vocational institutes described below. The other "academic" stream leads to two or three
years of upper secondary education culminating in the student's appearance in the Brunei-
Cambridge General Certificate of Education (GCE) examination at either the O-
(Ordinary, similar to its British secondary school counterpart) or N-Levels. The GCE
examinations are conducted jointly by Cambridge University's Local Examinations
Syndicate and Brunei's Ministry of Education. Those not immediately prepared to take
the O-Level examinations are allowed to take the N-level examinations which, if passed,
give them an additional year of schooling and preparation to tackle the O-Level
examinations. Finally, students with adequate achievements at the O-Level examinations
can go on to two years of preuniversity education that prepares them for the Brunei-
Cambridge A-Level (similar to the British GCE Advanced Level) examinations.
Vietnam
Education in Vietnam is a state-run system of public and private education run by
the Ministry of Education and Training. It is divided into five levels: preschool, primary
school, secondary school, high school, and higher education. Formal education consists
of twelve years of basic education. Basic education consists of five years of primary
education, four years of intermediate education, and three years of secondary education.
The majority of basic education students are enrolled on a half-day basis. The main
education goal in Vietnam is "improving people's general knowledge, training quality
human resources, and nurturing and fostering talent."

Vietnam is known for its rigorous curriculum that is deemed competitive for students.
Secondary education is one of the most significant social issues in the country:
designated schools known as "High schools for the gifted" (Trường trung học phổ thông
chuyên) are regarded as prestigious and often demand high entrance examination results.
Higher education is also a fundamental cornerstone in Vietnamese society. Entrance to
university is determined through the National High School Graduation Examination,
whose results will be considered for evaluation. The higher the score is, the more
prestigious the institution will be. Failure to attend university often leads to social stigma,
as those who could not pass the Graduation Examination would be looked down upon by
members of society.
Indonesia

Indonesia’s education system comprises four levels of education: primary (grades 1–6),
junior secondary (grades 7–9), senior secondary (grades 10–12), and higher education.
The first two levels constitute ‘basic education’ as that term is used in the Indonesian
context. State educational institutions dominate the education system, particularly at
primary and junior secondary levels. However, the private sector also plays a significant
role, accounting for around 48 per cent of all schools, 31 per cent of all students, and 38
per cent of all teachers.[7] It also accounts for 96 per cent of all higher education
institutions (HEIs) and almost 63 per cent of higher education enrolments.[8] The state
educational system is mostly non-sectarian although it includes some religious (typically
but not only Islamic) schools and HEIs. The private educational system, by contrast, is
dominated by religiously oriented schools and HEIs, in particular those associated with
Indonesia’s two major Islamic social organisations, Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul
Ulama, although it also includes non-religious commercially oriented institutions
especially in higher education. Generally, state educational institutions are considered to
be of higher quality than private educational institutions although there is great variation
among both public and private institutions.

Thailand
Education in Thailand is provided mainly by the Thai government through the Ministry
of Education from pre-school to senior high school. A free basic education of fifteen
years is guaranteed by the constitution.
Education in Thailand mandates nine years of "basic education" (six years of elementary
school and three years of lower secondary school). Education at public schools is free
until grade 9. The government provides, in addition, three years of free pre-school and
three years of free upper-secondary education. Neither is mandatory. Children are
enrolled in elementary school from the age of six and attend for six years, Prathom 1 to
Prathom 6. Elementary school classes is at least 7 hours per day, with a maximum
learning time of 1,000 hours per year. Secondary education starts at age 12. It consists of
three years of lower secondary education, Mattayom 1 to Mattayom 3, and three years of
upper secondary education, Mattayom 4 to Mattayom 6. Compulsory education ends with
Mattayom 3 (grade 9), after which pupils can pursue upper-secondary education in a
university-preparatory track, or continue their studies in vocational school programs.[3]
Homeschooling is legal in Thailand. Thailand's constitution and education law explicitly
recognize alternative education and considers the family to be an educational institution.
A homeschool law passed in 2004, Ministerial Regulation No. 3 on the right to basic
education by the family, governs homeschooling. Families must submit an application to
homeschool and students are assessed annually.
7.3 The K-12 Basic Education Curriculum in the Philippines
K-12 Program
 Is already a Law, approved by President Benigno Aquino III
 Republic Act(RA) 10533 signing into law the K-12 program last May 15,2013
 “Enhanced Basic Education act of 2013”
 covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic Education(six years of Primary
Education, four years of Junior high school, and two years of Senior High School) to
provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners,
and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle-level skills development,
entrepreneurship and employment.

Why K-12?
Enhancing the quality of basic education in the Philippines is urgent and critical.
Poor quality of basic education is reflected in the low achievement scores of Filipino
Students in the National Achievement test and International test like TIMSS( Trends in
Math and Science Subject) partly due to congested curriculum, The 10 years basic
education curriculum.

ENHANCED BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM

 MOTHER TONGUE-BASED- MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION

Students are able to learn best through their first language, their Mother Tongue
(MT) other Local languages will be added in succeeding school years. Aside from
Mother Tongue, English and Filipino are taught as subjects starting grade 1, with
a focus on oral fluency, from grades 4 to 6, English and Filipino are gradually
introduced as language of Instruction. Both will become primary languages of
instruction in Junior High school and Senior High school.

Every student can read in his or her Mother Tongue. Learning in Mother Tongue
also serves as the foundation for students to learn Filipino and English easily.

 CONTEXTUALIZATION AND ENHANCEMENT

Examples:
Activities, songs, poems, and illustrations are based on local culture, history and
reality. This will make the lessons relevant to the learners and easy to understand.

Students acquire in depth knowledge, skills, values and attitudes through

continuity and consistency across all levels and subjects.

Discussions on issues such as Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), Climate Change

Adaptation, and Information Communication Technology (ICT) are included in
the Enhanced Curriculum.

 SPIRAL PROGRESSION
Subjects are Taught form the simplest concepts to more complicated concepts
through grade levels in the spiral progression. As early as elementary, students
gain knowledge in areas such as Biology, geometry, Earth Science, Chemistry,
and algebra. This ensures a mastery of knowledge and skills after each level.

 MANDATORY UNIVERSAL KINDERGRATEN

Kindergarten is Mandatory for five-year-old children, a pre-requisite for
admission to grade 1.

Research shows that the children who underwent Kindergarten have better
completion rates than those who did not. Children who complete a standards-
based Kindergarten program are better prepared, for primary education.

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Is the last two years of Specialized Upper Secondary Education, Students may
choose a specialization based on aptitude, interest and school capacity. The choice
of career Track will define the content of the subjects a student will take in grades
11 and 12. SHS subjects fall under either the Core Curriculum or Specific Tracks.

CORE CURRICULUM
There are seven Learning Areas under Core Curriculum; these are Languages,
Literature, Communication, Mathematics, Philosophy, Natural Sciences, and
Social Sciences. Current content from some General Education subjects are
embedded in the SHS curriculum.

TRACKS
Each Student in senior High School can choose among three Tracks: Academic,
Technical-Vocational Livelihood, and Sports and Arts.

ACADEMIC TRACK
This track is right for high school students who look forward to moving to
college. In the same way, the academic track will prepare you for college courses
from which you can choose a lot of options. Under this track are three senior high
strands.

The Academic Track includes Four Strands;

ABM-Accounting, Business and Management
STEM-Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
HESS-Humanities, Education and Social Sciences
GAS- General Academic Track

TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL LIVELIHOOD-TRAINING (TVET)

After finishing grade 10, a student can obtain Certificates of Competency (COC)
or National Certificate Level 1(NC1). After finishing a Technical- Vocational-
Livelihood track in grade 12, a Student may obtain National Certificated II
(NCII), provided he/she passes the competency-based assessment of the Technical
Education and skills Development Authority (TESDA).
Degree Program:
 Agri-Fishery arts
 Home Economics
 Industrial arts
 Information and Communications technology(ICT)

SPORTS AND ARTS TRACK

Sports Track
Sports track prepares you for physical careers ahead. These include fitness
trainer, gaming official, masseur, or gym instructor. So if you want to pursue one
of these jobs, then you’re already on the right path.

Sports
 Athletics
 Fitness
 Recreation

Arts and Design Track
If you choose this track, you must have the needed skills in the arts. Why? Because this track
includes old and modern art, as well as the means and channels of multimedia, production, and
creative fields.
 Visual Arts
 Performing arts

7.4 Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education

MOTHER TONGUE BASED MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION

 It is a formal or non-formal education ,in which the children ‘s mother tongue is used in
the classroom as a bridge in learning filipino and English .
 It is a structured program of language learning and cognitive development which
provides learners with a strong education foundation in the first language .

THE MOTHER TONGUE :

 As a subject subject focuses on the development of reading and speaking from grade 1
to grade 3
 As a medium of instruction the mother tongue is used in all learning areas from kinder
to grade 3 except in teaching Filipino and English subject .

What are the benefits of mother tongue?

1. reduced drop-out
2. reduced repetition
3 .More attendance
4.More learning
5. more involvement and participation from parents and the community
6. more cost –effective in the implementation.
WHY USED THE MOTHER TONGUE AS THE FIRST LANGUAGE IN SCHOOL?
 Mother tongue is typically the first language of the child and the language of the home.it
can also be constructed as the language developed by a child from an early childhood.
 Mother tongue education implies a linguistically homogeneous community ,a teacher
who speaks the language and the curriculum materials in the mother tongue.
 Mother tongue instruction provides an opportunity for our children to exercise their right
to learn in their first language .

It also promotes literacy ,as it hastens the learning process.they are able:
a.understand what the techer is saying
b.think well
c.argue well
d.question properly and critically.

What are these languages?

1.tagalog 7.hiligaynon
2.kapampangan 8.waray
3.pangasinense 9.tausug
4.iloko 10.maguindanaoan
5.bikol 11.maranao
6.cebuano 12.chabacano

DEPED ADDS 7 MORE LANGUAGESIN MOTHER TONGUE BASED

EDUCATION
The additional languages are:
 Ybanag for pupils in tuguegarao city,Cagayan and Isabela
 Ivatan for the batanes group
 Sambal in zambales
 Aklanon in aklan ,capiz
 Kinaray –a in capiz,aklan
 Yakanin autonomous region in muslim Mindanao
7.5 Indigenous People Education in the Philippines
 THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION has initiated the development of education that
was designed to meet the learning needs of the indigenous peoples communities .through
deped ‘s bureau of alternative learning system( BALS),the alternative learning system (ALS)
curriculum for IP’S was developed in response to the Education for All (EFA) to provide the
basic learning needs of all marginalized learners.
 The IP education curriculum for the ALS was developed in the year 2006 in coordination
with National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) and was validated by various
indigenous cultural communities in the philippines .The IP curriculum is to be implemented
by trained ALS implementers with IP learners.

The IP curriculum reflects the core areas of the IP’ s concern such as following:
a. Family life---it touches on the life of an IP as a member of the family from birth to death.
b. Health ,sanitation ,and nutrition—this brings into fore the IPs concept of self and the
environment and how each interplays with the other .
c. Civic consciousness---it highlights the rich worldview of the IPs ranging from their life ways
,identity,and history.
d. Economics and income ---it presents the system of community management of supply and
demand among the IPs.
e. Environment –it deals with the IPs communion with nature.it stresses their strong
attachment to the environment.

The core learning competencies are reflected in the learning strands of the IP
curriculum ,namely:

a.learning strand one-communication skills.

 This strand aims to develop the ability of IP learners to acces ,critically process and
effectively make us of available information in a variety media to be able to:( A) function
effectively as a member of the family ,community, nation and the world (B) actively
participate in community and economic development..

b. learning strand two----problem solving and critical thinking .

 this strands aims to enable to IP learners to be aware of their own thinking,make critical and
informed decisions ,defend their ideas ,evaluate the ideas of other s strive for new ways of
solving problems ,and do all these in an atmosphere of community and consensus –building .
c. learning strands three---development of self and a sence of community .

 this strands aims to help the IP learners acquire a position sense of community sense of self
and a sense of community that will lead to the development of their potentials and enable
them to live harmoniously together and with others.
d.learning strands four—practice of ecological sustainable economics.

 This learning strands aims to help the IP learners achieve responsible well-being and ensure
active participation in the economic life of the community.
e.learning strand five—expanding one ‘s world view .
 This strands aims to provide an atmosphere for the IP learners to appreciate and practice
freely their own culture and at the same time to be equipped with basic competencies to face
the challenges of a global community and influx of change.
7.6 Bilingual Education

What is Bilingual Education?

Bilingual Education is a term that refers to the teaching of academic content in two (2)
languages, in a native and second language. Varying amounts of each language are used
depending on the outcome goal of the model.

How does Bilingual Education works?

There are different program models that can be used in bilingual education.

A. Transitional Bilingual Education

Involves the partial or total use of the child’s home language when the child enters school,
and later a change to the use of the school language only. This is sometimes called early exit
bilingual education.

B. Maintenance Bilingual Education

Involves the use of the child’s home language when the child enters school, then a gradual
change to the use of the school language for teaching some subjects and the native language for
teaching others.

The Bilingual Education Program of the Philippines (BEP)

The Bilingual Education Program of the Philippines (BEP), where English is the medium of
instruction in Science and Mathematics and Filipino, or the national language, in all other
subjects, has been recognized as one of the earliest comprehensive bilingual education
experiments in the world. The BEP was institutionalized in 1974, and since then, it has been the
broad framework of the educational system in the country. Prior to 1974, English had been
practically the sole medium of instruction in the Philippines since 1901 when the public
education system was put in place by the Americans. Since 2009, the BEP has been supplanted
by a new order from the Department of Education (DepEd) supporting the implementation of the
Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) at all levels of education. This order
is based on the assumption that mother tongues are the most effective media for facilitating
learning throughout primary education.
The Language provision in the 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines which are
embodied in Article XIV, Sec. 6 and 7 provide the legal basis for the various language policies
that are being implemented in the country.

       The ratification of the above-mentioned constitution resolved the issue on what the national
language is, since the 1935 and 1973 Philippine Charters were not clear about this.

The provision are as follows:

1. Section 6.  The national language of the Philippines is Filipino.  As it evolves, it shall be
further
developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages.

2. For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are
Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English.

The Philippine Bilingual Education Policy (BEP)

       Consistent with the 1987 constitutional mandate and a declared policy of the National Board
of Education (NBE) on bilingualism in the schools (NBE Resolution No. 73-7, s.1973) the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) promulgated its language policy.

       The policy was first implemented in 1974 when DECS issued Dept. Order No. 25, s. 1974
titled, “Implementing Guidelines for the Policy on Bilingual Education.”

       Bilingual education in the Philippines is defined operationally as the separate use of Filipino
and English as the media of instruction in specific subject areas.  As embodied in the DECS
Order No. 25, Pilipino (changed to Filipino in 1987) shall be used as medium of instruction in
social studies/social sciences, music, arts, physical education, home economics, practical arts and
character education.  English, on the other hand is allocated to science, mathematics and
technology subjects.  The same subject allocation is provided in the 1987 Policy on Bilingual
Education which is disseminated through Department Order No. 52, s. 1987.

The policy is as follows:

The policy on Bilingual Education aims at the achievement of competence in both Filipino and
English at the national level, through the teaching of both languages and their use as media of
instruction at all levels.  The regional languages shall be used as auxiliary languages in Grades I
and II.  The aspiration of the Filipino nation is to have its citizens possess skills in Filipino to
enable them to perform their functions and duties in order to meet the needs of the country in the
community of nations.

The goals of the Bilingual Education Policy shall be:

1. enhanced learning through two languages to achieve quality education as called for by the
1987
Constitution;

2. the propagation of Filipino as a language of literacy;

3. the development of Filipino as a linguistic symbol of national unity and identity;

4. the cultivation and elaboration of Filipino as a language of scholarly discourse, that is to say
its continuing intellectualization.

7.7 Early Childhood Care and Development

Early Childhood Care and Development

“The child is one of the most important assets of the nation. Every effort should be exerted to
promote his welfare and enhance his opportunities for a useful and happy life.” (Art. 1, P.D. 603)

Early Childhood Care and Development Defined

 Refers to the full range of health, nutrition, early education and social services development
programs that provide for basic holistic needs of young children 0 to age 4, and promote
optimum growth and development

 Involves multifaceted process of development: physical, cognitive, emotional, social and

spiritual covering period from pregnancy through transition from home or ECCD programs
into primary school.

 Outcome: a child who is “physically healthy, emotionally sound, socially competent and
ready to learn.”

Early Childhood Care and Development Council

Is a national government agency in the Philippines first tasked as a coordinating body on

early childhood education by virtue of Republic Act 8980 of 2000, and officially established as a
Council in 2009 through Executive Order No. 778. In 2013, R.A. 10410 or the “Early Years Act
of 2013” also known as the EYA Law was enacted. This is “An act Recognizing The Age From
Zero (0) To Eight (8) Years As The First Crucial Stage Of Educational Development And
Strengthening The Early Childhood Care And Development System (ECCD System)
Appropriating Funds Therefor and For Other Purposes.”

ECCD in the Philippines: Legal Bases

P. D. 1567 (1978)

 Establishing Day Care Center in every Barangay

R.A. 6972 (1990)
 An act establishing a Day Care Center in Every Barangay, Instituting Therein a Total
Development and Protection of Children Program.
R.A. 8980 (2000)
 An Act Promulgating a Comprehensive policy and National System for Early Childhood
Care & Development (ECCD). Providing Funds Therefore and for Other Purposes.
The Early Years Act of 2013 (R.A. 10410)

 “An act Recognizing The Age From Zero (0) To Eight (8) Years As The First Crucial Stage
Of Educational Development And Strengthening The Early Childhood Care And
Development System (ECCD System) Appropriating Funds Therefor and For Other
Purposes.

 Mandate: Implement the National Education Early Childhood Care and Development
System.

Salient Features of EYA 2013

 Recognition of age 0-8 as the first crucial stage of educational development

 Strengthening of ECCD Council to ensure the state’s focus on building a strong foundation
for the development and learning of 0-4 year old children while the DEpEd takes charge of
the 5-8 years old

 Ensuring sustained inter agency and multi-sectoral collaboration for the full range of health,
nutrition, early education and social development of children.

The objectives of the National ECCD System

(a) To achieve improved infant and child survival rates by ensuring that adequate health and
nutrition are accessible to young children and their mothers from the prenatal period throughout
the early childhood years.

(b) To ensure the physical, social, emotional, cognitive, psychological, spiritual and language
development of young children.

(c) To enhance the role of parents and other caregivers and educators of their children from birth
onwards.

(d) To facilitate smooth transition from care and education provided at home to community or
school-based setting and to primary school.

(e) To enhance and sustain the efforts of the communities to promote ECCD programs and
ensure that special support is provided for poor and disadvantaged communities.
(f) To ensure that young children are adequately prepared for the formal learning system that the
both public and private schools are responsive to the development needs of these children.

(g) To established an efficient system for early identification, prevention, referral and
intervention for the development disorders and disabilities in early childhood; and

(h) To improve the quality standards of public and private ECCD programs through, but not
limited to, a registration and credential system for ECCD service providers.

Age Requirement for Kindergarten

1. Kinder, Nursery, or Preschool?

Preschool, nursery or kinder all technically refer to one thing – early childhood education for
children before they begin compulsory education.

Taking it in the Philippine context, the term used entirely depends on the educational institution,
especially if it’s a private school. But our Department of Education (DepEd) refers to Kinder as
the level before Grade 1. In fact, the K in K-12 refers to Kinder, while 12 means Grade 1 to 12.

2. What is the age requirement for Kinder?

DepEd requires children to reach 5 years of age before acceptance to the Kinder level.
Furthermore, based on the DepEd Order 47, s. 2016, Omnibus Policy on Kindergarten, the
agency requires kids to be 5 by August 31st of the school year they will enroll in. This basically
means that your child’s 5th birthday should fall before the said date for him to be admitted as a
Kinder student.

Private schools can be more lenient with this age requirement, with some accepting even kids
whose 5th birthdays fall after August 31st. But do note that even if your child starts Kinder early,
there is no guarantee that he will be admitted to Grade 1 in a big school. The DepEd requirement
for Grade 1 admission is for children to reach 6 years of age or more by the August 31st of the
school year they will enroll in. It must also be noted that schools and the DepEd are now more
strict in terms of the child’s age, as K-12 considers the child’s readiness, social and emotional
development aside from mental capacity.
Taking these into consideration, it can be said that anything before the Kinder level can be called
Preschool, as Kinder marks the start of your child’s start in K-12, and hence anything before that
is “pre” or before school, regardless of what some private schools may call it.

3. How many levels of Kinder/Preschool are required to be accepted to Grade 1?

Going back to its memo, DepEd only requires one year of Kinder (at 5 years old) for a child to
be accepted into Grade 1 (at 6 years old).

On the other hand, some big private schools require 1 level of Preschool and 1 level of Kinder
for admission. So if you are eyeing such schools, then you can opt to enroll your child in
Preschool at 4 years old, for him to be Kinder at 5, and Grade 1 at 6. Also, don’t forget to ask the
school you’re considering if their Kinder level follows DepEd standards. Private schools again
have more flexibility on this matter but they should still follow the DepEd’s Kinder guidelines
and framework. Only Kinder levels who adhere to the DepEd standard are valid.

7.8 Global Education

Global education is a mental development program that seeks to improve global human
development based on the understanding of global dynamics, through the various sectors of
human development delivery.

 Global education emphasises the unity and interdependence of human society,

developing a sense of self and appreciation of cultural diversity, affirmation of social
justice and human rights, as well as building peace and actions for a sustainable future in
different times and places.
 Global education promotes positive values and assists students to take responsibility for
their actions and to see themselves as global citizens who can contribute to a more
peaceful, just and sustainable world.

7.9 Education for all/ Inclusive Education/ No Child Left Behind

What is EFA?
 An existing government movement to provide quality basic education for all children,
youth & adults.
The Six EFA Goals
1. Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for
the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.
• Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and
those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and complete, free and compulsory primary
education of good quality.
• Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable
access to appropriate learning and life-skills programs.
• Achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and
equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.
• Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving
gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and
achievement in basic education of good quality.
• Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that
recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy,
numeracy and essential life skills.
Philippine Education For All
 A vision and a holistic program of reforms that aims at improving the quality of basic
education for every Filipino by 2015.
Overall Goals & Objectives of Philippine EFA 2015
1. Universal coverage of Out of School Youth (OSY) and adults in the provision of basic
learning needs;
2. Universal school participation and elimination of drop outs and repetition in first three grades;
3. Universal completion of full cycle of basic education schooling with satisfactory achievement
levels by all at every grade or year; 4. Total community commitment to attainment of basic
education competencies for all.
Four component outcomes to achieve EFA Goals
1. Universal coverage of out-of-school youths and adults in the provision of basic learning needs.
All persons who failed to acquire the essential competence to be functionally literate in their
native tongue, in Filipino, and in English.
2. Universal school participation and elimination of drop-outs and repetition in first three grades.
All children aged six should enter school ready to learn and prepared to achieve the required
competencies for Grades 1 to 3.
3. Universal completion of the full cycle of basic education schooling with satisfactory
achievement levels by all at every grade or year.
4. Total community commitment to attainment of basic education competencies for all: Every
community should mobilize all its social, political, cultural and economic resources and
capabilities to support the universal attainment of basic education competencies in Filipino and
English.
Nine Urgent and Critical Tasks
1. Make every school continuously improve its performance.
2. Expand early childhood care and development coverage to yield more EFA benefits.
3. Transform existing non-formal and informal learning options into a truly viable alternative
learning system yielding more EFA benefits;
4. Get all teachers to continuously improve their teaching practices.
5. Increase the cycle of schooling to reach 12 years of formal basic education.
6. Continue enrichment of curriculum development in the context of pillars of new functional
literacy;
7. Provide adequate and stable public funding for country-wide attainment of EFA goals;
8. Create network of community- based groups for local attainment of EFA goals;
9. Monitor progress in effort towards attainment of EFA goals.

LARGER STAKES TO THE NATION

1. Language
2. National Identity
3. Social capital
4. Cultural practices
5. Individual freedom

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
 Inclusive education is when all students, regardless of any challenges they may have, are
placed in age-appropriate general education classes that are in their own neighbourhood
schools to receive high-quality instruction, interventions, and supports that enable them
to meet success in the core curriculum (Bui, Quirk, Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; Alquraini
& Gut, 2012).
 Is a learning environment where children with and without disabilities are thought
together as equals.
Philippines Inclusive Educational Program aim to cater the educational needs of:
 Children with disabilities
 Street Children
 Abused Children
 Child Laborers
 Children of Indigenous People
 Muslim Children
This program is being strengthen in the country because of the following reasons:
 101,762 children with disabilities who are in school (2011-2012)
 97.3% still unreached
 5.916 are mainstreamed in regular classes
 12-15 million indigenous children across the country
 7 ethno-linguistic group
 639,483 in the Elementary and 158,550 in Secondary School
 140,570 Muslim Elementary and Secondary are attending alive (2010-2011)
Inclusive Education Program Policies
 The right to education is a basic human rights.
 All children and youth shall have access to quality education
 Inclusive education shall be concerned with all learners, with focus on those who have
traditionally been excluded from educational opportunities.
 Support system shall be organized and delivered
Public Policies
 1987-Philippine Constitution
 P.D 603- The Child and Youth Welfare Code
 R.A 7610-Special Protection of Children Against Child Abuse, Exploitation, and
Discrimination Act
 R.A 7277- The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons amended by R.A. 9442
Philippines has also adopted international documents on inclusive education such as the:
 UN convention on the rights of the child (1989)
 World declaration of education for all (1990)
 UNESCO Salamanca statement and framework for action (1994)
No Child Left Behind
NCLB was different from previous version of ESSA. It held schools accountable for how
kids learn and achieve in several ways:

 Annual testing- schools had to give students statewide math and reading test every year
in grade 3-8 and once in grade 10-12. Parents had the right to get individual test results
for their children. school had to publicly report school and subgroup result. For example,
schools had to report how students in special education were performing on reading and
math test.
 Academic progress- states had to bring all students, including those in special education,
up to the proficient level on tests. They had to set targets for improvement, called
adequate yearly progress (AYP) schools essentially got a report card from the state on
how they were performing. The school had to share that information with parents of their
students. If a school didn’t meet AYP, it could be labeled as needing improvement.

 Penalties – schools with many low-income students were called ‘’Title I School’’. If a
title I school didn’t meet AYP, NCLB allowed the state to change the school’s leadership
team or even close the school. If a school repeatedly failed to meet AYP, parents had the
option to move their children to another school. AYP goals and sanctions were supposed
to push schools to improve services and instruction for struggling students, including
children in special education. These penalties didn’t apply to non-Title I schools.

The new law is over 1,000 pages but here are some of the most important things to know:

 State Authority- under the new law, the job of holding schools accountable largely shifts
from the federal government to the states. But the federal government still provides a
broad framework. Each state must set goals for its school and evaluate how they’re doing.
States also have to create a plan for improving schools that are struggling or that have a
specific group of students who are underperforming.
 Annual testing- states still have to test students in reading and math once a year in grade
3 through 8, as well as once in high school.
 Accountability- under the new law, states may now consider more than just student test
scores when evaluating schools. In fact, they must come up with at least one other
measure. Other measures might include things like school safety and access to advance
coursework but student performance is still the most important measure under the law.
 Reporting- states have to continue to publicly report test result and other measures of
student achievement and school success by subgroups of students. That includes students
in special education, minorities, those in poverty and those learning English.
 Proficiency targets- from now on, states are required to set their own proficiency targets.
They will also come up with a system of penalties for not meeting them. But the federal
government will no longer require states to bring all kids to the proficient level on state
tests. States also won’t have to meet federal targets for raising test scores. These changes
will eliminate the harsh federal penalties school faced under NCLB.
 Comprehensive literacy center- the new law calls for the creation of a national center
that focuses on reading issues for kids with disabilities. That includes dyslexia. The
center will be a clearing house for information for parents and teachers.
 Literacy Education Grant program- the law authorizes congress to give up to 160
million in literacy grants to states and schools the grants will fund instruction on key
reading skills, such as phonological awareness and decoding.
 Opt-Out- is when parents decide not to have their child take a standardized test
the new law doesn’t create a federal opt-out option for parents but also doesn’t stop states
from having doesn’t create a federal opt-out option for parents but it also doesn’t stop
states from having their own opt-out laws if parents don’t want their children to take state
tests.

7.10 Environmental Education

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

 Is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in problem

solving, and take action to improve the environment. As a result, individuals develop a
deeper understanding of environment issues and have the skills to make informed and
responsible decisions.
 Is a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness about the
environment and its associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to
address the challenges and fosters attitudes, motivation and commitments to make informed
decisions and take responsible actions.
 Environmental education refers to organized efforts to teach how natural environments
function, and particularly, how human beings can manage behaviour and ecosystems to live
sustainably.-Wikipedia

WHY IS ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

EE helps students understand how their decisions and actions affect the environment, builds
knowledge and skills necessary to address complex environmental issues, as well as ways we
can take action to keep our environment healthy and sustainable for the future.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION?

 The goals of environmental education are:

 to provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes,
commitment, and skills needed to protect and improve the environment;

 to create new patterns of behaviour of individuals, groups, and society as a whole towards
the environment.
COMPONENTS OF WHAT SHOULD BE GAINED FROM ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION.

• Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and environmental challenges

• Knowledge and understanding of the environment and environmental challenges
• Attitudes of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain
environmental quality
• Skills to identify and help resolve environmental challenges
• Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges.

WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION?

• Ecology
• Chemistry
• Geology
• Marine Biology
• Aquatic Science
• Oceanography
 Environmental education has been considered an additional or elective subject in much of
traditional K-12 curriculum. At the elementary school level, environmental education can
take the form of science enrichment curriculum, natural history field trips, community
service projects, and participation in outdoor science schools.
 Schools can integrate environmental education into their curricula with sufficient funding
from EE policies. This approach – known as using the “environment as an integrating
context” for learning – uses the local environment as a framework for teaching state and
district education standards
 In secondary school, environmental curriculum can be a focused subject within the sciences
or is a part of student interest groups or clubs.
 At the undergraduate and graduate level, it can be considered its own field within
education, environmental studies, environmental science and policy, ecology, or
human/cultural ecology programs.
 Environmental education is not restricted to in-class lesson plans. Children can learn
about the environment in many ways. Experiential lessons in the school yard, field trips
to national parks, after-school green clubs, and school-wide sustainability projects help
make the environment an easily accessible topic.

TOP 10 BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environmental education (EE) connects us to the world around us, teaching us about both natural
and built environments.  EE raises awareness of issues impacting the environment upon which
we all depend, as well as actions we can take to improve and sustain it.

1. Imagination and enthusiasm are heightened

EE is hands-on, interactive learning that sparks the imagination and unlocks creativity. When EE
is integrated into the curriculum, students are more enthusiastic and engaged in learning, which
raises student achievement in core academic areas.

2. Learning transcends the classroom

Not only does EE offer opportunities for experiential learning outside of the classroom, it
enables students to make connections and apply their learning in the real world. EE helps
learners see the interconnectedness of social, ecological, economic, cultural, and political issues.

3. Critical and creative thinking skills are enhanced

EE encourages students to research, investigate how and why things happen, and make their own
decisions about complex environmental issues.  By developing and enhancing critical and
creative thinking skills, EE helps foster a new generation of informed consumers, workers, as
well as policy or decision makers.

4. Tolerance and understanding are supported 

EE encourages students to investigate varying sides of issues to understand the full picture. It
promotes tolerance of different points of view and different cultures.

5. State and national learning standards are met for multiple subjects

By incorporating EE practices into the curriculum, teachers can integrate science, math, language
arts, history, and more into one rich lesson or activity, and still satisfy numerous state and
national academic standards in all subject areas. Taking a class outside or bringing nature
indoors provides an excellent backdrop or context for interdisciplinary learning.

6. Biophobia and nature deficit disorder decline

By exposing students to nature and allowing them to learn and play outside, EE fosters
sensitivity, appreciation, and respect for the environment.  It combats “nature deficit disorder” …
and it’s FUN!

7. Healthy lifestyles are encouraged

EE gets students outside and active, and helps address some of the health issues we are seeing in
children today, such as obesity, attention deficit disorders, and depression.  Good nutrition is
often emphasized through EE and stress is reduced due to increased time spent in nature.

8. Communities are strengthened

EE promotes a sense of place and connection through community involvement. When students
decide to learn more or take action to improve their environment, they reach out to community
experts, donors, volunteers, and local facilities to help bring the community together to
understand and address environmental issues impacting their neighborhood.

9. Responsible action is taken to better the environment

EE helps students understand how their decisions and actions affect the environment, builds
knowledge and skills necessary to address complex environmental issues, as well as ways we can
take action to keep our environment healthy and sustainable for the future.  Service-learning
programs offered by PLT and other EE organizations provide students and teachers with support
through grants and other resources for action projects.

10. Students and teachers are empowered

EE promotes active learning, citizenship, and student leadership. It empowers youth to share
their voice and make a difference at their school and in their communities. EE helps teachers
build their own environmental knowledge and teaching skills.

Environmental Education Benefits the Larger World by…

 Fostering Healthier Schools. EE empowers students to lead the way in creating greener
and healthier learning environments inside and outside their school buildings.

 Supporting Sound Decision-Making. EE ensures citizens are informed about sound

science and equipped to make decisions that are critical to ensuring the US and greater
world have the natural resources on which our economy and quality of life depend.

 Contributing to Sustainability. EE builds the knowledge and skills needed to address

complex environmental issues, as well as take action to keep our natural world healthy,
our economies productive, and communities vibrant.

 Conserving our Natural Resources. Higher levels of environmental knowledge

correlate significantly with a higher degree of pro-environment and conservation
behavior. The more people know, the more likely they are to recycle, be energy efficient,
conserve water, etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACHES

1. Infusion- focus on Environmental Education concepts in the already existing content in

the school curriculum.

2. Problem solving- teaching learning approach which centers on environmental issues, or a

problem and generally involves investigation.

Approaches is a mechanism for transferring information and skills to students to bring out a
change in their behavior. Different strategies are adopted for enhancing the effectiveness of
the approach. Infusion and problem solving are the two approaches used in environmental
education.

7.11 Peace Education: Its Impact to Basic Education, Economic, Political & Social
Development in the BARMM

Peace education encompasses the key concepts of education and peace. While it is possible to
define education as a process of systematic institutionalized transmission of knowledge and
skills, as well as of basic values and norms that are accepted in a certain society, the concept of
peace is less clearly defined. Many writers make an important distinction between positive and
negative peace. Negative peace is defined as the absence of large-scale physical violence–the
absence of the condition of war. Positive peace involves the development of a society in which,
except for the absence of direct violence, there is no structural violence or social injustice.
Accordingly, peace education could be defined as an interdisciplinary area of education whose
goal is institutionalized and non-institutionalized teaching about peace and for peace. Peace
education aims to help students acquire skills for nonviolent conflict resolution and to reinforce
these skills for active and responsible action in the society for the promotion of the values of
peace. Therefore, unlike the concept of conflict resolution, which can be considered to be
retroactive–trying to solve a conflict after it has already occurred–peace education has a more
proactive approach. Its aim is to prevent a conflict in advance or rather to educate individuals
and a society for a peaceful existence on the basis of nonviolence, tolerance, equality, respect for
differences, and social justice.

The Development of Peace Education and Its Basic Principles

The understanding of the concept of peace has changed throughout history, and so has its role
and importance in the educational system from the very beginnings of the institutionalized
socialization of children. When discussing the evolution of peace education, however, there have
been a few important points in history that defined its aims and actions. The end of World War I
(1914–1918) brought powerful support for the need for international cooperation and
understanding and helped instill a desire to include these ideas in educational systems. The
League of Nations and a number of nongovernmental organizations worked together on these
ideas, especially through the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, an organization
that was the predecessor of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). World War II (1939–1945) ended with millions of victims and the frightening use
of atomic weapons against Japan, at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1946 UNESCO was founded as
an umbrella institution of the United Nations, and it was charged with planning, developing, and
implementing general changes in education according to the international politics of peace and
security. The statute of this organization reinforced the principle of the role of education in the
development of peace, and a framework was created for including and applying the principles of
peace in the general world education systems. The cold war division of the world after World
War II and the strategy of the balance of fear between the so-called West and East blocs
redirected the peace efforts. The peace movement began concentrating on stopping the threat of
nuclear war, halting the arms race, and encouraging disarmament. Somewhat parallel to this, the
issues of environmental protection and development found their place in peace education
programs. The contemporary sociopolitical environment (particularly the events in eastern
Europe since the early 1990s, the fear of terrorism, and the increasing gap between developed
and undeveloped countries) has created new challenges for the understanding of peace and for
the development of the underlying principles of responsibility and security.

A 1996 book by Robin Burns and Robert Aspeslagh showed that the field and the themes that are
included in peace education are diverse. The diversity is evident in theoretical approaches,
underlying philosophies, basic methodology, and goals. Within the field of peace education,
therefore, one can find a variety of issues, ranging from violence in schools to international
security and cooperation, from the conflict between the developed world and the undeveloped
world to peace as the ideal for the future, from the question of human rights to the teaching of
sustainable development and environmental protection. A critic could say that the field is too
wide and that peace education is full of people with good intentions but without a unique
theoretical framework, firm methodology, and an evaluation of the outcomes of the practical
efforts and programs of peace education. Some within the field would generally agree with this
criticism. Nevertheless, the importance of accepting the specific situations in which programs for
peace are being implemented and held should be emphasized. Owing to these specifics,
difficulties emerge when one tries to define the unique approach, methodology, and evaluation of
the efficiency of applied programs. The complex systems of society, the circumstances, and the
context make the peace education field very active and diverse.

Peace Education Discrepancies: Individual, Group Conflict

In the active process of achieving positive peace, peace education is faced with a few basic
discrepancies: discrepancy between the individual and the group, discrepancy between groups
within one society or from different societies, and the discrepancy of conflict as an imbalance of
different interests that need to be resolved without violence.

Discrepancies between individual and group. The modern liberal theory puts the individual's
equality, values, and rights in the center of a successfully functioning society. This basic thesis is
the beginning of the philosophy and practical protection of human rights. From the individual
psychological point of view one thinks in terms of educating a complete person. In the
educational system this does not mean transmitting only the facts, but it includes the complete
social, emotional, and moral development of an individual; the development of a positive self-
concept and positive self-esteem; and the acquisition of knowledge and skills to accept
responsibility for one's own benefit as well as for the benefit of society. The development of a
positive self-concept is the foundation for the development of sympathy for others and building
trust, as well as the foundation for developing awareness of interconnectedness with others. In
that sense a social individual is a starting point and a final target of peace education efforts.

Discrepancies between groups. People are by nature social beings, fulfilling their needs within
society. Many social psychologists believe that there is a basic tendency in people to evaluate
groups they belong to as more valuable than groups they do not belong to. This ingroup bias is
the foundation of stereotypes, negative feelings toward outgroups, prejudices, and, finally,
discrimination. In the psychological sense, the feeling of an individual that his or her group is
discriminated against, or that he or she as an individual is discriminated against just for
belonging to a particular group, leads to a sense of deep injustice and a desire to rectify the
situation. Injustice and discrimination do not shape only the psychological world of an individual
but also shape the collective world of the group that is discriminated against–shaping the group
memory that is transmitted from generation to generation and that greatly influences the
collective identity. Belonging to a minority group that is discriminated against could have a
series of negative consequences on the psychological and social functioning of its members, for
example, leading to lower academic achievement or negatively influencing the self-concept and
self-esteem. Therefore, peace education is dealing with key elements of individual and group
identity formed by historical and cultural heritage, balancing the values of both of these, and
trying to teach people how to enjoy their own rights without endangering the rights of others, and
especially how to advocate for the rights of others when such rights are threatened. This
motivating element of defense and advocating for the rights of others is the foundation of shared
responsibility for the process of building peace.

Conflict and its role in peace education. Conflict is a part of life, and its nature is neither good
nor bad. On the interpersonal and intergroup level, conflict describes an imbalance or an
existence of difference between the needs and interests of two sides. It becomes negative only
when the answer to a conflict is aggression. It is possible, however, to resolve the difference
positively, by recognizing the problem and recognizing one's own needs and interests and also
acknowledging the needs of the opposing sides. In this way, constructive nonviolent conflict
resolutions are possible. An important aspect of conflict is that it includes potential for change,
and it is in this context that peace education addresses the issues of conflict and conflict
resolution by teaching students how to take creative approaches to the conflict and how to find
different possibilities for the conflict resolution. Thus students gain knowledge and skills that
encourage personal growth and development, contribute to self-esteem and respect of others, and
develop competence for a nonviolent approach to future conflict situations.

Peace Education in Schools

From the very beginnings of the development of systematic peace education, there has been
discussion about whether it should be added as a separate program in the schools, or if the
principles of peace education should be applied through the regular school subjects. The variety
of approaches and attitudes on what peace education actually is leads to the introduction of a
series of titles, such as multicultural training, education for democracy and human rights, and
education for development. Many in the field, however, believe that the implementation
of principles of peace education into the institutionalized educational system is a better approach,
especially within the subjects encompassing the cultural heritage of the dominant society and the
ethnic groups belonging to it. Consistent with this view, Aspeslagh in 1996 wrote about the need
to internationalize national curriculum. For example, including within the curriculum the
contributions of minority groups to literature, history, art, the general cultural heritage, and the
development of the particular nation-state may significantly contribute to intercultural closeness
and understanding.

The Principles and Theoretical Foundations of Peace Education Programs

Since the psychologist Gordon Allport formulated his well-known contact hypothesis in 1954,
this theoretical framework became the most applicable principle for programs whose main goal
is to change the relationships between groups in conflict. According to Allport's theory, for the
intergroup contact to be successful and accomplish positive changes in attitudes and behavior, it
must fulfill four basic conditions: the contact groups must be of equal status, the contact must be
personal and manifold, the groups must depend on each other working for a superordinate goal,
and there must be institutional support for the equality norm. The numerous re-search projects
that tried to verify the predictions of the contact hypothesis provided contradictory results,
raising serious doubts about the major cognitive, affective, and behavioral shifts that occur as a
result of organized meetings between representatives of conflicting groups. Almost every new
study added new conditions that must be fulfilled in order for the contact to be successful.
Even if there is a positive change in the attitude toward members of the outgroup in direct
contact, there is a question of the generalization of the newly formed attitude to the other
members of the outgroup. The key problem of peace education is not the interpersonal conflict
but the collective conflict between groups, races, nations, or states. Therefore, the issue of
transferring the positive attitudes toward members of other groups–attitudes achieved in safe
environments such as classrooms, schools, workshops, and the like–to all members of the
outgroup and all other outgroups remains the pivotal issue of peace education. Children learn
about peace and the need for peace in safe protected environments and then return to a wider
society where there is still injustice, asymmetry of power, a hierarchical structure,
discrimination, and xenophobia. Therefore, each program for peace education must not only
strengthen the capacity of an individual for critical thinking but also strengthen the individual's
ability to resist the majority, if the majority is one that discriminates. As stated by Ervin Staub in
1999, for change to happen and spread there is a need for a minimum mass of people who share
attitudes, a culture in which they can express those attitudes, and a society that accepts the
attitudes.

Based on the contact hypothesis, a very successful technique was developed for improving the
relations among groups, highly applicable as a general teaching and learning method. It is
the cooperative learning technique in which a smaller group of students study in face-to-face
interaction, cooperating to complete a common task. This technique was very successful both in
lower and higher grades of elementary school, not only as a teaching method but also for
creating a positive atmosphere in the classroom, reinforcing students relationships, and creating
intergroup friendships.

On the other hand, based on the idea that adopting knowledge and developing skills is the basis
for gaining positive attitudes and behavior, intercultural training programs were also developed.
These basically involve a group of techniques that accept the primary notion that differences
between cultures are what lead to misunderstandings and conflicts between groups. Such
programs assume that information about the values, customs, and practices of the members of a
different culture contributes to better understanding of others, thereby reducing prejudices,
negative stereotypes, and tensions between people who belong to different cultures. Research has
shown that ignorance about others plays a significant role in the development and perpetuation of
prejudices. Educating students about both cultural similarities and differences is a significant
factor in reducing prejudice.