INTRODUCTORY ORGANIC

CHEMISTRY AND ALKANES

-Organic chemistry deals with carbon
compounds except carbon dioxide and
carbonates.
-Hydrocarbons are compounds that
contain of carbon and hydrogen only.
- Hydrocarbons can be saturated or
unsaturated
- A Saturated hydrocarbon is a compound
containing only single bonds e,g ethane,
cyclopropane
- Unsaturated hydrocarbon contain one or
more multiple bonds e.g ethene,
cyclopropene
Different types of formulae
There are different ways used to refer to
organic compounds. These are :
i. Displayed formula- this formula shows
every atom and every bond in a given
molecule
butane butanol
ii. Structural formula- it shows
(unambiguously) how the atoms are
joined together in a given molecule.
butane 2-
butanol
iii) Skeletal formula-shows all the bonds
between carbon atoms.

Butane butanol
iv) Molecular formula- shows the
actual number of each atom in a
given molecule. For example,
C4H10, C4H10O

v) Empirical formula-shows the

number of each atom in the
simplest whole number ratio. For
example,
CH2O
Functional groups and homologous
series
Functional group is an atom or group of
atoms that gives the compound some
distinctive and predictable properties
or
-is an atom or group of atoms in a
molecule responsible for its chemical
reactions.
Homologous series: is a family of
compounds with the same functional
group , which differ in formula by CH2
from the next member.
For example alkanes,
Properties of homologous series
1. Each member of the series differs from the
preceding or succeeding member by a common
difference of CH2 unit.
2. All members contain same elements and
same functional groups.
3. All members have the same general
formula.
• Alkane = CnH2n+2
• Alkene = CnH2n
• Cycloalkene = CnH2n−2
4. The members show a regular gradation in
their physical properties
5. All members have similar chemical
properties.
6. All members can be prepared by using same
general method.
Nomenclature
1.Identify the longest carbon chain- parent
chain.
2. Identify all of the substituents
3. Number the carbons of the parent chain
from the end that gives the substituents
the lowest numbers.
4.If the same substituent occurs more than
once, the location of each point on which
the substituent occurs is given. In addition,
the number of times the substituent group
occurs is indicated by a prefix (di, tri, tetra,
etc.).
5.If there are two or more different
substituents they are listed in alphabetical
order using the base name.
6. A cyclic (ring) hydrocarbon is designated
1.Draw the following alkanes.
a)2-methylpentane
b)3,3,5-trimethyloctane
c)1,1-diethylcyclohexane
d)methylcyclopentane
e)4-propyloctane
f)3-ethyl-3-methylhexane
g)2,2-dimethyl-3-propyloctane
h)3,3,4,5-tetramethyldecane
Structural isomerism
- these are isomers with the
same molecular formula but
different structures;
There are three types of
structural isomers
i) Chain isomers
ii) Position isomers
iii) Functional group isomers
i. Chain isomerism: this is isomerism
caused by change in the size of
the parent chain.
For example:
Molecular Formula: C4H10
Butane and methylbutane
ii) Position isomers
This is isomerism due to
change in position of the
functional group in a given
molecule.
iii) Functional group isomers
This isomers having the same
molecular formula but different
functional groups
For example C3H6O
1.Draw and name 4 chain isomers with
the molecular formula C6H 14
2. Draw and name 4 position isomers
with the molecular formula C5H 11Br
3.Draw and name 4 functional group
isomers with the molecular formula
C5H 10O
4.Draw and name 4 isomers with the
molecular formula C6H 13Br
TYPES OF REACTIONS
There are different types of reactions in
organic chemistry:
i) Addition reaction: this is a reaction in
which two molecules combine to form
one molecule
A + B D
For example the reaction between ethene
and bromine
ii) Substitution reaction: is the
reaction in which one of the atoms
or group of atoms is replaced with
another atom or group of atoms.
iii) Oxidation reaction: is a reaction
in which a substance gains
oxygen or loses hydrogen.
For example: the reaction between
methanol and potassium
dichromate(vi) under distillation
forming methanal.

iv) Reduction reaction: is a

reaction in which a substance
loses oxygen or gains
For example hydrogenation of
ethene.
v) Polymerization reaction: this is a
reaction where a large number of
small molecules combine to for one
large molecule
-the small molecules are called
monomers
The large molecule formed is called
a polymer
Bond breaking in organic molecules
There are two types of bond breaking in
organic molecules:
i) Homolytic bond fission: this is where a
covalent bond breaking and each atom
leaves with an electron from the bonding
pair. This results to formation of free
radicals
A radical is an atom with unpaired
electron
ii) Heterolytic bond fission: this is where a
covalent bond breaking and one atom
takes both of the bonding pair of
electrons. This results to formation of
ions.
Hazard, risk and risk assessment
Hazard: is something that can cause harm to the
user.
There are different hazard signs
Risk: is the chance of a hazard to cause
harm
For example when handling concentrated
sulfuric acid without gloves.
Risk assessment: the identification of
hazards involved in carrying out a
procedure and the control measures
needed to reduce the risks from those
hazards.
Guidelines for risk assessment
i) The amount of substance to be used
ii) age and experience of the user
iii) whether heating is required
iv) whether ventilation of fume cupboard
Alkanes from crude oil
Alkanes are obtained from cruse oil
using three main processes namely:
i) Fractional distillation: this process
is used to separate a liquid mixture
into fractions by boiling and
condensing.
-As one moves down the fractionating
column the temperature becomes
higher. This is called temperature
gradient.
-Long chain alkanes are lower in the
ii) Cracking : this a thermal
breakdown of long chain alkanes
to short chain alkanes and
alkenes. Cracking results to
short chain alkanes and alkenes
which have more uses than long
chain ones.
iii) Reforming: this is the conversion of
straight chain alkanes to branched or
cyclic hydrocarbons.
-Reformed hydrocarbons burn more
efficiently compared to straight chain
Alkane as a Fuel
Alkanes are the major source of fuel. For alkanes to
produce heat they must be burnt in oxygen
Complete combustion
-alkanes burn in excess oxygen producing carbon
dioxide and steam.
This is an exothermic reaction
Incomplete combustion
-alkanes burn in limited supply of oxygen
producing carbon or carbon monoxide or both.
Alkanes contain other inorganic
elements
-These include nitrogen and sulfur.
-Sulfur burns in oxygen from in
sulfur dioxide which dissolves in
water forming sulfurous acid
S+O2 SO2
SO2+H2O H2SO3
-Sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur
trioxide which dissolves in water
forming sulfuric acid
SO2+O2 SO3
Nitrogen burns in air forming
-

nitrogen monoxide which is

further oxidized to nitrogen
dioxide
N2 +O2 NO
NO+O2 NO2
-Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in
water forming nitrous acid and
nitric acid
NO2+H2O HNO2+HNO3
Catalytic converters
-To reduce pollution of these
gases in the atmosphere, cars are
fitted with catalytic converters
which have small quantities of
precious metals such palladium,
rhodium and palladium.
-They acid as catalyst in the
conversion CO and NO to less
harcm3ess gases CO2 and N2
CO+NO N2+ CO2
Alternative fuels
Fossil fuels are about to be depleted
and being the major cause of global
warming, alternative fuels are
necessary.
Examples include:
• Bioalcohols
• Hydrogen
Most of the alternatives have high
level of carbon neutrality
Carbon neutrality- is the considered
net zero effect on the amount of
carbon dioxide in the air
Substitution reactions of
alkanes
Alkanes undergo a substitution
reaction with halogens in the
presence of light. For instance,
in ultraviolet light , methane
reacts with halogen molecules
such as chlorine and bromine.
This reaction is a substitution
reaction because one of the
hydrogen atoms from the