Project Report

Summer Training,
Electrical Section,
Service Block,
Keshav Dev Malaviya
Institute of Petroleum
Exploration,
Dehradun

33 KV Substations & Automatic

ONGC Dehradun.

Power Factor Controller

Submitted By:
Komal Martolia
Id no. 1499,
2nd Year,
Electrical Engineering,
Women Institute of Technology,
Uttarakhand Technical University,
Dehradun , Uttarakhand
Sl. Topic Page No.
No
1. Office Order 2
2. Certificate 4
3. Acknowledgement 5
4. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. 6
 Mission and Vision of ONGC 7
 Objectives of ONGC 8
 History of ONGC 8
 Achievements of ONGC 11
 ONGC today 12
 Some facts about ONGC 13
 Global Ranking 14
 Institutes of ONGC 15
 KDMIPE 16
5. Training Area : Service Block 18
 33 KV Substation 19
 Components of Electrical Distribution 21
 Explanation 24
6. Automatic Power Factor Controller 28
 Introduction 29
 Power Factor Correction for Linear Loads 34
 Power Factor Correction for Non Linear Loads 35
 APFC 38
 Use of APFC in ONGC Complex 41
 APFC Working 43
7. Conclusion 47
8. Bibliography 48

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Ms. Komal Martolia , student of 2nd year , Electrical
Engineering, Bachelor of Technology, Women Institute of Technology,
Uttarakhand Technical University , Dehradun has undergone summer training at
electrical Section, Service Block, KDMIPE, ONGC Ltd., Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun
from 4th June 2018 to 3rd July, 2018 under the overall guidance of Er.Vivek
Malaviya , Dy. General Manager(Electrical).

Ms. Komal Martolia has successfully completed her training and submitted the
training project report. During the period of training she was found sincere,
punctual and regular. Her conduct and behavior was very good.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very thankful to Dr. Sanjay Bhutani, who gave me an opportunity to undergo training at
the Electrical Section, Service Block, KDMIPE, ONGC Ltd., Dehradun.

I am also thankful to Er.Vivek Malaviya who organized the training in a systematic manner and
guided me through the whole training programme.

I would also like to thank all officer/officials who guided and helped me at each and every step
in the training programme.

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4. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC)
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) was incorporated on June 23, 1993. It is an
Indian public sector petroleum company. It is a Fortune Global 500 Company ranked 335 th and
contributes 77% of India’s crude oil production and 81% of India’s natural gas production.

ONGC was set up as a commission on August 14, 1956. Indian government holds 74.14% equity
stake in this company. ONGC is one of Asia’s largest and most active companies involved in
exploration and production of oil. It is involved in exploring for and exploiting hydrocarbons in
26 sedimentary basins of India. It has supported more than 600 million metric tons of crude oil
and supplied more than 200 billion cubic meters of gas since its inception, thus fuelling the
increasing energy requirements for the Indian economy. To sustain this growth, ONGC has
drawn up ambitious strategic objectives, which include doubling the oil and gas reserve.

Having accreted six billion tons oil and oil equivalent reserves in its first 45 years of operation,
ONGC now aims to double these reserves by 2020. The second strategic objective is to augment
the global recovery factor from the existing 28% to the global norm of 40% in next 20 yrs.

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4.1 Mission and Vision of ONGC
To be a world class Oil and Gas Company integrated in energy business with dominant Indian
leadership and Global Presence.

World Class
 Dedicated to excellence by leveraging competitive advantages in R&D and technology
with involved people.
 Imbibe high standards of business ethics and organizational values.
 Abiding commitment to safety, health and environment to enrich quality of community
life.
 Foster a culture of trust, openness and mutual concern to make working a stimulating
and challenging experience for our people.
 Strive for customer delight through quality products and services.

Integrated in Energy Business

 Focus on domestic and international oil and gas exploration and production business
opportunities.
 Provide value linkages in other sectors of energy business.
 Create growth opportunities and maximize shareholder value.
 Retain dominant position in Indian petroleum sector and enhance India’s energy
availability.

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4.2 OBJECTIVES OF ONGC
 To develop and sustain core values.
 To develop business leaders for tomorrow.
 To provide job contentment through empowerment, accountability and responsibility.
 To build and upgrade competencies through virtual learning, opportunities for growth
and providing challenges in the job.
 To foster a climate of creativity, innovation and enthusiasm.
 To enhance the quality of life of employees and their family.
 To inculcate high understanding of ‘Service’ to a greater cause.

4.3 HISTORY OF ONGC

In August, 1956, the Oil and Natural Gas Commission was formed. Raised from mere
Directorate status to Commission, it had enhanced powers. In 1959, these powers were further
enhanced by converting the commission into a statutory body by an act of Indian Parliament .

1960-1990
Since its foundation stone was laid, ONGC is transforming India’s view towards Oil and Natural
Gas by emulating the country’s limited upstream capabilities into a large viable playing field.
ONGC, since 1959, has made its presence noted in most parts of Indian and in overseas
territories. ONGC found new resources in Assam and also established the new oil province in
Cambay basin (Gujarat). In 1970 with the discovery of Bombay High (now known as Mumbai
High), ONGC went offshore. With this discovery and subsequent discovery of huge oil fields in
the Western offshore, a total of 5 billion tons of hydrocarbon present in the country was
discovered. The most important contribution of ONGC, however, is its self-reliance and
development of core competence in exploration and production activities at a global
competitive level.

Post 1990
ONGC’s HAL Dhruv helicopter started operating off the coast of Mumbai. Post 1990,
liberalization in the economic policy was brought into effect; subsequently partial
disinvestments of government equity in Public Sector Undertakings were sought. As a result,
ONGC was re-organized as a limited company and after conversion of the business of the
erstwhile Oil and Natural Gas Commission to that of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd in

1993, 2 % of shares through competitive bidding were disinvested. Further expansion of equity
was done by 2% share offering to ONGC employees. Another big leap was taken in March 1999,

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when ONGC, Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) and Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL) agreed to have
cross holding in each other’s stock. Consequently the Government sold off 10% of its
shareholding in ONGC to IOC and 2.5% to Gail. With this, the Government holding in ONGC
came down to 84.11%. In 2002-03 ONGC took over Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd.
from Birla group and announced its entrance into retailing business. ONGC also went to global
fields through its subsidiary, ONGC Videsh Ltd. (OVL). ONGC has made major investments in
Vietnam, Sakhalin and Sudan and earned its first hydrocarbon revenue from its investment in
Vietnam.

In 2003, ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL), the division of ONGC concerned with its foreign assets,
acquired Talisman Energy's 25% stake in the Greater Nile Oil project.

In 2006 , a commemorative coin set was issued to mark the 50th anniversary of the founding of
ONGC , making it only the second Indian company to have such a coin issued in its honour.

In 2009, ONGC discovered a massive oil field, with up to 1 billion barrel reserves of heavy crude,
in the Persian Gulf off the coast of Iran. Additionally, ONGC also signed a deal with Iran to invest
US$3 billion to extract 1.1 billion cubic feet of natural gas from the Farzad B gas field.

In 2011, ONGC applied to purchase of 2000 acres of land at Dahanu to process offshore
gas. ONGC Videsh, along with Statoil ASA (Norway) and Repsol SA (Spain), has been engaged in
deep water drilling off the northern coast of Cuba in 2012. On 11 August 2012, ONGC
announced that it had made a large oil discovery in the D1 oilfield off the West coast of India,
which will help it to raise the output of the field from around 12,500 barrels per day (bpd) to a
peak output of 60,000 bpd.
In November 2012, OVL agreed to acquire ConocoPhillips' 8.4% stake in the Kashagan oilfield in
Kazakhstan for around US$5 billion, in ONGC's largest acquisition to date. The acquisition is
subject to the approval of the governments of Kazakhstan and India and also to other partners
in the Caspian Sea field waiving their pre-emption rights.
In January 2014, OVL and Oil India completed the acquisition of Videocon Group’s ten percent
stake in a Mozambican gas field for a total of $2.47 billion.
In 2015, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) gave a Rs.27bn ($427m) offshore contract for
the Bassein development project to Larsen &Toubro (L&T).
In February 2016 , the board of ONGC approved an investment of Rs.5,050 Crore in Tripura for
drilling of wells and creation of surface facilities to produce 5.1 million standard cubic feet per
day gas from the state’s fields .

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On 19 July 2017 , the Government Of India approved the acquisition of Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation by ONGC .

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4.4 ACHIEVEMENTS OF ONGC
 ONGC has been ranked at 198 by the Forbes Magazine in their Forbes Global 200 list for
the year 2007.
 ONGC has featured in the 2008 list of Fortune Global 500 companies at position 335.
 ONGC is ranked as Asia’s best Oil and Gas Company, as per a recent survey conducted
by US-based magazine Global Finance.
 2nd biggest E&P company, as per the Platts Energy Business Technology (EBT) Surveys
2004.
 Ranks 24th among Global Energy Companies by Market Capitalization in PFC Energy 50
(December 2004)
 Economic Times 500, Business Today 500, Business Baron 500 and Business Week
Recognizes ONGC as most valuable Indian Corporate, by Market Capitalization, Net
worth and Net Profits.
 It was conferred with 'Maharatna' status by the Government of India in November
2010. The Maharatna status to select PSUs allows more freedom in decision making.
 In 2011, ONGC was ranked 39th among the world's 105 largest listed companies in
'transparency in corporate reporting' by Transparency International making it the most
transparent company in India.
 In April 2013, it was ranked at 155th place in the Forbes Global 2000 for 2012.
 ONGC was ranked as the Most Attractive Employer in the Energy sector in India, in
the Randstad Awards 2013.
 ONGC received the ‘Golden Peacock Award 2013’ for its HSE practices.
 In February 2014, FICCI conferred it with Best Company Promoting Sports Award.
 In May 2014, ONGC was accorded with FORTUNE World's Most Admired Company.
 In June 2014, ONGC was ranked 217th in the world and 3rd in India
in the Newsweek Green Ranking, the world’s most recognized assessments of corporate
environmental performance.
 In April 2018 , A team of ONGC successfully summited the third highest and most
challenging peak, Mt Kanchenjunga .

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4.5 ONGC TODAY
 ONGC ranks as the Numero Uno Oil & Gas Exploration & Production (E & P) Company in
Asia, as per Platts 250 Global Energy Companies List for the year 2007.
 ONGC is the only Company from India in the Fortune Magazine's list of the World's Most
Admired Companies 2007. ONGC is 9th position in the Industry of Mining, crude oil
production.
 ONGC ranks 239th position in the prestigious Forbes Global 2000 and Numero Uno
ranking amongst Indian Companies.
 ONGC contributes over 78 per cent of Indian's oil and gas production.
 ONGC's overseas arm ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL) projects are spread out in Vietnam,
Russia, Sudan, Iraq, Iran, Libya, Myanmar, Syria, Qatar, Egypt, Cuba, Nigeria Sao Tome
Principe, Brazil, Nigeria and Columbia. OVL Currently has participation in 29 E & P
Projects in 15 Countries. Out of the existing 29 Projects, OVL is Operator in 14 Projects
and Joint Operator in 2 Projects in 9 Countries.
 Today ONGC uses one of the Top Ten Virtual Reality Interpretation facilities in the
world.
 ONGC has one of the biggest ERP implementations in the Asia through collaboration
with SAP AG.
 The manpower in ONGC currently consists of a dedicated team of nearly 40,000
professionals.
 ONGC posted a net profit of Rs. 156.429 billion, the highest by any Indian company. In
the financial year 2006-07 and hasa net worth Rs. 614 billion. It has also contributed
over Rs. 286 billion 10 the exchequer in the same period.

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Sakhlin Oil field owned by ONGC Videsh, Russia

4.6 SOME FACTS ABOUT ONGC

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation limited IONGC India) is considered Asia's best oil & Gas
Company. It ranks as the 2nd biggest E & P company (and 1st in terms of profits), as per the
Platts Energy Business Technology (EBT) Survey 2004. It ranks 24th among Global Energy
Companies by Market Capitalization in PFC Energy 50 (December 2004). ONGC was ranked 17th
till March 2004. Before the shares prices dropped marginally for external reasons.

Activities
Everyone who works at ONGC India is responsible for protecting the environment, health and
safety of our people and communities worldwide. Our commitment to SHE performance is an
integral part of our business, and achieving cost-effective solution is essential to our long-term
success.

The dedication to the causes of environment and safety in ONGC is amply demonstrated by the
fact that a separate institute named Institute of Petroleum Safety, Health and Environment
Management (IPSHEM) had been set up way back in 1989 to deal with these issues. Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation Limited ONGC's safety policy seeks to provide safe and healthy
working conditions and enlist the active support of all staff in achieving these ends.

The development activities of ONGC have been planned on sound ecological principle and
incorporate appropriate environmental safeguards.

ONGC Represents India's Energy Security:

ONGC has single-handedly written India's hydrocarbon saga by the following methods:-

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 Building 6 billion tons of In-place hydrocarbon reserves with more than 300 discoveries
of oil and gas; in fact, 5 out of the 6 producing basins have been discovered by ONGC:
out of these in place hydrocarbons In domestic acreage, Ultimate Reserves are 2.1
Billion Metric tons (BMT) of Oil Plus on Equivalent Gas (O+OEG).
 Cumulatively producing 685 Million Metric tons (MMT) of crude and 375 Billion Cubic
Meters (BCM) of Natural Gas, from 115 fields.

4.7 GLOBAL RANKING

 ONGC ranks as the Numero Uno Oil & Gas Exploration & Production (E&P) Company in
the world, as per Platts 250 Global Energy Companies List for the year 2008 based on
assets, revenues, profits and return on invested capital (R01C)
 ONGC ranks 20th among the Global publicly-listed Energy companies as per PFC Energy
50(Jan 2008)
 ONGC is the only Company from India in the Fortune Magazine's list of the World's Most
Admired Companies 2007.
 Occupies 152nd rank in "Forbes Global 2000" 2009 list (up 46 notches than last year) of
the elite companies across the world ; based on sales, profits, assets and market
valuation during the last fiscal. In terms of profits, ONGC maintains its top rank from
India.

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4.8 INSTITUTES OF ONGC
ONGC conducts institutional research and development in the oil and gas, and other related
sectors. It has established separate institutions to undertake specific activities in key areas of
exploration, drilling, reservoir management, production technology, ocean engineering, safety
and environment protection. These institutions function in the form of nine independently
managed R&D centers. There R&D institutes with highly experienced and highly qualified
manpower support exploration and production activities of ONGC. These institutes are:-

1. Keshav Dev Malviya institute of Petroleum Exploration (KDMIPE), Dehradun.

2. Institute of Drilling Technology (IDT), Dehradun.
3. ONGC Academy
4. Institute of Reservoir Studies (IRS), Ahmedabad.
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5. Institute of Oil and Gas Production Technology (IOGPT), Mumbai.
6. Institute of Engineering and Ocean Technology (IEOT), Mumbai.
7. Institute of Petroleum and Safety Environment Management (IPSEM), Margao.
8. Institute of Bio-Technology and Geotectonic, Guwahati.

ONGC IN DEHRADUN
The headquarters of Oil & Natural Gas Corporation LTD (ONGC) is situated in Dehradun along
with the following offices.

 Tel Bhavan (headquarter)

 Keshav Dev Malaviya Institute of Petroleum Exploration (KDMIPE)
 Institute of Drilling Technology (IDT)
 ONGC Academy (formerly Institute of Management Development (IMD))
 Geo Data Processing and Interpretation Center (GEOPIC)
 Exploration & Development Directorate (E & D Dte.)

4.9KDMIPE
Keshava Deva Malaviya Institute of Petroleum Exploration (KDMIPE) is located in picturesque
valley of Dehradun in the state of Uttarakhand. It was founded in 1962 with an objective to
provide geo-scientific back up to the exploratory efforts of India's National oil company, ONGC.

The Institute was rechristened as Keshava Deva Malaviya Institute of Petroleum Exploration
(KDMIPE) on 19th December, 1981 by the then Prime Minister of India Late Mrs. Indira Gandhi
in the memory of the Father of Indian Petroleum industry and first chairman of ONGC-Late Shri
Keshava Deva Malaviya. Since its inception the Institute is continuously providing its geo
scientific support towards finding more oil and gas in various basins within India and globally,
wherever ONGC is seeking business.

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Presently the Institute is the nodal agency for multidisciplinary synergistic basin scale and
domain specific research in exploration. The Institute has strength of around 300 highly
experienced scientists and technical officers in the field of Geo scientific research, Basin
research, Resource and Acreages appraisal and E & P data management. It is equipped with
state of the art facilities, softwares and cutting edge technologies. The Institute caters to the
needs of all the basins currently under active exploration and producing Assets, both in India as
well as overseas operation by our sister company ONGC Videsh Limited, We also provide
consultancy services in areas of geoscience and exploration to national and international oil
companies.

KDMIPE has been an ISO: 9001: 2000 certified institute from 3.12.2004 to 03.12.2007. To
achieve the highest standard of Quality, Health, Safety and Environment, KDMIPE has strived to
get QHSE certificate and the same was awarded to KDMIPE on 13th June, 2008.

Business Activities
Keshava Deva Malaviya Institute of Petroleum Exploration is a sub-unit of the public sector
petroleum giant Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited. The product developed at KDMIPE
relates to various processes and technologies connected to exploration technology. Various
innovations, problem solving measures, indigenous resourcing and applied R & D are carried
out that totally caters to the requirements of the different assets/basins of its parent company,
ONGC.

The parent company provides the key support required for functioning of the institute, which
includes Manpower, Finance, Infrastructure, Equipments etc. and facilitates Field Validation.

Core Strengths are:

 Basin evaluation and opening of new areas of exploration.
 Geoscientific laboratory analysis (Sedimentology. Biostratigraphy, Geochemistry,
Reservoir, Petro physics and Gravity-Magnetic)
 Developing exploration concepts and models.
 Play models and petroleum systems.
 Attain breakthrough in exploration in frontier basins.
 Hydrocarbon Resource Appraisal of Indian and foreign basins.
 E & P data network.
 Induction of appropriate technologies and related skills.

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With an objective to foster Applied-Basic and Fundamental research continuum in the field of G
& G and Petroleum exploration, the Institute has been developing academia-industry strategic
alliances in the form of R & D collaboration with various National and International universities
and Institutes. Our national collaborative partners are Andhra University, BHU, Varanasi,
Calcutta University, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Indian School of Mines
(ISM) Dhanbad, National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) Hyderabad, Dibrugarh
University, Presidency College, Delta Studies Institute (DSI), Visakhapatnam and WIHG. In the
international arena we had collaboration with ARC, Canada, UNOCAL, Oregon State University,
University of Southern California, and EGI, USA, BGR, Germany, IFP France, Cambridge
University, UK and Petroleum Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania.

We have recently taken new initiatives in non-conventional energy sources, and inducted
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Sea Bed Logging (SBL), Q-Marine and GX Technology and other
contemporary processing and interpretation soft wares on application tools. Institute with its
intellect and state of the art technology continuously strive for improving success ratio in
exploration and opening up of new basins and provinces for overall energy security of the
nation.

5. TRAINING AREA: SERVICE BLOCK, KDMIPE, ONGC,

DEHRADUN
The service block at KDMIPE deals with the power Supply system, air conditioning plant, pump
house and UPS systems which are required for smooth running of various activities at ONGC.
The service block constitutes of various functional blocks. These blocks are:

1. 33KV electric substation

2. Captive power generation and distribution system
3. Air conditioning plant
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4. Electric workshop
5. A. C, workshop

Functions of Service Block

1. Ensure that the power supply at the research institute is regular and regulated.
2. Make sure that the workstations have uninterrupted power supply via UPS systems.
3. Managing the water supply in the institute.
4. Making surety about the A, C. Plant functioning properly.

Training at the Service Block

The service block at KDMIPE provides training to the engineers who are either in the electrical
stream or in the mechanical stream. The service block has excellent facilities for pursuing
training. It has its own air conditioning plant, which is of prime interest to the mechanical
engineers and the UPS system and generator house which is essential for electrical engineers.

All the facilities are very important for any institute hence the service block plays a vital role for
the proper functioning of the KDMIPE since it is a research institute hence It should have run
excess to power supply and the time otherwise the research work going on may suffer.

5.1 33 KV SUBSTATION
INTRODUCTION
Sub-stations are vital element in a power supply system of industrial enterprises. They serve to
receive, convert and distribute electrical energy in KDMIPE campus of ONGC. 33 KV sub-station
was commissioned on June 1985. It gets power supply from KAULAGARH POWER HOUSE
through underground cables. In case of power failure, electric power is supplied from
GENERATOR HOUSE (4×1000KVA) situated in service block.

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GENERAL DISCRIPTION
The 33KV line is received from UPCL in the main panel and the necessary measurements are
made. Its output (33KV) is fed to the high-tension bus bar. From the high-tension bus bar the
supply is given to four panels, which are in parallel connection through 630 A, 33 KV, OCB. In
the panels also the necessary measurements are made after stepping down the supply with
help of instrument transformers. Here also there are relays installed which aid in the protection
of the panels.

From the four paralleled panels the supply is given to the step-down transformers through
underground cables (at 33KV). The specifications of the transformers are 1600 KVA, 133KV/433
KV/50Hz. The primary (High Tension) side of the transformer is DELTA connected (3 phase, 3
wire system) with 33 KV input and secondary (Low Tension) side of the transformer is STAR
connected with the star point grounded via neutral (3 phase, 4 wire system) with 433V output.
An on load tap changer is also connected on the H. T side of the transformer. By changing the
taps of the tap changer, the output voltage on the low-tension side can be increased or
decreased as required. The service voltage of the tap changer is 33 KV and the normal working
current is 16. 6 A, The output of each of these transformers is fed to a 3000 ALT bus bar
through a 3200 a switch. The necessary measurements regarding voltage, amperage, frequency
and power factor are made again after stepping down through instrument transformers on the
3000 A connecting is given through fuses, earth fault relays, over current relays, under voltage
relays etc. The output of the transformers is fed to four independent 3000A bars which connect
it to L. T. Bars. The stepping down by the help of the transformers and various measurements
are down to this connecting bus bar the output of each transformer is fed to four segments L. T.
Independently which are coupled together by the help of couplers. The function of the bus
coupler is to couple the load on one or more bus bar to other bus bars so that all load
requirements are fulfilled in case of failure of transformers. From this L. T. Bus bar various
feeders are taken out and 3-phase supply is given to various places as and when required. A
capacitor circuit is provided with each L. T. Bus bar segment to improve power factor.

In case there is a power failure from UPSEB so that transformers cannot be activated. 4 diesel
generators sets of capacity 1000KVA are provided which can supply the requisite power for
fulfilling the load requirements. The diesel generator sets are controlled and synchronized by a
panel provided in the generator house. The output of the single alternator or all the alternators
working in parallel and in synchronization are fed to the diesel generator set bus bar through a
1600A switch. From the diesel generator set bus bar, 4 parallel cables corresponding to the 4-
diesel set is fed to the L. T. Bus bar through a 2000A circuit breaker. These cables are the 1600A
bus bars. The various measurements as regarding frequency, voltage and amperage and power
factor are made on the 1600A bus bar by stepping down the voltage and current to
measureable ranges by the help of instrument transformers. System protection is provided
through earth fault relays, over current relays etc. Another safety protection that is provided is
the backup relay whose function is the prevention of switching on of either transformer of the
diesel generator set if the corresponding transformer is working and supplying to the L. T. Bus bar and
vice versa.

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STEP DOWN TRANSFORMERS
The transformer is the device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to other through
the medium of magnetic field without the change in frequency. The primary and the secondary
of the transformer are coupled magnetically. In a step down transformer, the Primary has a
large number of windings than the secondary, such that the secondary voltage is lower than the
primary voltage. As there are no moving parts, this has high efficiency and requires negligible
amount of maintenance and supervision. The transformer has a central laminated core over
which windings are made. This tank is provided with fins, radiators, conservator and silica gel
breather.

5.2 COMPONENTS OF ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

 SUBSTATION
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system.
Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of
several other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer,
electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels.

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Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a
large industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are unattended, relying
on SCADA for remote supervision and control. A substation may include transformers to
change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution
voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages.
There are different types of substation. These are:-
1. TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION
A transmission substation is one whose main purpose is to connect together
various transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines have
the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high voltage switches
that allow lines to be connected together or isolated for maintenance.
Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small 'switching
station' may be a little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest
transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with
multiple voltage levels and a large amount of detection and control equipment
(capacitors, relays, switches, breakers, voltage and current transformers).

2. DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION
A distribution substation is one whose main purpose is to transfer power room
the transmission system to the distribution system of some area. It is
uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission
network (unless they use large amounts of energy); so the distribution station
reduces voltage to a value suitable for connection to local roads.

3. COLLECTORSUBSTATION
In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation
may be required. It resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in
the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid.
Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 KV,
and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the
grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is
needed, metering and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a collector
substation can also contain an HVDC converter station.

4. CONVERTER SUBSTATIONS
Substations may be associated with HVDC converter plants, traction current, or
interconnected non-synchronous networks. These stations contain power
electronic devices to change the frequency of current, or else convert from
alternating to direct current or the reverse. Formerly rotary converters changed
frequency to interconnect two systems; such substations today are rare.

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5. SWITCHING SUBSTATION
A switching substation is a substation without transformers and operating only
at a single voltage level. Switching substations are sometimes used as collector
and distribution stations. Sometimes they are used for switching the current to
back-up lines or for parallelizing circuits in case of failure.

 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is
to detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates
once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes,
from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear
designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. There are different types
of circuit breakers which are:-
1. LOW-VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Low-voltage (less than 1,000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and
industrial application, and include Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) and Molded Case
Circuit Breaker (MCCB).

2. MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force
increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition
to those of the solenoid.

3. THERMAL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution
boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding
instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip
responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal
portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response feature, which
trips the circuit breaker sooner for larger over currents.

4. COMMON TRIP BREAKERS

Three-pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker
has a 2A rating. When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor,
each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live

Project Report 23
conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be
used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case,
or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating
handles.

5. VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS

With rated current up to 6,300 A, and higher for generator circuit breakers. These
breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum
container.

6. AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Rated current up to 6,300A and higher for generator circuit breakers. Trip
characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and
delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models
are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for
main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in
draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.

7. SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6) HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride
gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and
may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear.

5.3 EXPLANATION
Transformation may take place in several stages in sequence starting at the generation plant where the
voltage increased for transmission purposes and is then progressively reduced to the voltage required
for household or industrial use. The range of voltages in a power system varies from 110V up to 765kv
depending on the country.

Project Report 24
A substation that has a step-up transformer increase the voltage while decreasing the current while a
step-down transformer decrease the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial
distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid.
The first substations were connected to only one power station where the generator was housed, and
were subsidiaries of that power station.

Substation generally contain one or more transformers and have switching, protection and control
equipment. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuits or overload
currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use Autoreclosures or even
fuses for protection of branch circuits. Substations usually do not have generators, although a power
plant may have a substation nearby. A typical substation will contain line termination structures, high
voltage switchgear, one or more power transformers, row voltage switchgear, surge protection, controls
and metering. Other devices such as power factor correction capacitors and voltage regulators may also
be located at a substation.

Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground or located in special purpose
buildings. Substations located within the building they serve are particularly a feature of high-rise
buildings. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the
transformers, and for reasons of appearance. Where a substation has a fence, it must be properly
grounded (UK earthed) to protect people from high voltages that may occur during a fault in the
transmission system. Earth faults at a substation can cause Earth Potential Rise at the fault location.

DESIGN
The main issues facing a power engineer are reliability and cost. A good design attempts to
strike a balance between these two to achieve sufficient reliability without excessive cost. The
design should also allow easy expansion of the station if required.
Selection of the location of a substation must consider many factors. Sufficient land area is required for
installation of equipment with necessary clearances for electrical safety, and for access to maintain large
apparatus such as transformers. Where land is costly, such as in urban areas, gas
insulated switchgear may save money overall. The site must have room for expansion due to load
growth or planned transmission additions. Environmental effects of the substation must be considered,
such as drainage, noise and road traffic effects. A grounding (earthing) system must be designed. The
total ground potential rise and the gradients in potential during a fault (called "touch" and "step"

potentials), must be calculated to protect passers-by during short-circuit in the transmission system. The
substation site must be reasonably central to the distribution area to be served. The site must be secure
from intrusion by passers-by, both to protect people from injury by electric shock or arcs, and to protect
the electrical system from misoperation due to vandalism.

The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one-line diagram, which shows in
simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines
and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many electrical utilities to prepare
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one-line diagrams with principal elements (lines, switches, circuit breakers, transformers) arranged on
the page similarly to the way the apparatus would be laid out in the actual station.

LAYOUT
What follows is a description of a substation.

In the largest stations, incoming lines will almost always have a disconnect Switch and a circuit breaker,
some cases the lines will not have both ; with either a switch or a circuit breaker being all that is
considered necessary. These devices are used as isolation and protection devices. A disconnect switch is
almost always used solely to provide isolation, due to it not being rated for breaking a loaded circuit
while a circuit breaker is often used both as an isolation element as well as protection device. Where a
large fault current flows through the circuit break, this may be detected through the use of current
transformers. The magnitude of the current transformers output may be used to trip the circuit breaker
resulting in a disconnection of the load supplied by the circuit break from the feeding point. This seeks
to isolate the fault point from the rest of the system and allows the system to continue operating with
minimal impact.

Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage all tie into a common bus. This is a
number of thick metal bus bars, in most cases there are three bars, since three phase electrical power
distribution is largely universal around the world.

Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage connect to one or more buses. These
are sets of busbars, usually in multiples of three, since three-phase electrical power distribution is
largely universal around the world.

The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers and buses used affects the cost and reliability of the
substation. For important substations a ring bus, double bus, or so-called "breaker and a half" setup can
be used, so that the failure of any one circuit breaker does not interrupt power to other circuits, and so
that parts of the substation may be de-energized for maintenance and repairs. Substations feeding only
a single industrial load may have minimal switching provisions, especially for small installations. Once
having established buses for the various voltage levels, transformers may be connected between the
voltage levels. These will again have a circuit breaker, much like transmission lines, in case a transformer
has a fault (commonly called a "short circuit").

Along with this, a substation always has control circuitry needed to command the various circuit
breakers to open in case of the failure of some component.

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Project Report 27
6.AUTOMATIC
POWER FACTOR
CONTROLLER

Project Report 28
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Power factor is the ratio between the KW (Kilo-Watts) and the KVA (Kilo-Volt Amperes) drawn
by an electrical load where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load
power. It is a measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful work output
and more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of
the supply system.

BASIC PRICIPLE OF POWER FACTOR

a) RESISTOR

If a sinusoidal voltage source connected to a resistor, current will flow, power will be dissipated
in the resistor and the resistor will heat up.

The current is given I=V/R and the power is given by P=I*V or P= V 2/ R. The voltage and current
are the rms (root mean square) values.
Voltage

Time Axis

Current

Time Axis

Power

AC Source Resistor

Time Axis

Fig. 1. Waveforms for resistive load

Figure 1 shows the waveforms for this experiment. The top blue waveform is sinusoidal voltage.
The voltage is 1V rms giving a peak voltage of 1. 414V.

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The red waveform is the current. It is 1A rms, 1. 414 A peak.

The green waveform is the instantaneous power, i. e. the product of voltage and current from
moment to moment. For example, at the left hand vertical line the voltage and current are both
at their peaks, so the power is

1.414V * 1.414A= 2 watts

At the right hand vertical line it is at the negative peaks of voltage and current. Here the
instantaneous power is

-1.414V * -1.414A= 2 watts

That is the product of two negatives gives a positive value. The average of the power waveform
is 1W.

b) Inductor
Suppose now the resistor is replaced with an inductor with an inductance L henry. The current
in an inductor lags exactly 90° behind the applied voltage. This is illustrated by the red current
waveform in figure2. On close scrutiny at the instantaneous power waveform, it is observed
that between the vertical lines a negative voltage is being multiplied by a positive current,
giving a negative power.

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Voltage

Time Axis
0
90

Current

Time Axis

AC Source
Power

Time Axis

Inductor

Fig. 2. Waveforms for inductive load

What the negative power means is that during that part of the cycle, energy is actually
transferred from the inductor (load) back into the voltage source.

An inductor is an energy storage device. The energy stored in an inductor is 0.5 * I 2 * L.

If the load is a perfect inductor, the negative power will exactly cancel the positive power, and
net power dissipation is zero.

However, the voltage is still 1V and the current is still 1A, giving a product which is definitely
not zero. Thus supposed 1W of input is not producing 1W of heat. This is commonly called
"wattles watts". The correct term is Volt-Amps or VA. We say the circuit is drawing 1VA but
consuming no power. The pure inductor dissipates no heat, so it has a power factor of zero.

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c) Resistor and Inductor
Now an inductor and a resistor simultaneously are connected in parallel with each other.

The same voltage as before has been applied to both inductor and resistor. Hence, each one
must be drawing the same current as before.

With the resistor drawing 1A in phase with the supply voltage and the inductor drawing 1A at a
phase lagging the voltage by 90°.

Voltage

Time

AC Source Current

Time

Parallel Power
Combination
of Resistor &
Inductor
Time

Fig. 3. Waveforms for both resistive and inductive load

The overall current (Fig-3) is the moment to moment summation of these two currents. It can
be shown graphically or mathematically that the total current has a phase exactly half way
between the two individual currents (i. e. lagging the voltage by 450) and a magnitude of 1.
414A

The input voltage is 1V and the current 1. 414A, so the input VA is 1. 414VA.

The power consumed is 1W, the same as in the resistor only. Hence, the power factor is 1W/1.
414VA = 0. 707. It is also the Cosine of the phase angle (Phi) between voltage and current.

Hence ‘the ratio between power and VA is power factor.

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Causes of Low Power Factor
 Electrical equipments which need reactive power like inductor.
 Motors require reactive power during their operation to maintain magnetic fields.
 Non-linear loads distorts power factor.

Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

 Inefficient use of Electrical Energy.
 Overloading of Transformer/Generator.
 Overloading of Cables, Switchgear, Busbar etc.
 Higher temperature due to increased losses.
 Imposes larger KVA demand.
 Reduces revenue to Electrical Utilities.
 Leads to poor voltage regulation.

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6.2 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION FOR LINEAR LOADS

Reactive
Capacitive
Current I = Active Current V = Line Voltage

β
δ
I2
Reactive
Inductive
Current

I1

From the above figure,

For the resultant current I1 from inductor, phase angle is δ.

For the resultant current I2 from inductor and capacitor, phase angle is β.

As,

δ >β

Cos δ <Cos β
So in the case of combined circuit of inductor and capacitor, power factor is greater than with
respect to the power factor of and inductive circuit.

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6.3 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION FOR NON-LINEAR LOADS
A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply), or
some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric weldingmachine, or arc
furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current
contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency. Distortion
power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the
average power transferred to the load.

Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other
form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental
frequency) AC current. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent
harmonic currents from entering the supplying system.
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power
factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is
"displacement power factor". The concept can be generalized to a total, distortion, or true
power factor where the apparent power includes all harmonic components. This is of
importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some
forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power
supplies and other devices.

Power factor correction in non-linear loads

 Passive PFC
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter that passes current only
at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz). This filter reduces the harmonic current, which means that the
non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the power factor can be brought to
near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter requires large-value high-
current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive. A passive PFC requires an inductor
larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but costs less.This is a simple way of correcting the
nonlinearity of a load by using capacitor banks. It is not as effective as active PFC. One example
of this is a valley-fill circuit.

 Active PFC
An active power factor corrector (active PFC) is a power electronic system that changes the
wave shape of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor. The purpose is to make
the load circuitry that is power factor corrected appear purely resistive (apparent power equal

Project Report 35
to real power). In this case, the voltage and current are in phase and
thereactivepower consumption is zero. This enables the most efficient delivery of electrical
power from the power company to the consumer.Some types of active PFC are:
o Boost
o Buck
o Buck-boost

 Dynamic power factor correction

Dynamic power factor correction (DPFC) sometimes referred to as "real-time power factor
correction," is used for electrical stabilization instances of rapid load changes. When electrical
networks experience rapid load changes, especially with the presence of non-linear loads,
standard power factor correction is unable to adjust with the constantly changing, i.e. dynamic,
electrical network, causing over or under correction.DPFC has the ability with semiconductors
to connect capacitors or inductors to electrical networks without disturbing the electrical
network and causing unnecessary stress to electrical components, such as fuses and capacitors.
Implementation of DPFC improves power quality by reducing current, especially reactive
current, bringing stability to the electricity.
For companies, especially manufacturers, poor power quality leads to higher electrical bills due
to power quality penalties. While PFC is available, few companies use it because PFC tends to
be expensive without being cost effective. Today, DPFC devices range from sampling that takes
place once per wave cycle (50 Hz/60 Hz) to over 8000 times per wave cycle.

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BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
 Reduction in KVAR Demand.
 Reduction in KVA Demand
 Reduction in Line Current
 Avoid Power Factor penalties
 Reduction in Transformer Rating
 Reduction in Line loss
 Reduction in Switchgear rating
 Reduction in Cable / Bus – Bar Size

DISADVANTAGES OF FIXED CAPACITOR IN PFC

 Manual operation(on/off)
 Not meet the require KVAr under varying loads.
 Can result leading power factor
 Cause over voltage
 Mal-operation of relays, diesel generators
 Saturation of transformer
 Penalty by electricity authority

NEED FOR AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION (APFC)

 Varying power demand on the supply system.
 Power factor also varies as a function of the load requirements.
 Difficult to maintain a consistent power factor by use of Fixed Compensation i.e. fixed
capacitors.
 Leading power factor under light load conditions(fixed compensation).
 No manual intervention is needed.
 As under leading power factor under light load conditions which results in over voltages,
saturation of transformers, mal-operation of diesel generating sets and penalties by
electric supply authorities, APFC prevent leading power factor also.

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6.4 AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION (APFC)

A Power-factor controller is the interface between the AC line and utility source that receives
the Power Power-factor controller (PFC) act as reactive power generators, and provide the
needed reactive power to accomplish KW of work. The basic function of a Power-factor
controller (PFC) is to create a resistive load to the AC source. This implies that the input current
must differ from the sinusoidal source voltage by only a scaling factor. Their waveforms must
be identical, though scaled by the effective input resistance of the PFC, by Ohm's Law. How
such a circuit can be incorporated in a substation supplying bulk power to various loads to be
controlled so that its average per-cycle inductor current are controlled by a scaled input voltage
(O, scaled by T,)? The resulting current (ig) would follow the voltage and the power source input
would appear resistive, in other words, form a current control loop driven by the input sine
wave. Because the loop would require a bipolar range to accommodate a sinusoid,
incorporation of a bridge rectifier at the input is to be done. The rectified sine wave (or sine
magnitude), Og is now uni-polar (assumed positive going with respect to PFC ground), but is not
followed by a storage capacitor, That capacitor is, instead, placed at the output of the current-
loop converter. This explained in diagram shown in Fig. 4.

TG.VG + VCe VCA d

Σ ACe PWM TIGD IG
-
TG.VG TG.VG

HE RS

Fig. 4 Block Diagram of Power Factor Controller

As shown in Figure 4, power-factor controller (PFC) conceptual design provides no control over
the output voltage. Coincidentally, it can vary for the sine magnitude input controlling the
current, If the scale-factor is electronically adjusted using an analog multiplier, then it can be

Project Report 38
implemented a second outer control loop to control the output voltage. This scheme
consequently works like this. The outer voltage loop compares the storage-capacitor output
voltage, scaled by a voltage divider, Hv, against the controlled voltage, set by a voltage
reference. If too low, a voltage-loop error amplifier, Ave, increases its input to the multiplier.
The other input is the sine magnitude voltage-divided first by a fixed divider, Tg, that is
increased in amplitude. The multiplier output now is a larger sine magnitude controlling the
current of the current control loop. This loop compares the controlled current to the sensed
power source input current.

If the instantaneous value along the sine magnitude input-current is too low. The output of the
current-loop error amplifier, Ace, to the pulse-width modulator (PWM) increases, and the PWM
duty-ratio, D, increases. This causes the active converter switch to be on longer, increasing the
inductor current. This current dumps into the storage capacitor and the output voltage
increases. The voltage loop responds accordingly. To summarize, the inner current loop is
actually a switching trans-conductance amplifier with scaled sine magnitude input. It is also a
programmable-gain amplifier (PGA); with the gain controlled by a voltage control loop which
adjusts average output current i to maintain output voltage OO. The block diagram of the entire
APFC is shown in Figure 5.

V2
/
x + vca d ig VO
TG ACe PWM TIGI TIGO io ZO
π Σ
x -
TC IG/D IO/IG

HC RD

Vva VVe -
AVe V2 V2
+
VC
Fig. 4 Block Diagram of Automatic Power Factor Controller

Project Report 39
Two blocks (transfer functions), the duty-ratio (or control) to source current TIGD, and the
source current iG to output current iO or TIGO, represent the converter. Figure 5 also shows the
effect of the input voltage, OG on the power source, in that TIGD is a function of OG. Current-and
voltage-loop error (and dynamic compensation) amplifiers have gains of A CE and AVE.
Respectively. RS is the sense resistor (or equivalent) and He is the current-loop sampling effect.
HV is the output voltage divider and ZO Is the storage capacitor and load-the next stage-of the
power source. TC is the transfer function of the closed current loop:

TC=IG/TG*VG

The feed-forward path above TG drives the divider input of the multiplier. As the line voltage
varies, the peak-to-average ratio (π/2 is approximately equal to 1.57) remains constant.
Consequently, dividing by the average can compensate this variation. The amplitude is thus
normalized to a constant value.

Advantage & Cost Benefits of PF Improvement

Automatic Power-factor controller (APFC) act as reactive power generators and provide the
needed reactive power to accomplish k W of work. This reduces the amount of reactive power,
and thus total power, required by the utilities. The reduction in total power reduces the money
required for the energy needed to run the organization.

Project Report 40
6.5Use of APFC in ONGC Complex
Uttaranchal power corporation Ltd (UPCL) is the power supplying authority for ONGC's
installations in Dehradun. Electricity tariffs of UPCL were structured in a relatively simple
manner. High tension (HT) consumers were charged based on both demand (k VA) and energy
(kWh).

UPCL impose surcharges to the bulk costumers for not maintaining the Power factor equal to 0.
85. The surcharges are 10.0% over the total bill if Power factor is below 0.8 and 5.0% if the
Power factor is below 0.85.

So in August-September 2005, commissioning of APFC was done at the 33KV sub-station of the
ONGC institute.

The key reasons and steps for the installation of APFC are:-

 ONGC have with 4 * 1600 KVA transformers installed in the institute in an event of the
power failure from UPCL side. The demand of the institute complex is 4* 1000 KVA.
So the percentage loading of transformers is 63% ((1000/1600)*100).
 The power factor of institute before APFC installation was 0.79 which leads to the
penalty charge of 10%.
 So to improve the Power factor and to avoid the surcharge, the substation has to add
kVAr through the APFC, the sanction for installation and commissioning of Automatic
Power-factor controller (APFC) was given by appropriate authorities.
 The improved Power factor was aimed at 0.95.
 KVAr rating required to achieve this Power factor is,
KVAr = kW * [Tan {existing (Cos-1PF)} – Tan {improved (Cos-1PF)}]
Now putting the values in above
KVAr=4*1000 * 0. 79 * [Tan {existing (Cos-10. 79)} - Tan {improved (Cos-10. 95)}]
KVAr= 1413.8 KVAr.
 This KVAr was then supplied by the APFC.
 Initially total KW demand of institution is 4 * 1000 * 0.79 = 3160.
With a new power factor of 0.95, total KVA now needed from the UPCL were
New KVA = 3160 / (4 * .95) = 831.6 KVA
 After the implementation of the provision of APFC, the institute will save charges
towards k VA demand and surcharges @ 10%(which was approx. Rs, 3.0 lakhss per
month).
 Also now transformers were loaded with only 52% of the capacity.

Project Report 41
 The enabled the institute to earn bonus from UPCL and have cushion for addition of
more load in the future to be supplied by these transformers resulting in Energy
Efficiency in electrical system.

Project Report 42
6.6APFC WORKING

 In APFC, Capacitors grouped into several steps.

 Suitable switching devices with coupled with inrush current limiting devices are
provided for each step
 Power Factor is sensed by Current Transformer(CT) & Potential Transformer(PT) in line
side
 KVAr required to achieve target PF is computed by the Microprocessor based APFC relay
 APFC relay switches appropriate capacitor steps
 CT and PT senses improved PF and gives feedback
 Thus target Power Factor is achieved.

Project Report 43
1. Reactive Power Control Relay
2. Network connection Points
3. Slow Blow Fuses
4. Inrush Current Contractors
5. Capacitors
6. Transformers

Project Report 44
Specification of capacitors in APFC:-
1. KVAr
2. Degree Of Protection IP20
3. Ambient temperature
4. Voltage rise should be≤ 3.0% [% Voltage rise = (KVAr * %X)/(KVA)]
5. Voltage rise due to series reactor and harmonics
6. Size of individual capacitor banks (step requirement).
7. Directly connected Discharge Device (Resistor, VT) to discharge the capacitor to reduce
voltage to 50 volts within one minute.

Selection of Switching Equipments

 For Low Tension (LT)
1. Switch-fuse units/Circuit Breakers/ Thyristors.
2. Switch should be quick make and break type
3. Rating of CB, contactors, fuse and cable should be≥130% of capacitor rated
current.
4. For automatic switching, each step capacitor should be provided with fuse and
contactor.

 For High Tension (HT)

1. HT capacitor is connected to bus by Circuit Breaker.
2. Circuit Breaker rating should be ≥ maximum operating voltage of circuit
3. Continuous current rating of CB should be ≥ 135% of rated capacitor bank
current

PFC improvement without Harmonics problem

The harmonics are caused by many nonlinear loads; the most common in the industrial market
today, are the variable speed controllers and switch mode power supplies. Harmonics on the
supply cause a higher current to flow in the capacitors. This is because the impedance of the
capacitors goes down as the frequency goes up. This increase in current flow through the
capacitor will result in additional heating of the capacitor and reduce its life.

Due to this reason conventional capacitors are not used alone to correct the power factor in
APFC. For this, Detuning reactors are connected in series with power factor correction
capacitors to reduce harmonic currents and to ensure that the series resonant frequency does
not occur at a harmonic of the supply frequency.The reactors are usually chosen and rated as
either 5% or 7% reactors. This means that at the line frequency, the capacitive reactance is

Project Report 45
reduced by 5% or 7%.Using detuning reactors results in lower impedance, increasing the
current, so the capacitance will need to be reduced for the same level of correction.When
detuning reactors are used in installations with high harmonic voltages, there can be a high
resultant voltage across the capacitors. This necessitates the use of capacitors that are designed
to operate at a high sustained voltage. Capacitors designed for use at line voltage only, should
not be used with detuning reactors. The detuning reactors can dissipate a lot of heat. The
enclosure must be well ventilated, typically forced air cooled. With the use of detuning
reactors, APFC:-

 It offers capacitive reactance at fundamental frequency for necessary power factor

correction.
 It offers inductive reactance at all higher order dominant harmonic frequencies to avoid
resonance.
 Its self-series resonance frequency “fR” do not coincide with predominant harmonics.

Combination of Detuning Reactor and Capacitors

Benefits of APFC
 Consistently high power factor under fluctuating loads.
 Prevention of leading power factor
 Eliminate power factor penalty
 Lower energy consumption by reducing losses.
 Continuously sense and monitor load
 Automatically switch on/off relevant capacitors steps for consistent power factor.
 Ensures easy user interface
 Protect under any internal fault
 User friendly, aesthetically designed enclosure, dust and vermin proof.

Project Report 46
7. CONCLUSION

Maintaining Power Factor near to unity in high tension (HT) Substation connected by state
electricity corporation is very much relevant where Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as
levied by state electricity, are to contain reactive power drawl from grid. By incorporating
Automatic Power-factor controller (APFC) in the system, reactive component of the network is
reduced and so also the total current in the system from the source end. Voltage level at the
load end is increased. k VA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and
lines up to the APFC reduces giving capacity relief. A high Power factor can help in utilizing the
full capacity of electrical system. Improved Power factor will earn bonus instead of surcharges
from state electricity and allow the addition of more load in the future to be supplied by the
Substation, resulting in Energy Efficiency in electrical system.

Project Report 47
8. BIBIOGRAPHY
1. Energy efficiency in electrical utilities, Guide book for National certification examination for
energy managers and energy auditors, Bureau of energy efficiency, Ministry of Power, Govt. of
India, 2003.

2. General aspect of energy management and energy audit, Guide book for National
certification examination for energy managers and energy auditors, Bureau of energy
efficiency, Ministry of Power, Govt. of India, 2003.

3. www.wikepedia.com

4. www.slideshare.com

5. www.electrical-installation.org

6. www.home-energy-metering.com

7. www.enspecpower.com

8. www.allaboutcircuits.com

Project Report 48