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Foreign relations of the State of Palestine

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Further information: International recognition of the State of Palestine

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The foreign relations of the State of Palestine have been conducted since the establishment of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964.[1] Since the Oslo Accords, it seeks to obtain universal recognition for the State of Palestine on the 1967 borders, with East Jerusalem as its capital. As of 21 June 2024, 146 of the 193 United Nations (UN) member states officially recognize the State of Palestine (Israel is recognized by 164 excluding Israel itself).

In November 1988, the Palestinian National Council declared the independence of the State of Palestine, and in 1994, the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was established following the Oslo Accords. The PLO Executive Committee performs the functions of the government of the State of Palestine.

After 2011, the PLO's diplomatic effort focused on the Palestine 194 campaign, which aims to gain membership for the State of Palestine in the United Nations. In November 2012, the State of Palestine was accepted as a non-member observer state of the UN General Assembly with the passing of United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19.[2][3]

Background

The Palestine Liberation Organization was created in 1964 as a paramilitary organization and has sought to conduct foreign relations with states and international organisations since that time.[1] Initially, the PLO established relations with Arab and communist countries. In 1969 the PLO became a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[4][5] In October 1974, the Arab League designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people".[6] The new status of the PLO was recognised by all Arab League states except Jordan (Jordan recognised that status of the PLO at a later stage). On 22 November 1974, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3236 recognised the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination, national independence, and sovereignty in Palestine. It also recognised the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people to the United Nations. By Resolution 3237 on the same date, the PLO was granted non-State observer status at the United Nations.[7][8] In September 1976, the PLO became a non-state member of the Arab League, and in the same year became a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.

On 15 November 1988, in support of the First Intifada, the PLO declared the establishment of the State of Palestine, which was widely recognised by many foreign governments,[9] although often statements made were of an equivocal nature[10] – at times referring to the PLO or the State of Palestine or one acting on behalf of the other, or by the generic "Palestine". Many countries and organisations "upgraded" representation from the PLO to the new State, though in practice the same PLO offices, personnel and contacts continued to be used. In February 1989 at the United Nations Security Council, the PLO representative claimed recognition from 94 states.[11][12] Since then, additional states have publicly extended recognition.

The PNA was established by the PLO in 1994 following the Oslo Accords and the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement. The Israeli government transferred certain powers and responsibilities of self-government to the PNA, which are in effect in parts of the West Bank, and used to be effective in the Gaza Strip before its takeover by Hamas. The Foreign Affairs Minister of the Palestinian National Authority, who since July 2007 has been Riyad Al-Maliki, is responsible for the foreign relations of the PNA. States maintain official relations with the PNA through offices in the Palestinian territories, and the representation of the PNA abroad is accomplished by the missions of the PLO, who represents it there.

Both the PLO (representing itself, the State of Palestine, or the PNA) and the PNA now maintain an extensive network of diplomatic relations,[13] and participate in multiple international organisations with status of member state, observer, associate, or affiliate. The designation "Palestine", adopted in 1988 by the UN for the PLO,[14] is currently also used as reference to the PNA and the State of Palestine by states and international organisations, in many cases regardless of the level of recognition and relations they have with any of these entities.

Diplomatic relations

List of countries which maintain diplomatic relations with the State of Palestine by date:

# Country Date
1  Czech Republic 9 November 1988[15]
2  Mauritania 16 November 1988[16]
3  United Arab Emirates 17 November 1988[17]
4  Vietnam 19 November 1988[18]
5  China 20 November 1988[19]
6  Hungary 23 November 1988[20]
7  Algeria 16 December 1988[21]
8  Bulgaria December 1988[22]
9  Maldives 1988[23]
10  Saudi Arabia 1 January 1989[24]
11  Bahrain 3 January 1989[25]
12  Kuwait 3 January 1989[25]
13  Jordan 7 January 1989[26]
14  Qatar 7 January 1989[26]
15  Malaysia 12 January 1989[27]
16  Niger 18 January 1989[28]
17  Pakistan 18 January 1989[29]
18  Oman 23 January 1989[30]
19  Morocco 31 January 1989[31]
20  Mozambique 31 January 1989[32]
21  Sri Lanka 6 February 1989[33]
22  Uganda 15 February 1989[34]
23  Ghana 17 February 1989[35]
24  Cuba February 1989[36]
25  Romania February 1989[37]
26  Senegal February 1989[38]
27  North Korea 3 March 1989[39]
28  Serbia 5 April 1989[40]
29  Republic of the Congo 6 April 1989[41]
30  Gabon 7 April 1989[42]
31  Poland 11 April 1989[43]
32  Laos 15 May 1989[44]
33  Bangladesh 24 July 1989[45]
34  Chad 12 August 1989[46]
35  Philippines 4 September 1989[47]
36  Nicaragua 24 September 1989[48]
37  Vanuatu 17 October 1989[49]
38  Indonesia 19 October 1989[50]
39  Albania 26 October 1989[51]
40  India 16 November 1989[52]
41  Guinea-Bissau November 1989[53]
42  Russia 10 January 1990[54]
43  Comoros 1990[55]
44  Mauritius 1990[55]
45  Seychelles 1990[55]
46  Tanzania 1990[55]
47  Zambia 20 February 1991[56]
48  Namibia 2 May 1991[57]
49  Cambodia 17 December 1991[58]
50  Turkey 19 December 1991[59]
51  Syria 22 January 1992[60]
52  Angola 28 February 1992[61]
53  Tajikistan 6 March 1992[62]
54  Kazakhstan 6 April 1992[63]
55  Azerbaijan 15 April 1992[64]
56  Turkmenistan 17 April 1992[65]
57  Georgia 25 April 1992[66]
58  Bosnia and Herzegovina 30 October 1992[67]
59  Slovakia 1 January 1993[68]
60  Brunei 24 May 1994[69]
61  Uzbekistan 25 September 1994[70]
62  Papua New Guinea 13 January 1995[71]
63  South Africa 15 February 1995[72]
64  Tunisia 19 April 1995[73]
65  Kyrgyzstan 12 September 1995[74]
66  Malawi 23 October 1998[75]
67  Ukraine 2 November 2001[76]
68  Belarus 4 February 2003[77]
69  East Timor 1 March 2004[78]
70  Paraguay 26 March 2005[79]
71  Montenegro 1 August 2006[80]
72  Costa Rica 5 February 2008[71]
73  Equatorial Guinea 11 July 2008[81]
74  Ecuador 24 November 2008[82]
75  Venezuela 27 April 2009[83]
76  Dominican Republic 15 July 2009[71]
77  Cape Verde 4 December 2009[84]
78  Eswatini 3 November 2010[85]
79  Peru 12 November 2010[86]
80  Chile 25 February 2011[87]
81  Uruguay 29 March 2011[71]
82  Lebanon 17 August 2011[88]
83  Brazil 3 December 2011[89]
84  Iceland 15 December 2011[90]
85  Ivory Coast 24 January 2012[91]
86  Thailand 1 August 2012[92]
87  Cyprus 9 February 2013[93][94]
88  Guyana 21 February 2013[71]
89  El Salvador 9 May 2013[95]
90  Honduras 10 May 2013[96]
91  Grenada 27 September 2013[71]
92  Haiti 27 September 2013[71]
93  Bolivia 15 November 2013[71]
94  Belize 9 July 2014[97]
95  Sweden 30 October 2014[98]
96  South Sudan 24 January 2015[99]
97  Argentina 5 March 2015[100]
—  Holy See 13 May 2015[101]
98  Saint Lucia 14 September 2015[71]
99  Mongolia 19 April 2016[102]
100  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 22 September 2016[71]
101  Botswana 8 March 2017[71]
102  Lesotho 23 November 2017[103]
103  Sierra Leone 6 December 2017[104]
104  Dominica 18 March 2018[105]
105  Colombia 6 August 2018[106][107]
106  Saint Kitts and Nevis 29 July 2019[108]
107  Norway 28 May 2024[109]
108  Slovenia 5 June 2024[110]
109  Barbados 11 June 2024[71]
110  Antigua and Barbuda 14 June 2024[71]
111  Spain 16 September 2024[111]
112  Trinidad and Tobago 22 September 2024[112]
113  Armenia 27 September 2024[113]
114  Ireland 29 September 2024[114]
115  Afghanistan Unknown
116  Benin Unknown
117  Burkina Faso Unknown
118  Djibouti Unknown
119  Egypt Unknown
120  Ethiopia Unknown
121  Gambia Unknown
122  Guinea Unknown
123  Iran Unknown
124  Iraq Unknown
125  Kenya Unknown
126  Libya Unknown
127  Mali Unknown
128  Nigeria Unknown
129  Somalia Unknown
130  Sudan Unknown
131  Togo Unknown
132  Yemen Unknown
133  Zimbabwe Unknown

Bilateral relations

See also: International recognition of the State of Palestine
Further information: List of diplomatic missions in Palestine and List of diplomatic missions of the State of Palestine


The Palestine Liberation Organization maintains a network of missions and embassies,[115] and represents the Palestinian National Authority abroad.[115][116] Most of the 146 states that have recognised the State of Palestine have elevated the Palestinian representation in their country to the status of embassy.[117] A number of other states have granted some form of diplomatic status to a PLO delegation, falling short of full diplomatic recognition. In some cases, as a matter of courtesy, these delegations and missions have been granted diplomatic privileges,[117] and are often referred to as "embassies" with their heads as "ambassadors".[118]

In the United States, an unofficial PLO information office was established in New York in 1964 and run by Sadat Hassan, who served as Permanent Representative of Yemen to the United Nations.[119] The Palestine Information Office was then registered with the Justice Department as a foreign agent and operated until 1968, when it was closed. The PLO was designated a terrorist organization by the United States in 1987,[120][121] but in 1988 a presidential waiver was issued which permitted contact with the organization.[122] A PLO office was reopened in 1989 as the Palestine Affairs Center.[123] The PLO Mission office, in Washington D.C., was opened in 1994, and represented the PLO in the United States. On 20 July 2010, the United States Department of State agreed to upgrade the status of the PLO Mission in the United States to "General Delegation of the PLO".[124]

Participation in international organisations

The State of Palestine is represented in various international organizations as member, associate or observer.

International Organisation Status Representation Application date Admission date
Membership
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation [note 1] member State of Palestine 1969 [note 2]
INTERPOL State of Palestine[126] 2017
ICC State of Palestine[127] 2015
Non-Aligned Movement member [128] Palestine[clarification needed] 1976 [129]
Arab League [note 3] member State of Palestine 1976 [note 2]
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia member [131] Palestine Liberation Organization[132] (as in the UNGA) 1977
Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly member [133] Palestinian National Council (PLO) 2003
International Coordinating Committee of National Human Rights Institutions [note 4] member [134] Palestinian Independent Commission for Human Rights (PNA)[note 5] 2004 [135]
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
and International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 		member Palestine Red Crescent Society (PLO)[136] 2006 [129]
Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean member [137] Palestinian National Council (PLO) 2006 [129]
Union for the Mediterranean member Palestinian National Authority 2008
Inter-Parliamentary Union member [138] Palestinian National Council (PLO)[note 6] 1995[139] 2008 [note 6]
Asian Parliamentary Assembly member [145] Palestinian Legislative Council (PNA)
Group of 77 member [146] Palestine[clarification needed]
International Trade Union Confederation member [147] Palestine General Federation of Trade Unions
Airports Council International member [148] Palestinian Civil Aviation Authority (PNA)
Alliance for Financial Inclusion member [149] Palestinian Monetary Authority (PNA) 2010
UNESCO member State of Palestine 1989[150] 2011 [note 7]
IBAN member [154] Palestinian Monetary Authority (PNA)[155] 2012
Non-member status
United Nations [note 8] observer state State of Palestine[160] 1974 [note 9]
World Health Organization observer [163] Palestine Liberation Organization (as in the UNGA) 1998
International Telecommunication Union observer [164] Palestine Liberation Organization (as in the UNGA) 1998 [165]
World Tourism Organization special observer [166] Palestine Liberation Organization (as in the UNGA)[citation needed] 1999
International Organization for Standardization correspondent [167][note 10] Palestine Standards Institution (PNA)[169][170] 2001 [note 11]
World Intellectual Property Organization observer [171] Palestine Liberation Organization (as in the UNGA) 2005 2005 [172]
Universal Postal Union special observer Palestinian National Authority 2008
Energy Charter Conference observer [173] Palestinian National Authority 2008
International Electrotechnical Commission affiliate participant [174] Palestine Standards Institution (PNA)[170][175] 2009
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe partner for democracy Palestinian National Council (PLO) 2010 [133] 2011 [176]
Association of Caribbean States (ACS) observer 2017

Arab League

In 1964, the first summit of the League of Arab States, held in Cairo in January, resulted in a mandate for the creation of a Palestinian entity.[177][178] Subsequently, in May, the Palestine Liberation Organization was established during a meeting of the Palestinian National Congress in Arab-controlled Jerusalem.[179] The organisation's establishment was formally approved at the Arab League's second summit, held in Alexandria in October.[180] The PLO was granted full membership in 1976.[181] Its seat was assumed by the State of Palestine following the declaration of independence in 1988.[181][specify]

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

The PLO was accorded full membership in the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC; now named Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in 1969;[5] it attended the founding conference, held in Rabat in September 1969, as an observer.[182] Its seat was assumed by the State of Palestine following the declaration of independence in 1988.[specify] It is also a member of the Islamic Development Bank, an international financial institution for member states of the OIC.[183][184]

Status at the United Nations

Further information: Palestine and the United Nations, International recognition of the State of Palestine, and State of Palestine
  Countries that have recognized the State of Palestine
  Countries that have not recognized the State of Palestine

The Palestine National Council (PNC) sent formal notification to the U.N. Secretary-General regarding the establishment of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in May 1964. The following year in October, some Arab states requested that a PLO delegation be allowed to attend meetings of the Special Political Committee, and it was decided that they could present a statement, without implying recognition. PLO participation in the discussions of the Committee took place under the agenda item of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) from 1963 to 1973.[185]

The Palestine Liberation Organization was granted observer status at the United Nations General Assembly in 1974 through General Assembly Resolution 3237. In the UNGA's regional groupings, the PLO gained full membership in the Group of Asian states on 2 April 1986.[note 8] Acknowledging the proclamation of the State of Palestine,[186] the UN re-designated this observer to be referred to as "Palestine" in 1988 (General Assembly Resolution 43/177) and affirmed "the need to enable the Palestinian people to exercise their sovereignty over their territory occupied since 1967".[186][187] In July 1998, the General Assembly adopted a new Resolution (52/250) conferring upon Palestine additional rights and privileges, including the right to participate in the general debate held at the start of each session of the General Assembly, the right of reply, the right to co-sponsor resolutions and the right to raise points of order on Palestinian and Middle East issues.[188] By this resolution, "seating for Palestine shall be arranged immediately after non-member States and before the other observers."[188] This Resolution was adopted by a vote of 124 in favour, 4 against (Israel, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, United States) and 10 abstentions.[189][190]

Since 2011, Palestinian diplomacy has been centred around the Palestine 194 campaign, which aims to gain membership for the State of Palestine in the United Nations at its 66th Session in September 2011. It seeks to effectively gain collective recognition for a Palestinian state based on the borders prior to the Six-Day War, with East Jerusalem as its capital. In September 2012, the Palestine Liberation Organization submitted a draft resolution according non-member observer state status to Palestine,[191][192] which the General Assembly approved on 29 November 2012.[161] The change in status was described by The Independent as "de facto recognition of the sovereign State of Palestine".[193]

The vote was a historic benchmark for the sovereign State of Palestine and its citizens, whilst it was a diplomatic setback for Israel and the United States. Status as an observer state in the UN will allow the State of Palestine to join treaties and specialised UN agencies, such as the International Civil Aviation Organisation,[194] the Law of the Seas Treaty and the International Criminal Court. It shall permit Palestine to claim legal rights over its territorial waters and air space as a sovereign state recognised by the UN. It shall also provide the citizens of Palestine with the right to sue for control of their territory in the International Court of Justice and with the legal right to bring war-crimes charges, mainly those relating to the unlawful Israeli occupation of the State of Palestine, against Israel in the International Criminal Court.[195]

After Palestine was granted UN observer status, the UN authorised the PLO to title its representative office to the UN as 'The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations',[196] and Palestine re-titled its name accordingly on postal stamps, official documents and passports,[197][198] whilst it has instructed its diplomats to officially represent 'The State of Palestine', as opposed to the 'Palestine National Authority'.[197] Additionally, on 17 December 2012, UN Chief of Protocol Yeocheol Yoon decided that "the designation of 'State of Palestine' shall be used by the Secretariat in all official United Nations documents",[199] thus recognising the PLO-proclaimed State of Palestine as being sovereign over the territories of Palestine and its citizens under international law.

International Criminal Court

On 13 June 2014, the State of Palestine became a party to the International Criminal Court, based in The Hague; the State of Palestine acceded to the Rome Statute on 2 January 2015.[200]

Before the United Nations General Assembly voting in September 2012, the Palestinian Authority had tried to become a party to the Rome Statute and therefore recognize the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2009 and again in April 2012.[201][202] According to The Jerusalem Post, "had the ICC accepted the PA's recognition of its jurisdiction, it would have also tacitly accepted its statehood."[203]

International Committee of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent (ICRC)

In June 2006, a decision by the 29th International Conference of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent admitted the Palestine Red Crescent Society as a full member of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

Geneva Conventions

The State of Palestine has been a full member of the Geneva Conventions since 2 April 2014.

In 1989, just one year after the proclamation of the State of Palestine, the Palestine Liberation Organization had tried to accede to the Geneva Conventions back in 1989, but Switzerland, as the depositary state, had stated that because the question of Palestinian statehood had not been settled within the international community, it was incapable of recognising Palestine as a "power" that could accede to the Conventions.[204]

FIFA, IOC (International Olympic Committee) and IPC (International Paralympic Committee)

The State of Palestine is a full member of the International Olympic Committee,[205] of the International Paralympic Committee,[206] and of FIFA.[207]

International Agency for Atomic Energy (IAEA)

On 28 September 2023, a majority of the members of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) approved a proposal for the State of Palestine to be recognized, with that name, as an observer state to the Agency.[Note 1]

World Health Organization (WHO)

The PLO currently holds observer status at the World Health Organization (WHO). It had applied for full membership status as far back as 1989, when the United States, which provided one-quarter of the WHO's funding at the time, informed the WHO that its funding would be withheld if Palestine was admitted as a member state. Yasser Arafat described the U.S. statement as "blackmail". The PLO was asked to withdraw its application by the WHO director general. The WHO subsequently voted to postpone consideration of the application and no decision on the application has been made yet.[204] John Quigley writes that Palestine's efforts to gain membership in several international organisations connected to the United Nations was frustrated by U.S. threats to withhold funding from any organisation that admitted Palestine.[211] On 31 October 2011, following the admission of Palestine to UNESCO, the Minister of Health Fathi Abu Moghli announced that the PNA would then seek membership at the WHO;[212] however, following reports that that would lead to the defunding of the entire organization by the United States – as the US had done to UNESCO after it admitted Palestine –, the Palestinian government announced that they would not be seeking membership at WHO at the time.[213] As of 2023, the WHO still refers to the territories claimed by the State of Palestine – the West Bank and Gaza – as "the Occupied Palestinian Territory".

World Trade Organization (WTO)

In 2022, the State of Palestine was allowed to participate, as an observer state and under the name "Palestine", of the World Trade Organization's twelfth Ministerial Conference, held in Geneva, Switzerland.[214]

International treaties and conventions

The Palestine Liberation Organization, representing the Palestinian National Authority, participates in trade liberalisation:

Treaty or convention Signature Ratification
Customs Union with Israel [note 12] group="note">Established following the Oslo Accords and the Paris protocol.</ref>
Free Trade Agreement with the European Union[215] 1997-02-24[215] 1997-07-01[215]
Free Trade Agreement with the European Free Trade Association[216] 1998-11-30[217] 1999-07-01[217]
Bilateral Investment Treaty with Egypt[218] 1998-04-28[219] 1999-06-19[219]
Free Trade Agreement with Turkey[220] 2004-07-20[220] 2005-06-01[220]
Greater Arab Free Trade Area of the Council of Arab Economic Unity[221] [when?] [when?]
Free trade agreement with Mercosur (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela)[222] 2011-12-21[222]
Free trade agreement with Jordan[223] 2012-10-07[223]

The Palestine Liberation Organization and the Palestinian National Authority are jointly[note 13] accepted as party to the international agreements in the Arab Mashreq:

Treaty or convention Signature Ratification
On roads[225] 2001-05-10[225] 2006-11-28[225]
On railways[226] 2003-04-14[226] 2006-11-28[226]
On maritime transport[227] — 2005-05-09[227]

Notes

  1. ^ Including its subordinated organizations of Islamic Development Bank (joined in 1977, three years after its establishment in 1974) and Islamic Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (one of the founders in 1982).[125]
  2. ^ a b The State of Palestine succeeded the seat of the Palestine Liberation Organization following the 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence.
  3. ^ Including its subordinated organizations of Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Arab Monetary Fund and Arab Satellite Communications Organization. The PLO's Palestinian National Council is one of the founders of the Arab Inter-parliamentary Union in 1974.[130]
  4. ^ Including its regional subgroup Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions (APF).
  5. ^ Established by 1993 decree of the President of the State of Palestine and the Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization and organized according to 1997 PNA's Palestinian Legislative Council law stipulating that "The Commission shall submit its reports to the President of the National Authority, and to the Palestinian Legislative Council."[135]
  6. ^ a b Palestine Liberation Organization delegation has been IPU observer since the 117th session of the IPU Governing Council in 1975.[130] At various sessions in 1996,[139] 1997[140] and 1998[141] it was decided that the Palestine National Council does not fulfill the conditions for membership laid down in Article 3 of the IPU Statutes,[141] but in 1998 the rights of the observer delegation of Palestine were strengthened.[142] Following the approval of the amendment to Article 3[143] in 2008 the PNC was accepted as IPU member.[144]
  7. ^ The PLO participated in UNESCO as observer since 1974.[151] In 1989 an application was submitted for the State of Palestine to become full member.[150] In 2011 UNESCO accepted the application.[152][153]
  8. ^ a b For the purposes of United Nations Regional Groups arrangement, the Palestine Liberation Organization participates in the Asia group since 2 April 1986.[156][157][158][159]
  9. ^ Since 1974 the Palestine Liberation Organization has the status of UN non-state observer entity. Since 1988 its designation in the UN is "Palestine".[14] Since 2012 the UN observer mission of the PLO is changed into UN observer mission of the State of Palestine,[160] whose government is the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization.[161][162]
  10. ^ Representation for "Occupied Palestinian Territory" equivalent to that of a state; assigned the code "ps"[168]
  11. ^ The PSI became a subscriber member of ISO in 2001 and a correspondent member in 2004.[169] It is still not a full member.[167]
  12. ^ Israel has free trade agreements with the EU, EFTA, Turkey, USA, Canada and Mexico. The PNA participates in the free trade agreement between the United States and Israel.
  13. ^ Palestine was accorded membership in ESCWA pursuant to ECOSOC Resolution 2089 (LXIII) dated 22 July 1977.[132] Full powers for the signature of the Agreements were issued by the leaders of the PLO and the PNA.[224]
  1. ^ Palestine Liberation Organization originally granted observer status by the IAEA on 23 September 1976.[208] Designation changed to "Palestine" on 29 September 1989,[209] and "State of Palestine" on 28 September 2023.[210]

References

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Bibliography

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