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International recognition of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

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The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) was proclaimed by the Polisario Front on 27 February 1976, in Bir Lehlu, Western Sahara. SADR claims sovereignty over the entire territory of Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony; however, at present the SADR government controls approximately 20–25% of the territory it claims.[1] It calls the territories under its control the "Liberated Territories", whilst Morocco claims its territories as the "Southern Provinces".

As of September 2022, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is recognized by 46[original research?] out of a total of 193 United Nations member states. At different times, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic has been recognized by 84[original research?] UN member states,[note 1] but, of these, 38 have since "frozen" or "withdrawn" recognition.[note 2] SADR has, at some point in time, been recognised by 43.5% of United Nations (UN) member states, 38 out of the other 54 (70%) African Union (AU) member states, 18 out of 57 (32%) Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) member states, and 5 out of 22 (23%) Arab League (AL) member states. Several states that do not recognize the Sahrawi Republic nonetheless recognize the Polisario Front as the legitimate representative of the population of the Western Sahara, but not as the government-in-exile of a sovereign state.

The SADR has been a member of the African Union (AU), formerly the Organization of African Unity (OAU), since 1984. At the time, Morocco withdrew from the OAU in protest, until 2017, when Morocco again joined the African Union.[2] The SADR also participates as guest on meetings of the Non-Aligned Movement[3] or the New Asian–African Strategic Partnership,[4] over Moroccan objections.

The Arab League supports "Moroccan territorial integrity", without further specification, and withdrew maps "harming Morocco's territorial integrity".[5] In 2020, the United States under Donald Trump was the first country to recognize Morocco's unilateral annexation of Western Sahara.[6][7] While some countries reiterate support for the "territorial integrity of Morocco", a number of countries have expressed their support for a future status of Western Sahara as an autonomous part of Morocco.[8]

Besides Mexico, Algeria, Iran, Venezuela, Vietnam, Nigeria and South Africa, India was the largest middle power to have ever recognized SADR, having allowed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic to open an embassy in New Delhi in 1985. However, India withdrew its recognition in 2000.[9]

Background information

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See also: History of Western Sahara and Advisory opinion on Western Sahara

The conflict in the Western Sahara dates back to the early 1970s, when the indigenous Sahrawi Polisario Front sprang up an insurgency in Spanish Sahara, demanding an independent Sahrawi Republic.[10] In 1957, the then-Spanish territory was claimed by Morocco, who declared independence a year before.[11]

On 16 October 1975, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued an advisory opinion that, while some Sahrawi tribes held allegiance to Morocco, found that there were not any ties of sovereignty, from Morocco or Mauritania, over the territory of Western Sahara. Moreover, the ICJ invoked the right of self-determination for Sahrawis through their free and genuine expression of such will.[12] Morocco defied this advisory and staged a Green March across the Sahara.[10]

The Polisario's insurgency and subsequent international pressure led Spain to withdraw from the region in 1975, Spain agreed to the partition of the territory between Morocco and Mauritania despite the ICJ Advisory Opinion.[11]

In 1976, the Polisario Front declared a Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in Bir Lahlou. In 1979, Mauritania gave up its claim to Western Sahara, which led to Morocco taking over the Mauritanian-controlled portion of the territory. Armed conflict continued to break out until a 1991 ceasefire.[11]

Seeking to change the status quo, the Polisario Front blocked the Western Saharan city of Guerguerat, a key trade route between Morocco and Mauritania in 2020. This led to a Moroccan military operation and subsequently led to the 2020 Western Saharan clashes and prompted the Polisario Front to quit observing the 1991 ceasefire.[11]

States that have recognized the SADR

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International recognition of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR):
  SADR, as the territory it controls
  States that currently recognize the SADR
  States that have "withdrawn", "frozen" or "suspended" their recognition of the SADR[note 2]

84 UN member states and South Ossetia either currently recognize the SADR or have recognized it in the past. Of these, 38 have "suspended", "frozen" or "withdrawn" recognition[note 2]. Several African countries and Caribbean or Pacific island-states have taken such actions subsequent to Moroccan lobbying and offers of economic and other exchanges, although the association of such decisions and these efforts is disputable.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19] On the other hand, some states which had "withdrawn" or "frozen" recognition later resumed it (most recently Colombia and South Sudan).

The following lists all[original research?] the states that have ever recognized the SADR.

Overview of diplomatic recognition of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
States that currently recognize (46 UN member states and South Ossetia)
States that have "withdrawn", "frozen" or "suspended" recognition[note 2] (38 UN member states)
State[note 3] Date of recognition[25][26][27][28] Diplomatic relations[note 4] Relevant membership, further details
1  Madagascar 28 February 1976[29] No AU; Recognized by the Democratic Republic of Madagascar. Recognition frozen 6 April 2005.[30]
2  Burundi 1 March 1976[31][32] No AU; Recognition frozen 5 May 2006,[31] resumed 16 June 2008,[33] but withdrawn 25 October 2010.[34]
3  Algeria 6 March 1976[35] Yes AU, Arab League, OIC
4  Benin 11 March 1976[32][36] No AU, OIC; Recognized by the People's Republic of Benin. Recognition suspended 21 March 1997.[36]
5  Angola 11 March 1976[32] Yes AU; Recognized by the People's Republic of Angola.
6  Mozambique 13 March 1976[32] Yes AU, OIC; Recognized by the People's Republic of Mozambique.
7  Guinea-Bissau 15 March 1976 No AU, OIC; Recognition withdrawn 2 April 1997,[37] recognition resumed 26 May 2009[38] but withdrawn again 30 March 2010.[39][40][41]
8  North Korea 16 March 1976 Yes —
9  Togo 17 March 1976 No AU, OIC; Recognition withdrawn 16 June 1997.[42]
10  Rwanda 1 April 1976[43] Yes AU
11  Yemen 2 February 1977 No Arab League, OIC; Recognition granted by People's Democratic Republic of Yemen which unified with the Yemen Arab Republic 22 May 1990.
Further details
United Yemen took over the recognition made by South Yemen. In a joint letter to the UN Secretary-General sent just prior to unification, the Ministers of Foreign affairs of North and South Yemen stated that "All treaties and agreements concluded between either the Yemen Arab Republic or the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and other States and international organizations in accordance with international law which are in force on 22 May 1990 will remain in effect, and international relations existing on 22 May 1990 between the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and the Yemen Arab Republic and other States will continue".[44] Other sources indicate that recognition was continued by united Yemen.[25][27] Yemen's speaker of parliament said in 1999 that the country supports the Moroccan claims on Western Sahara,[45] but there are no sources indicating that recognition of the SADR has been formally "withdrawn" or "frozen".[27]
12  Seychelles 25 October 1977[46] No AU; Recognition withdrawn 17 March 2008.[47][48][49]
13  Congo 3 July 1978 No AU; Recognized by the People's Republic of Congo. Recognition withdrawn 13 September 1996.[27]
14  Sao Tome and Principe 22 July 1978 No AU; Recognition withdrawn 23 October 1996.[27]
15  Panama 23 July 1978 No Recognition suspended 20 November 2013.[50] Resumed 7 January 2016.[51][52][53] Diplomatic relations suspended on 21 November 2024.[54]
16  Equatorial Guinea 3 November 1978 No AU; Recognition withdrawn 2[citation needed] May 1980.[27]
17  Tanzania 9 November 1978 Yes AU
18  Ethiopia 24 February 1979 Yes AU; Recognized by the Socialist Ethiopia.
19  Vietnam 2 March 1979[55][56] Yes
Further details
There was conflicting information on Vietnam's position. According to several Moroccan sources recognition was withdrawn in 2010 or earlier.[57][58][59][60] The latest source suggesting withdrawal of recognition is from June 2013.[61] However, a web page of the MFA of Vietnam still showed the SADR on a list of states with which Vietnam maintained diplomatic relations. This list was updated in May 2013, three years after they were originally purported to have withdrawn their recognition.[62] The situation has been clarified in May 2016, when Ambassador of Vietnam to the SADR was appointed. The Vietnamese Government's Portal is currently recognizing SADR as "Sahrawi".
20  Cambodia 10 April 1979 Yes Recognized by the People's Republic of Kampuchea.[63][64]
21  Laos 9 May 1979 Yes —
22  Afghanistan 23 May 1979 No OIC; Recognized by the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Recognition withdrawn 11 July 2002.[65]
23  Cape Verde 4 June 1979[66] No AU; Recognition frozen 27 July 2007.[66]
Further details
The Cape Verden President met the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic on 6 February 2012,[67][68] but on 16 November 2019 Luis Felipe Tavarez, Cape Verde's Minister of Foreign Affairs and Defense, reiterated the country's support for Morocco's claims of Western Sahara.[69]
24  Grenada 20 August 1979 No Recognition withdrawn 11 August 2010.[70][71][72]
25  Ghana 24 August 1979 Yes AU; Recognition frozen May 2001,[27][citation needed] but resumed 2011.[73][when?]
26  Guyana 1 September 1979 Yes OIC
Further details
Moroccan news sources claimed a withdrawal of recognition from 14 November 2020,[74][75] however, Guyana still maintains diplomatic relations with SADR.[76]
27  Dominica 1 September 1979 No Recognition withdrawn 22 July 2010.[77]
28  Saint Lucia 1 September 1979 No Recognition withdrawn 21 March 1989,[78] withdrawal reiterated 9 August 2010.[79]
29  Jamaica 6 September 1979 No Recognition withdrawn 14 September 2016.[80] Jamaica reiterated its decision 11 December 2019.[81]
30  Nicaragua 6 September 1979 Yes Recognition frozen 21 July 2000,[82] but diplomatic relations resumed 12 January 2007.[83]
31  Uganda 6 September 1979 Yes AU, OIC
32  Mexico 8 September 1979 Yes —
33  Lesotho 9 October 1979 Yes AU
Further details
In a note to Morocco on 4 October 2019, Lesotho stated that it had decided to "suspend all statements and decisions related to the status of Western Sahara and 'SADR' pending the outcome of the United Nations Process".[84] On 8 October 2019 Lesotho sent a letter to SADR which reiterated its support to the SADR.[85] On 10 December 2019, Foreign Affairs Minister of Lesotho Lesego Calayl Makghoti stated that he could "confirm and clarify my country's position which is: a commitment to suspend all previous decisions and statements related to Western Sahara and 'SADR', pending the outcome of the United Nations process".[86] On 14 December 2019, Official Spokesperson of the Government of Lesotho, Mr. Thesele Maseribane stated that "the Kingdom of Lesotho has not changed its principled position on the Western Sahara issue based on the right of self-determination and that it maintains friendly diplomatic relations with the Sahrawi State" and that "any statements by persons in their individual capacity claim that they can change the position to compromise on this issue, these statements will be null and void".[87] On 2 July 2020, Minister for Foreign Affairs and International Relations, ’Matšepo Ramakoae denying previous unilateral misrepresentations of that position last year and stated that "Lesotho will continue to maintain her principled position on Western Sahara and reiterates her support to the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic as an independent African Country coexisting side by side with the Kingdom of Morocco in peace and security".[88]
34  Zambia 12 October 1979[89] No AU; Recognition withdrawn 29 March 2011,[90][91][92] resumed 21 November 2012,[93] but withdrawn 2 March 2018.[94][95]
Further details
On 9 July 2016, Zambia's MFA was quoted as saying that it had again withdrawn recognition, a claim that was repeated by the official Moroccan news agency in February 2017, but the Zambian MFA put out a press release in February 2017 denying that it had withdrawn recognition.[96][97] In 2018, MFA of Zambia again officially reaffirmed that it had withdrawn recognition of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.[94][95]
35  Cuba 20 January 1980 Yes —
36  Iran 27 February 1980[98] No OIC
37  Sierra Leone 27 March 1980 Yes AU, OIC; Recognition frozen 16 July 2003,[99][100] but resumed 20 June 2011.[101]
Further details
28 October 2021, Sierra Leone opens a consulate in Dakhla, which is controlled by Morocco, but without any mention of discontinued recognition of SADR. [1] [2]
38  Syria 15 April 1980 No Arab League, OIC
39  Libya 15 April 1980 No AU, Arab League, OIC; Recognized by the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.
40  Eswatini 28 April 1980 No AU; Recognition withdrawn 4 July 1997.[102]
41  Botswana 14 May 1980 Yes AU
42  Zimbabwe 3 June 1980[103] Yes AU
43  Chad 4 July 1980 No AU, OIC; Recognition withdrawn 9 May 1997,[102] resumed[when?] then withdrawn 17 March 2006.[104][105]
Further details
On 10 July 2007 Prime Minister of Chad Delwa Kassiré Koumakoye received Sahrawi Foreign Minister Mohamed Salem Ould Salek. According to the communiqué dated 17 July 2007, both parties decided to raise their diplomatic relations to ambassadorial level "as soon as possible". On 20 July the Chadian government released a note on its website, along with a full text of the communiqué, disputing the claim included in an article published in Alwihda that Chad and SADR had signed an agreement on recognition.[106] On 11 August 2018 Sahrawi President expressed appreciation for the steadfast position of Chad in supporting the Sahrawi people's right to freedom and independence.[107]
44  Mali 4 July 1980 No AU, OIC
45  Costa Rica 30 October 1980 No Diplomatic relations were frozen 22 April 2000,[108] but recognition continues.[109]
46  Vanuatu 26 November 1980[110][111] Yes Recognition withdrawn 24 November 2000,[112] diplomatic relations resumed 31 July 2008.[113]
47  Papua New Guinea 12 August 1981 No Recognition withdrawn 30 March 2011.[114]
48  Tuvalu 12 August 1981 No Recognition withdrawn 3 September 2000.[115]
49  Kiribati 12 August 1981 No Recognition withdrawn 3 September 2000.[115]
50  Nauru 12 August 1981 No Recognition withdrawn 3 September 2000.[116]
51  Solomon Islands 12 August 1981 No Recognition withdrawn January 1989.[27]
52  Mauritius 1 July 1982 Yes AU; Recognition withdrawn 17 January 2014,[117] but resumed 23 November 2015.[118]
53  Venezuela 3 August 1982 Yes —
54  Suriname 21 August 1982[119] No OIC; Recognition withdrawn 9 March 2016.[119][120]
55  Bolivia 14 December 1982[121] Yes Suspended 20 January 2020,[122] resumed 16 September 2021.[123]
56  Ecuador 14 November 1983 No Recognition withdrawn 14 June 2004,[124] but resumed 8 February 2006.[125] Recognition suspended again 22 October 2024.[126][127]
57  Mauritania 27 February 1984 No AU, Arab League, OIC
58  Burkina Faso 4 March 1984 No AU, OIC; Recognized by the Republic of Upper Volta. Recognition withdrawn 5 June 1996.[102][128]
59  Peru 16 August 1984 No Recognition frozen 9 September 1996,[129] diplomatic relations resumed 8 September 2021,[130][131] recognition withdrawn 18 August 2022,[132] President Pedro Castillo reconfirmed recognition 8 September 2022,[133] his successor Dina Boluarte frozen diplomatic relations 9 September 2023.[134]
60  Nigeria 11 November 1984 Yes AU, OIC
61  Serbia 28 November 1984[27] No Recognition granted by the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but withdrawn 26 October 2004 by Yugoslavia's self-declared successor state Serbia and Montenegro[135] (whose own successor state is Serbia).
62  Colombia 27 February 1985[136] Yes Relations frozen 20 December 2000,[27] resumed 10 August 2022.[137][138]
Further details
Colombia's Senate passed a resolution in May 2014 stating that they "consider it important to recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic."[139]
63  Liberia 31 July 1985 No AU; Recognition withdrawn 5 September 1997,[140] but resumed 30 October 2012 or before.[141][when?]
Further details
In March 2020, Liberia opened a consulate in Dakhla, which is controlled by Morocco, but without any mention of discontinued recognition of SADR.[142][143]
64  India 1 October 1985 No Recognition withdrawn 26 June 2000.[144]
65  Guatemala 10 April 1986 No Recognition frozen April 1998,[27][citation needed] Guatemala allegedly denied having ever recognized the SADR July 2002.[145][citation needed]
Further details
Although Guatemala does not recognize the SADR as a state, it does recognize Sahrawi passports and grants visas to its holders.[146]
66  Dominican Republic 24 June 1986[147] No Recognition frozen 23 May 2002.[148]
67  Trinidad and Tobago 1 November 1986 No —
68  Belize 18 November 1986 Yes —
69  St. Kitts and Nevis 25 February 1987 No Recognition withdrawn 12 August 2010.[71]
70  Antigua and Barbuda 27 February 1987 No Recognition withdrawn 12 August 2010.[71]
71  Albania 29 December 1987 No OIC; Recognized by the Socialist People's Republic of Albania. Recognition withdrawn 11[citation needed] November 2004.[149]
72  Barbados 27 February 1988 No Recognition frozen 11 February 2013,[150] withdrawn 21 June 2019.[151]
73  El Salvador 31 July 1989 No Recognition withdrawn April 1997,[27] resumed by 6 June 2009,[152] then withdrawn again 15 June 2019.[153]
74  Honduras 8 November 1989 Yes Recognition allegedly withdrawn January 2000,[154] and reiterated by Morocco,[155] but this was denied by the SADR.[156] On 5 June 2013 the two states signed an agreement that in part "expressed their wish to initiate the process for the restoration of diplomatic relations".[157]
75  Namibia 11 June 1990[158] Yes AU
76  Malawi 16 November 1994[159] No AU; Recognition withdrawn 26 June 2001,[160] diplomatic relations established 24 March 2002,[161][162] recognition withdrawn 27 December 2002,[163] diplomatic relations reestablished 1 February 2008,[159][164][165] recognition withdrawn 16 September 2008,[166] diplomatic relations resumed 6 March 2014,[167][168] and recognition was withdrawn again on 5 May 2017.[169]
Further details
In 2021, Morocco's Minister of Foreign Affairs Nasser Bourita announced in a press conference with his Malawian counterpart Eisenhower Nduwa Mkaka that Malawi will open a consulate in Laayoune.[170]
77  Paraguay 9 February 2000[171] No Recognition frozen 25 July 2000,[27] resumed 12 August 2008,[172] but suspended 3 January 2014.[173]
78  St. Vincent and the Grenadines 14 February 2002[174] No Recognition frozen 13 February 2013.[175]
79  Timor-Leste 20 May 2002[176] Yes —
80  South Africa 15 September 2004[89][177][178][179] Yes AU
81  Kenya 25 June 2005[89][180] Yes AU; Diplomatic relations temporally frozen 18 October 2006,[180][181] recognition frozen 26 June 2007,[182][183] then resumed 6 February 2014 or before.[184][185][when?] Kenya reiterated recognition 16 September 2022.[186][187]
82  Uruguay 26 December 2005[188][189][190] Yes —
83  Haiti 22 November 2006[191] No Recognition withdrawn 2 October 2013.[192]
—  South Ossetia 27 February 2011[193] No
Further details
The MFA of South Ossetia issued a statement to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the SADR expressing its "greetings on the occasion of 35 anniversary of the Declaration of Independence Day of SADR".[193][note 5]
84  South Sudan 9 July 2011[195] Yes AU; Recognition withdrawn 28 September 2018,[196] diplomatic relations resumed 20 September 2022.[197]

States whose parliaments have voted to recognize SADR

[edit]

The parliaments of several states that do not recognize the Sahrawi Republic have called on their respective governments to recognize SADR. The parliament of Sweden was the first in the EU voted to recognize Western Sahara in December 2012, but this has not been enacted by the Swedish government. Declarations were also adopted by the parliaments of Chile and Brazil.

The following lists states whose parliaments have recognized the SADR.[note 6][note 7]

State Date of approval Approval by Relevant membership, further details
1  Chile 1 September 1999
14 July 2009
4 August 2010
1 August 2014		 Chamber of Deputies Foreign Minister of Chile reported 30 November 1999 by official letter to Sahrawi Chancellor the decision of the President of Chile to recognize the SADR. But it has not been implemented. Therefore, the lower house of Chile's parliament subsequently repeatedly called for the recognition of SADR and establishment of diplomatic relations with it.[201][202]
2  Australia 29 November 2004 Senate Australian Senate adopted a motion where "urges Australian government to positively consider extending diplomatic recognition to SADR at the appropriate time."[203]
3  Brazil 31 May 2007
26 October 2011
3 September 2014		 Chamber of Deputies Brazilian Chamber of Deputies repeatedly asked government of Brazil to recognize SADR and establish diplomatic relations with it.[204][205][206]
16 June 2015
5 September 2018		 Senate The Senate proposed that the Brazilian government adopted measures related to the recognition of the SADR as a State with a legitimate right to sovereignty and self-determination; the establishment of diplomatic relations; the institution of a continuous process of humanitarian aid to refugees; the granting to MINURSO of competence to deal with Human Rights in the occupied area; and the installation of a Representative Office in the Country.[207] Moreover, a Senate Resolution Draft is under analysis and proposes the creation of a Parliamentary Front in defense of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.[208]
4  Sweden 5 December 2012 Riksdag EU; Swedish parliament voted to recommend that the Swedish government "recognises the SADR as soon as possible".[209]

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ SADR is also recognised by South Ossetia, which itself has been recognised by six UN members, of which one have subsequently withdrawn recognition.
  2. ^ a b c d According to international law regarding recognition of states, contained in article 6 of the Montevideo Convention:[dubious – discuss] "The recognition of a state merely signifies that the state which recognizes it accepts the personality of the other with all the rights and duties determined by international law. Recognition is unconditional and irrevocable.", as well as Article 7: "The recognition of a state may be express or tacit. The latter results from any act which implies the intention of recognizing the new state."[20] Therefore, once one state recognizes another as a fellow sovereign state (even if indirectly, or tacitly), this recognition cannot be revoked, except when one or the other state ceases to exist. One can only revoke the recognition of a government (for example by breaking off diplomatic relations), but not of the state itself.[21][22] The provisions of the Montevideo Convention are generally considered to be a restatement of customary international law, codifying existing legal norms and its principles, and therefore do not apply merely to the parties to the Convention, but to all subjects of international law as a whole.[23][24]
  3. ^ States with limited recognition are included, but not numbered in the first column.
  4. ^ The information in this column is taken from Foreign relations of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
  5. ^ Such statements are interpreted as a method of implied recognition.[194]
  6. ^ In January 2014 a bill was submitted in the Danish parliament that Denmark would recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, but it has not been voted on.[198][199]
  7. ^ In 1988, the Raul Alfonsín government of Argentina made a compromise to recognize the independence of the Sahrawi Republic in the end of 1988. This announcement was dated 6 May 1988, sent by a letter signed by Minister Dante Caputo to Minister of Foreign Affairs of SADR. In July 2010, the Argentine Chamber of Deputies registered a declaration project exhorting the government of Argentina to recognize the SADR and to establish diplomatic relations with it.[200]

References

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