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Conservatism in China

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Conservatism in China (Chinese: 保守主義; pinyin: bǎoshǒu zhǔyì) emphasizes authority and meritocracy stemming from Confucian values, and economically, it aims for state capitalism rather than free markets. Many Chinese conservatives reject individualism or classical liberal principles and differ from modern Western conservatism because of its strong communitarian element. A major concern of modern Chinese conservatism is the preservation of traditional Chinese culture.[1]

History

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Pre-modern

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See also: Confucianism and Legalism (Chinese philosophy)

Chinese conservatism can be traced back to Confucius, whose philosophy is based on the values of loyalty, duty, and respect. He believed in a hierarchically organized society, modeled after the patriarchal family and headed by an absolute sovereign. However, Confucius also believed that the state should employ a meritocratic class of administrators and advisers, recruited by civil service exams. An alternative school of thought called Legalism argued that administrative discipline, not Confucian virtue, was crucial for the governance of the state.[2]

For thousands of years, China was ruled by monarchs of various imperial dynasties. The Mandate of Heaven theory was invoked in order to legitimize the absolute authority of the Emperor.[3]

Republic of China

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See also: Chiangism, Dai Jitao Thought, and History of the Kuomintang

The Xinhai Revolution of 1911 overthrew Puyi, the last Chinese Emperor, and ushered in the Republic of China. The Chinese nationalist party Kuomintang (KMT) was originally a social democratic party that advocated Westernization during the Sun Yat-sen period. Chiang Kai-shek, who succeeded Sun as leader of the KMT, was originally classified as "centrist", with the more Buddhist traditional and conservative "rightist" Western Hills Group and the "leftist" Reorganization Group led by Wang Jingwei. KMT was a Chinese nationalist party that ruled mainland China from 1927 to 1949, and after the anti-communist Shanghai massacre in 1927, Chiang was reinforced in right-wing and conservative elements (such as traditional values). Following his defeat in the Chinese Civil War by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), Chiang continued right-wing authoritarian ruling the island of Taiwan until his death in 1975.[4]

New Life Movement

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Main article: New Life Movement

The New Life Movement was a government-led civic campaign in the 1930s Republic of China to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralised ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. This movement was related to Chiang Kai-shek's anti-Communist campaign at the time, but today it also inspires conservatives like Xi Jinping of the Chinese Communist Party.

People's Republic of China

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Mao era

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On the mainland, Chinese conservatism was vehemently opposed and suppressed by the CCP, especially during the Cultural Revolution. Members of the "Five Black Categories"—landlords, rich farmers, counter-revolutionaries, bad influencers, and right-wingers—were violently persecuted. Young people formed cadres of Red Guards throughout the country and sought to destroy the Four Olds: old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits—leading to the destruction of a large part of China's cultural heritage, including historical artifacts and religious sites.[5] Among them, some Red Guards who embraced local officials were pejoratively called "conservatives".[6]

After the Chinese economic reform

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See also: Neoauthoritarianism (China)

In recent decades, Chinese conservatism has experienced a national revival.[7] The ancient schools of Confucianism and Legalism have made a return into mainstream Chinese thought.[8][9][10] General Secretary Xi Jinping has called traditional Chinese culture the "soul" of the nation and the "foundation" of the CCP.[11][12] China has also developed a form of authoritarian capitalism in recent years, further breaking with the orthodox communism of its past.[13]

Neoauthoritarianism is a current of political thought that advocates a powerful state to facilitate market reforms.[14] It has been described as right-wing, classically conservative even though it incorporated some aspects of Marxist-Leninist and Maoist theories.[15][16] Wang Huning, widely regarded as the grey eminence and chief ideologue of the CCP, has criticized aspects of Marxism and recommended that China combine its historical and modern values.[17] Jiang Shigong is considered a major promoter of the ideas of Carl Schmitt and neoauthoritarianism.[18]

Since Xi took office as China's president in 2013, social conservatism has been strengthened, including the traditional gender role for women.[19] In 2024, the Bloomberg News described the period of China, where Xi is president, as "Conservative Era"; faced with a shrinking population, China’s most powerful leader since Mao Zedong has urged women to cultivate a “culture” of childbirth and take on a more domestic role.[20]

Party-state capitalism

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Main article: Party-state capitalism

Party-state capitalism is a term used by some economists and sociologists to describe the contemporary economy of China under the Chinese Communist Party.[21][22] The term has also been used to describe the economy of Taiwan under the authoritarian military government of the Kuomintang.

Conservatism in Hong Kong

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Main article: Conservatism in Hong Kong

Conservatism in Hong Kong has become the backbone of today's pro-Beijing camp, which has been the major supporting force of the SAR administration led by the indirectly elected Chief Executive.

Political parties

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Mainland China

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Current parties

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Historical parties

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Hong Kong

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Main article: Conservatism in Hong Kong § List of conservative parties

Taiwan (Republic of China, 1949–present)

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Current parties

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Historical parties

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Media

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Mainland China

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Hong Kong

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Taiwan (Republic of China, 1949–present)

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Prominent figures

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Mainland China

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Hong Kong

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Taiwan (Republic of China, 1949–present)

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See also

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References

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  1. ^ Xu, Aymeric (2020). "What Made Chinese Conservatism a Cultural Movement: A Case Study of the Southern Society". Twentieth-Century China. 45 (3): 331–350. ISSN 1940-5065.
  2. ^ a b c Kelly, P. J. (2013). The Politics Book. DK. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-1-4093-6445-0. OCLC 828097386.
  3. ^ Harari, Yuval Noah (2015). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Penguin Random House. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-09-959008-8.
  4. ^ a b c Reilly, Michael (October 17, 2021). "Taiwan: Will it retain independence or be taken over?". The Island Online. Archived from the original on November 12, 2021. Retrieved May 30, 2024.
  5. ^ Lu, Xing (2004). Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought. p. 2.
  6. ^ Yin, Hongbiao (November 1996). "Ideological and political tendencies of factions in the red guard movement". Journal of Contemporary China. 5 (13): 269–280. doi:10.1080/10670569608724255. Retrieved June 11, 2023.
  7. ^ "The Communist Party is redefining what it means to be Chinese". The Economist. August 17, 2017. Retrieved May 30, 2024.
  8. ^ Schneider, David K. (2016). "China's New Legalism". The National Interest (143): 19–25. JSTOR 26557304.
  9. ^ Johnson, Ian (October 18, 2017). "Forget Marx and Mao. Chinese City Honors Once-Banned Confucian". The New York Times. Retrieved May 30, 2024.
  10. ^ Melvin, Sheila (August 29, 2007). "Yu Dan and China's Return to Confucius". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 8, 2014. Retrieved August 18, 2024.
  11. ^ a b Zi, Yang (July 6, 2016). "Xi Jinping and China's Traditionalist Restoration". The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved June 22, 2024.
  12. ^ a b Cai, Jane (June 12, 2023). "How China's Xi Jinping promotes mix of Marxism and traditional culture to further Communist Party and 'Chinese dream'". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on June 12, 2023. Retrieved June 22, 2024.
  13. ^ Witt, Michael A.; Redding, Gordon (2013). "China: Authoritarian Capitalism". The Oxford Handbook of Asian Business Systems. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780199654925.
  14. ^ Bramall, Chris (2008). Chinese Economic Development. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19051-5.
  15. ^ Yuezhi Zhao (March 20, 2008). Communication in China: Political Economy, Power, and Conflict. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7425-7428-1.
  16. ^ Sautman, Barry (1992). "Sirens of the Strongman: Neo-Authoritarianism in Recent Chinese Political Theory". The China Quarterly. 129 (129): 72–102. doi:10.1017/S0305741000041230. ISSN 0305-7410. JSTOR 654598. S2CID 154374469.
  17. ^ a b Lyons, N.S. (October 11, 2021). "The Triumph and Terror of Wang Huning". Palladium. Retrieved June 19, 2024.
  18. ^ Che, Chang (December 1, 2020). "The Nazi Inspiring China's Communists". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved December 1, 2020.
  19. ^ a b "Facing Population Decline, China's Xi Promotes 'Childbirth Culture' for Women". Time. 31 October 2023.
  20. ^ a b "Taylor Swift wows Chinese women tired of Xi's conservative era". Bloomberg News. February 9, 2024.
  21. ^ Pearson, Margaret; Rithmire, Meg; Tsai, Kellee S. (2021-09-01). "Party-State Capitalism in China". Current History. 120 (827): 207–213. doi:10.1525/curh.2021.120.827.207. ISSN 0011-3530.
  22. ^ Pearson, Margaret M.; Rithmire, Meg; Tsai, Kellee S. (2022-10-01). "China's Party-State Capitalism and International Backlash: From Interdependence to Insecurity". International Security. 47 (2): 135–176. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00447. ISSN 0162-2889.
  23. ^ Paul Cheung, ed. (2022). Statecraft in Symbols: Policy and the Life of the Chinese Nation. Springer Nature Singapore. p. 36.
  24. ^ Suisheng Zhao (1995). Power by Design: Constitution-Making in Nationalist China. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 116–119. ISBN 9780824863982.
  25. ^ Robert Joseph Culp, ed. (2007). Articulating Citizenship: Civic Education and Student Politics in Southeastern China, 1912-1940. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 6.
  26. ^ Law, Wing Sang (2009). Collaborative Colonial Power: The Making of the Hong Kong Chinese. Hong Kong University Press.
  27. ^ J. Flowerdew, ed. (1998). The Final Years of British Hong Kong: The Discourse of Colonial Withdrawal. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 120.
  28. ^ Rikkie Yeung, ed. (2008). Moving Millions: The Commercial Success and Political Controversies of Hong Kong's Railways. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 252.
  29. ^ Ian Jeffries, ed. (2010). Political Developments in Contemporary China: A Guide. Taylor & Francis. p. 154.
  30. ^ "Conservative Politician Junius Ho Stabbed in Hong Kong". TIME. November 6, 2019. Retrieved February 14, 2025.
  31. ^ 黃清龍, ed. (2020). 蔣經國日記揭密：全球獨家透視強人內心世界與台灣關鍵命運. p. 158. 保守的,當時黨內出現「開明派」與「保守派」之爭,前者力主反共政策應當調整,黨禁、報禁必須開放,否則就得不到民心,後者則以國家安全為訴求,強調「安全第一、秩序第一,領導權威不容懷疑」等,蔣經國明顯是站在保守派這一邊,而保守派的代表人就是王昇 ...
  32. ^ "Taiwanese polling in a climate of fear". Taiwan News. June 21, 2023.
  33. ^ Mary Alice Haddad, ed. (2023). Environmental Politics in East Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 2011.
  34. ^ "Taiwan's ruling party endorses conservative pro-China candidate Hung Hsiu-chu for presidential run". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 19 Jul 2015.
  35. ^ Gunter Schubert, ed. (2024). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Taiwan. Taylor & Francis. Han Kuo-yu, seen by many as the 'Taiwanese Trump' due to his populist appeal to conservative social values
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