LITTLE FLOWER HOUSE

KAKARMATTA, VARANASI

PHYSICS PROJECT

Topic.

………………………………………………
Topic
Name - ..........................................................................................
Class - ............................................................................................
Roll No. - ....................................................................................
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Submitted by Submitted to
Mr. Neeraj Kr. Gupta
CERTIFICATE
Little Flower House
Varanasi

To Whomsoever It May Concern

I have great pleasure in forwarding the Physics project
entitled”.................................................................”
submitted by ..................................... of Class 12th.

........................... has prepared this investigatory project in

accordance with the guidelines formed by CBSE and has

worked as per my instructions and I certify that the project
is unique and has not been copied from any other source.

I wish him/her every success in his/her future endeavors.

Mr. Neeraj Kr. Gupta

Date (Supervisor)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to convey my sincere gratitude to Mr. Neeraj

Kr. Gupta, my Physics Teacher who gave his valuable
advice and superb guidelines for completion of my
project. He helped me to understand the important
details of my project which would otherwise have not
been possible.

I am also grateful to my friends for boosting my morale

and offering me mental support.

Last but not least, I extend by sincere thanks to my

classmates and the lab assistant who played an
important role during the performing of the experiment.

By

...........................
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
(1857-1894)

AIM:-To study about the

photoelectric effect
S. No. Description Page No.

1 Introduction: Photoelectric Effect 06

2 History 07
3 Hertz’s Observations 11
4 Hallwach’s and Lenard’s Observations 12
5 Experimental study of photoelectric effect 13
6 Laws of photoelectric emission 17
7 Failure of classical wave theory to explain 17
photoelectric effect
8 Einstein’s Theory 18
9 Uses and Effects 19
10 Bibliography 22

5
Introduction: Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light
shines on a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons. This
phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics, as well as in fields of chemistry,
such as quantum chemistry or electrochemistry.

According to classical electromagnetic theory, this effect can be attributed to the

transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in the
intensity of light would induce changes in the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from
the metal. Furthermore, according to this theory, a sufficiently dim light would be expected
to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an
electron. However, the experimental results did not correlate with either of the two
predictions made by classical theory.

Instead, electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons when those
photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency (energy). Below that threshold, no electrons
are emitted from the material regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of
exposure to the light. (Rarely, an electron will escape by absorbing two or more quanta.
However, this is extremely rare because by the time it absorbs enough quanta to escape, the
electron will probably have emitted the rest of the quanta.) To make sense of the fact that
light can eject electrons even if its intensity is low, Albert Einstein proposed that a beam of
light is not a wave propagating through space, but rather a collection of discrete wave
packets (photons), each with energy hν. This shed light on Max Planck's previous discovery
of the Planck relation (E = hν) linking energy (E) and frequency (ν) as arising from
quantization of energy. The factor h is known as the Planck constant.

In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light
create electric sparks more easily. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German
physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only
be released in "packets" of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the
hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental
data from the photoelectric effect. This model contributed to the development of quantum
mechanics. In 1914, Millikan's Experiment supported Einstein's model of the photoelectric
effect. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the
photoelectric effect", and Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for "his
work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect".

The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies approaching zero (in the case
of negative electron affinity) to over 1 MeV for core electrons in elements with a high
atomic number. Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few
6
electron-volts, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. Study of the
photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and
electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality. Other
phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the
photoconductive effect (also known as photoconductivity or photoresistivity), the
photovoltaic effect, and the photoelectrochemical effect.

Photoemission can occur from any material, but it is most easily observable from
metals or other conductors because the process produces a charge imbalance, and if this
charge imbalance is not neutralized by current flow (enabled by conductivity), the potential
barrier to emission increases until the emission current ceases. It is also usual to have the
emitting surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the flow of photoelectrons and make them
difficult to observe. Additionally, the energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by
thin oxide layers on metal surfaces if the metal has been exposed to oxygen, so most
practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces
in a vacuum.

When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the term
internal photoemission is often used, and emission into a vacuum distinguished as external
photoemission.

History
When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain threshold
frequency (typically visible light for alkali metals, near ultraviolet for other metals, and
extreme ultraviolet for non-metals), the radiation is absorbed and electrons are emitted.
Light, and especially ultra-violet light, discharges negatively electrified bodies with the
production of rays of the same nature as cathode rays. Under certain circumstances it can
directly ionize gases. The first of these phenomena was discovered by Hertz and Hallwachs
in 1887. The second was announced first by Philipp Lenard in 1900.

The ultra-violet light to produce these effects may be obtained from an arc lamp, or by
burning magnesium, or by sparking with an induction coil between zinc or cadmium
terminals, the light from which is very rich in ultra-violet rays. Sunlight is not rich in ultra-
violet rays, as these have been absorbed by the atmosphere, and it does not produce nearly so
large an effect as the arc-light. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity
under the action of ultraviolet light: lists of these substances will be found in papers by G. C.
Schmidt and O. Knoblauch.

7
19TH CENTURY:
In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect while
studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells. Though not equivalent to the photoelectric
effect, his work on photovoltaics was instrumental in showing a strong relationship between
light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered
photoconductivityin selenium while testing the metal for its high resistance properties in
conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables.

Johann Elster (1854–1920) and Hans Geitel (1855–1923), students in Heidelberg, developed
the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light.
Elster and Geitel had investigated with great success the effects produced by light on
electrified bodies.

In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed the photoelectric

effect and the production and reception of electromagnetic
waves. He published these observations in the journal Annalen
der Physik. His receiver consisted of a coil with a spark gap,
where a spark would be seen upon detection of
electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened
box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the
maximum spark length was reduced when in the box. A glass
panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and
the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the
electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark
length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark
length when he replaced the glass with quartz, as quartz does
not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of
investigation and reported the results obtained. He did not
further pursue the investigation of this effect.

The discovery by Hertz in 1887 that the incidence of ultra-violet light on a spark gap
facilitated the passage of the spark, led immediately to a series of investigations by
Hallwachs, Hoor, Righi and Stoletow on the effect of light, and especially of ultra-violet
light, on charged bodies. It was proved by these investigations that a newly cleaned surface
of zinc, if charged with negative electricity, rapidly loses this charge however small it may
be when ultra-violet light falls upon the surface; while if the surface is uncharged to begin
with, it acquires a positive charge when exposed to the light, the negative electrification
going out into the gas by which the metal is surrounded; this positive electrification can be
much increased by directing a strong airblast against the surface. If however the zinc surface
is positively electrified it suffers no loss of charge when exposed to the light: this result has
been questioned, but a very careful examination of the phenomenon by Elster and Geitel has

8
shown that the loss observed under certain circumstances is due to the discharge by the light
reflected from the zinc surface of negative electrification on neighbouring conductors
induced by the positive charge, the negative electricity under the influence of the electric
field moving up to the positively electrified surface.

With regard to the Hertz effect, the researchers from the start showed a great
complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue — that is, the progressive diminution
of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to an important research by
Wilhelm Hallwachs, ozone played an important part in the phenomenon. However, other
elements enter such as oxidation, the humidity, the mode of polish of the surface, etc. It was
at the time not even sure that the fatigue is absent in a vacuum.

In the period from February 1888 and until 1891, a detailed analysis of photoeffect
was performed by Aleksandr Stoletov with results published in 6 works; four of them in
Comptes Rendus, one review in Physikalische Revue (translated from Russian), and the last
work in Journal de Physique. First, in these works Stoletov invented a new experimental
setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of photoeffect. Using this setup, he
discovered the direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photo
electric current (the first law of photoeffect or Stoletov's law). One of his other findings
resulted from measurements of the dependence of the intensity of the electric photo current
on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure P m
corresponding to a maximum photocurrent; this property was used for a creation of solar
cells.

In 1899, J. J. Thomson investigated ultraviolet light in Crookes tubes. Thomson

deduced that the ejected particles were the same as those previously found in the cathode
ray, later called electrons, which he called "corpuscles". In the research, Thomson enclosed a
metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation. It was
thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and,
after reaching a certain amplitude, caused a subatomic "corpuscle" to be emitted, and current
to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation.
Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current.

20TH CENTURY:
The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultra-violet light was made by Philipp
Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and made very
great positive and small negative ions, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as did J. J.
Thomson, as a Hertz effect upon the solid or liquid particles present in the gas.

In 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of individual emitted electrons increased
with the frequency (which is related to the color) of the light.
9
This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell's wave theory of light, which predicted that
the electron energy would be proportional to the intensity of the radiation.

Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful
electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity, and that had
sufficient power to enable him to investigate the variation of potential with light frequency.
His experiment directly measured potentials, not electron kinetic energy: he found the
electron energy by relating it to the maximum stopping potential (voltage) in a phototube. He
found that the calculated maximum electron kinetic energy is determined by the frequency of
the light. For example, an increase in frequency results in an increase in the maximum
kinetic energy calculated for an electron upon liberation – ultraviolet radiationwould require
a higher applied stopping potential to stop current in a phototube than blue light. However,
Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in
performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that
the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial
vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity,
or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted
from the surface.

The researches of Langevin and those of Eugene Bloch have shown that the greater
part of the Lenard effect is certainly due to this 'Hertz effect'. The Lenard effect upon the
gas[itself nevertheless does exist. Refound by J. J. Thomson and then more decisively by
Frederic Palmer, Jr., it was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at
first attributed to it by Lenard.

In 1905, Albert Einstein solved this apparent

paradox by describing light as composed of discrete
quanta, now called photons, rather than continuous
waves. Based upon Max Planck's theory of black-body
radiation, Einstein theorized that the energy in each
quantum of light was equal to the frequency multiplied by
a constant, later called Planck's constant. A photon above
a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a
single electron, creating the observed effect. This
discovery led to the quantum revolution in physics and
earned Einstein the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. By
wave-particle duality the effect can be analyzed purely in
terms of waves though not as conveniently.

Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused
by absorption of quanta of light was in one of his 1905 papers, named "On a Heuristic
Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light". This paper proposed
the simple description of "light quanta", or photons, and showed how they explained such
10
phenomena as the photoelectric effect. His simple explanation in terms of absorption of
discrete quanta of light explained the features of the phenomenon and the characteristic
frequency.

The idea of light quanta began with Max Planck's published law of black-body
radiation ("On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum") by assuming that
Hertzian oscillators could only exist at energies E proportional to the frequency f of the
oscillator by E = hf, where h is Planck's constant. By assuming that light actually consisted of
discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote an equation for the photoelectric effect that agreed
with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was dependent only
on the frequency of the incident light and not on its intensity: a low-intensity, the high-
frequency source could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a high-intensity, the low-
frequency source would supply no photons of sufficient individual energy to dislodge any
electrons. This was an enormous theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at
first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from James
Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior, and more generally, the assumption
of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Even after experiments showed that
Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, resistance to the idea of
photons continued since it appeared to contradict Maxwell's equations, which were well
understood and verified.

Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases
linearly with the frequency of the light. Perhaps surprisingly, the precise relationship had not
at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases
with increasing frequency of incident light and is independent of the intensity of the light.
However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when
Robert Andrews Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct.

The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle

duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both
waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was
impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light, as the energy of
the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical
theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then
be emitted.

Hertz’s Observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was first discovered by Heinrich Hertz in
1887. While demonstrating the existence of electromagnetic waves, Hertz found that the high
voltage sparks passed across the metal electrodes of the detector loop more easily when the
11
cathode was illuminated by UV light from an arc lamp. The UV light falling on the metal
surface caused the emission of negatively charged particles, which are known as electrons,
into the surrounding space and hence enhanced the high voltage sparks.

Hallwach’s and Lenard’s Observations

During the years 1886-1902, Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the
phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to an
electroscope. He allowed UV light to fall on a zinc plate. He observed that the zinc plate
became: (i) uncharged if initially negatively charged, (ii) positively charged if initially
uncharged, (iii) more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these
observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc
plate when exposed to UV light.

A few years later Lenard observed that when UV radiations are allowed to fall on the
emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (cathode C and anode A), a
current flows in a circuit. As soon as UV radiations are stopped, the current also stops. These
observations again indicate that UV radiations incident on the emitter plate C eject out same
negatively charged particles from it. These particles are attracted by the collector plate A,
setting up a current through the evacuated glass tube. After the discovery of electrons by JJ
Thomson in 1897, it was established that these particles are indeed electrons and were called
photoelectrons. In 1900, Lenard argued that that when UV light is incident on the emitter
plate, it causes the emission of electrons from its surface. These electrons are attracted by the
positive collector plate so that the circuit is completed and the current flows. This current
was called Photoelectric current.

Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the frequency of the incident light was
less than the a certain minimum value, called the threshold frequency, no photoelectrons
were emitted at all.

Different substances emit photoelectrons only when exposed to radiations of different

frequencies. Alkali metals like Li, Na, K, Cs and R barer highly photosensitive. They emit
electrons even with visible light. Metals like Zn, Cd, Mg, Al etc. respond only to UV light.
X-rays can eject electrons even from heavy metals.
12
Experimental study of photoelectric effect
An extensive study of photoelectric effect was made by Lenard and RA Millikan.

Figure depicts a schematic view of the

arrangement used for the experimental study of the
photoelectric effect. It consists of an evacuated
glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C
and another metal plate A. Monochromatic light
from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength
passes through the window W and falls on the
photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent
quartz window is sealed on to the glass tube,
which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through
it and irradiate the photosensitive plate C. The
electrons are emitted by the plate C and are
collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric
field created by the battery. The battery maintains
the potential difference between the plates

C and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a
commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential
with respect to emitter C. When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter
plate C, the electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of electric
current in the circuit. The potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is
measured by a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is
measured by a microammeter (µA). The photoelectric current can be increased or decreased
by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity
and frequency of the incident light can be varied, as can the potential difference V between
the emitter C and the collector A.

We can use the experimental arrangement of Fig. to study the variation of

photocurrent with (a) intensity of radiation, (b) frequency of incident radiation, (c) the
potential difference between the plates A and C, and (d) the nature of the material of plate C.
Light of different frequencies can be used by putting appropriate coloured filter or coloured
glass in the path of light falling on the emitter C. The intensity of light is varied by changing
the distance of the light source from the emitter.

13
EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF LIGHT ON PHOTOCURRENT:

The collector A is maintained at a positive potential

with respect to emitter C so that electrons ejected from C
are attracted towards collector A. Keeping the frequency
of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential
fixed, the intensity of light is varied and the resulting
photoelectric current is measured each time. It is found
that the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of
incident light as shown graphically in Fig. 11.2. The
photocurrent is directly proportional to the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second. This implies that the number of photoelectrons emitted
per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

EFFECT OF POTENTIAL ON PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT:

We first keep the plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect to the
plate C and illuminate the plate C with light of fixed frequency + and fixed intensity I1. We
next vary the positive potential of plate A gradually and measure the resulting photocurrent
each time. It is found that the photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating
(positive) potential. At some stage, for a
certain positive potential of plate A, all the
emitted electrons are collected by the plate A
and the photoelectric current becomes
maximum or saturates. If we increase the
accelerating potential of plate A further, the
photocurrent does not increase. This
maximum value of the photoelectric current is
called saturation current. Saturation current
corresponds to the case when all the
photoelectrons emitted by the emitter plate C
reach the collector plate A.

We now apply a negative (retarding) potential to the plate A with respect to the plate
C and make it increasingly negative gradually. When the polarity is reversed, the electrons
are repelled and only the most energetic electrons are able to reach the collector A. The
photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly until it drops to zero at a certain sharply defined,
critical value of the negative potential V0 on the plate A. For a particular frequency of
incident radiation, the minimum negative (retarding) potential V0 given to the plate A for
which the photocurrent stops or becomes zero is called the cut-off or stopping potential.

The interpretation of the observation in terms of photoelectrons is straight forward. All

the photoelectrons emitted from the metal do not have the same energy. Photoelectric current
14
is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel even the most energetic
photoelectrons, with the maximum kinetic energy (Kmax), so that

Kmax = e V0

We can now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same frequency but
of higher intensity I2 and I3 (I3 _ I2 _ I1). We note that the saturation currents are now found
to be at higher values. This shows that more electrons are being emitted per second,
proportional to the intensity of incident radiation. But the stopping potential remains the
same as that for the incident radiation of intensity I1, as shown graphically in Fig. Thus, for a
given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of its
intensity. In other words, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light
source and the emitter plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident radiation.

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT RADIATION ON STOPPING

POTENTIAL:

We now study the relation

between the frequency + of the incident
radiation and the stopping potential V0.
We suitably adjust the same intensity of
light radiation at various frequencies and
study the variation of photocurrent with
collector plate potential. The resulting
variation is shown in Fig. 11.4. We
obtain different values of stopping
potential but the same value of the
saturation current for incident radiation of different frequencies. The energy of the emitted
electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiations. The stopping potential is more
negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation. Note from Fig. that the stopping
potentials are in the order V03 > V02 > V01
if the frequencies are in the order +3 > +2
> +1_. This implies that greater the
frequency of incident light, greater is the
maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons. Consequently, we need
greater retarding potential to stop them
completely. If we plot a graph between
the frequency of incident radiation and
the corresponding stopping potential for
different metals we get a straight line, as
shown in Fig.
15
The graph shows that

(i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation for
a given photosensitive material.
(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency +0 for which the stopping
potential is zero.

These observations have two implications:

1. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency
of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
2. For a frequency + of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency +0, no
photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large.

This minimum, cut-off frequency +0, is called the threshold frequency. It is different
for different metals. Different photosensitive materials respond differently to light. Selenium

is more sensitive than zinc or copper. The same photosensitive substance gives different
response to light of different wavelengths. For example, ultraviolet light gives rise to
photoelectric effect in copper while green or red light does not.

Note that in all the above experiments, it is found that, if frequency of the incident
radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the photoelectric emission starts instantaneously
without any apparent time lag, even if the incident radiation is very dim. It is now known
that emission starts in a time of the order of 10– 9 s or less. We now summarise the
experimental features and observations described in this section.

(i) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the
threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
(ii) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation
current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
(iii) For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off
frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no
emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is.
Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of
the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag
(110– 9s or less), even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.

16
Laws of photoelectric emission
On the basis of the experimental results on photoelectric effect, Lenard and Millikan gave
the following laws of photoelectric emission:

1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of the incident radiation, (Above
the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the
intensity of light. The saturation current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
2. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency
below which no photoelectrons are emitted, howsoever high is the intensity of incident
radiation. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
3. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the
incidence of light radiation and the emission of photoelectrons is very small, even less
than 10-9s.

Failure of classical wave theory to explain photoelectric effect

According to the wave theory, light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and
magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy over the region over which the wave
extends. This wave picture of light could not explain the basic features of light as explained
below;

1. According to wave theory, when a wavefront of light strikes a metal surface, the free
electrons at the surface absorb the radiant energy continuously. Greater the intensity of
incident radiation, greater are the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic felids, and
greater is the energy density of the wave. Hence higher intensity should liberate
photoelectrons with kinetic energy. But this is contrary to the experimental result that
the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on the intensity of
the incident radiation.
2. No matter what the frequency of the incident radiation is, a light wave of sufficient
intensity (over a sufficient time) should be able to impart enough energy required to
eject the electrons from the metal surface. Thus the wave theory fails to explain the
existence of threshold frequency.
3. The energy of light wave is smoothly and evenly distributed across its advancing
wavefront. Each electron intercepts an insignificantly small amount of this energy and
so it should require a finite time to escape from metal surface. But actually, the
emission is almost instantaneous.
17
Einstein’s Theory
In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory
according to which radiation travels in the form of discrete photons. The energy of each
photon is hʋ, where h is planck’s constant and ʋ is the frequency of light.

The main points of the Einstein’s Theory of photoelectric effect are;

1. Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of two particles- one a photon of
radiation and the other an electron of the photosensitive metal.
2. The free electrons are bound within the surface of the metal due to restraining forces
of the surface. The minimum energy required to liberate an electron from the metal
surface is called work function W0 of the metal.
3. Each photon interacts with one electron. The energy hʋ of the incident photon is used
up in two parts;
a. A part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating the electron from the metal
surface, which is equal to the work function of the metal.
b. The remaining energy of the photon is bused in imparting kinetic energy to the
ejected electron.
4. Very few (<1%) photons, whose energies are greater than the work function are
capable of ejecting the photoelectrons.

By the conservation of energy,

Energy of the incident photon = maximum KE of photoelectron + work function
hʋ = mv2max + W0

Kmax = mv2max = hʋ - W0

If the incident photon is of threshold frequency ʋ0, then its energy hʋ0 is hujust sufficient
from the metal surface and does not give it any kinetic energy. So hʋ0 = W0. Hence,
Kmax = mv2max = hʋ - hʋ0 = h(ʋ - ʋ0)

The above equation is called Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation and can be used to explain
the laws of photoelectric effect as follows:

18
1. Explanation of effect of intensity: the increase of intensity means the increase in the
number of photons striking the metal surface per unit time. As each photon ejects only
one electron, so the number of ejected electrons increases with increase in intensity of
incident radiation.

2. Explanation of threshold frequency: If v < v0 the frequency of incident radiation is

less than the threshold frequency, the KE of photoelectrons becomes negative. This
has no physical meaning. So photoelectron emission does not occur below the
threshold frequency.

3. Explanation of kinetic energy: If v > v0 then

Kmax = mv2max α ʋ
i.e. above threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons increases
linearly with increase in the intensity increases only the number of incident photons
and not their energy. Hence the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
independent of the intensity of incident radiation.

4. Explanation of time lag: photoelectric emission is the result of an elastic collision

between a photon and an electron. Thus the absorption of energy from a photon by a
free electron inside the metal is a single event which involves transfer of energy in one
lump instead of continuous absorption of energy as in wave theory of light. Hence
there is no time lag between the incidence of a photon and the emission of a
photoelectron.

Uses and Effects

PHOTOMULTIPLIERS:
These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a photocathode coated onto
part (an end or side) of the inside of the envelope. The photocathode contains combinations
of materials such as cesium, rubidium,
and antimony specially selected to
provide a low work function, so when
illuminated even by very low levels of
light, the photocathode readily releases
electrons. By means of a series of
electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher
potentials, these electrons are accelerated
and substantially increased in number
through secondary emission to provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers
are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected.
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IMAGE SENSORS:
Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric effect, for
example, Philo Farnsworth's "Image dissector" used a screen charged by the photoelectric
effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal.

GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE:
Gold-leaf electroscopes are designed to detect static electricity. Charge placed on the
metal cap spreads to the stem and the gold leaf of the electroscope. Because they then have
the same charge, the stem and leaf repel each other. This will cause the leaf to bend away
from the stem.
An electroscope is an important tool in
illustrating the photoelectric effect. For example, if the
electroscope is negatively charged throughout, there is
an excess of electrons and the leaf is separated from
the stem. If high-frequency light shines on the cap, the
electroscope discharges, and the leaf will fall limp.
This is because the frequency of the light shining on
the cap is above the cap's threshold frequency. The
photons in the light have enough energy to liberate
electrons from the cap, reducing its negative charge.
This will discharge a negatively charged electroscope
and further charge a positive electroscope. However, if
the electromagnetic radiation hitting the metal cap does not have a high enough frequency
(its frequency is below the threshold value for the cap), then the leaf will never discharge, no
matter how long one shines the low-frequency light at the cap.

PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY:
Since the energy of the photoelectrons emitted is exactly the energy of the incident
photon minus the material's work function or binding energy, the work function of a sample
can be determined by bombarding it with a monochromatic X-ray source or UV source, and
measuring the kinetic energy distribution of the electrons emitted.
Photoelectron spectroscopy is usually done in a high-vacuum environment, since the
electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some
companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be
a laser, a discharge tube, or a synchrotron radiation source.
The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron energy analyzer and uses
an electric field to change the directions of incident electrons, depending on their kinetic
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energies. For every element and core (atomic orbital) there will be a different binding
energy. The many electrons created from each of these combinations will show up as spikes
in the analyzer output, and these can be used to determine the elemental composition of the
sample.

SPACECRAFT:
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a positive
charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which
will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The
imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. The static charge created by
the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object doesn't give up its
electrons as easily as a lower charged object does.

MOON DUST:
Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become charged with the
photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of the Moon
by electrostatic levitation. This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of dust", visible
as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set.
This was first photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s. It is thought that
the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in
"fountains" as they charge and discharge.

NIGHT VISION DEVICES:

Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor material such as gallium
arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the
photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by an electrostatic field where they strike a
phosphor coated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the
signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of
electrons through secondary emissions, such as with a micro-channel plate. Sometimes a
combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an
electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as the electron
affinity of the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden
band, explained by the band gap model. Some materials such as Gallium Arsenide have an
effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials,
electrons that move to the conduction band are all of the sufficient energy to be emitted from
the material and as such, the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are
known as negative electron affinity materials.

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Bibliography
 https://www.google.co.in/search
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect
 www.slideshare.net
 NCERT Physics Textbook
 New Simplified Physics by SL Arora
 Modern Physics by BM Sharma
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