1/21/2025
Organic Chemistry
It’s the
What is chemistry of
Organic carbon-
Chemistry? containing
compounds
Most of these compounds also contain
hydrogen, and many also contain oxygen
or other elements.
Organic Chemistry
Many organic
compounds occur
naturally, and many
others are made by man.
All living things contain
organic compounds
1
1/21/2025
Organic Chemistry
Natural Man-made
Sugars Ethene
Methane Ethane
(natural gas)
Polymers, such
Proteins, fats as polythene
● Empirical formula = simplest whole number ratio of each
element in a compound (e.g. for ethene = CH2)
● Molecular formulae = actual numbers of each element in a
compound (e.g. for ethene = C2H4)
● General formula = a type of empirical formula that
represents the composition of any member of an entire class of
compounds (e.g. for ethene = CnH2n)
● Structural formula = formula which shows the arrangement
of atoms in the molecule of a compound (e.g. for ethene =
CH2CH2)
● Displayed formulae = shows the symbols for each atom in a
compound, with straight lines representing covalent bonds
2
1/21/2025
know what is meant by the terms homologous series,
functional group and isomerism
● Homologous series = series of compounds with
the same general formula and similar properties
● Functional group = a group of atoms responsible
for the chemical reactions of a compound
● Isomerism = compounds with the same molecular
formula exist in different forms due to different
arrangements of atoms (different forms of isomerism
exist)
3
1/21/2025
Organic Chemistry
Crude oil is a
mixture of organic
compounds. It is
the raw material
used for the
manufacture of
plastics, solvents,
and thousands of
organic chemicals.
Organic Chemistry
Upper layers
Rock
Shale
Natural gas
Crude oil
Rock
4
1/21/2025
Organic Chemistry
Crude oil (petroleum) was formed
millions of years ago by the
decomposition of animals and plants
under pressure.
Upper layers
Rock
Shale
Natural gas
Crude oil
Rock
Organic Chemistry
Crude oil is a dark viscous liquid
mixture of many different
hydrocarbons.
Upper layers
Rock
Shale
Natural gas
Crude oil
Rock
5
1/21/2025
Organic Chemistry
Crude oil is a dark viscous liquid
mixture of many different
hydrocarbons.
Upper layers
Rock
Shale
Viscous = does
Natural gas
not flow easily.
Crude oil
Rock
Organic Chemistry
Crude oil is a dark viscous liquid
mixture of many different
hydrocarbons.
Upper layers
Rock
Shale
Hydrocarbon =
compound containing
Natural gas
hydrogen and carbon
only Crude oil
Rock
6
1/21/2025
Organic Chemistry
The LARGER the hydrocarbon
i.e. the greater the number of
carbon atoms in a molecule:
1. The less easily it flows (i.e.
the more viscous it is)
2. The less easily it ignites (i.e.
the less flammable it is)
3. The less volatile it is (i.e. it
Hydrocarbon =
compound containing doesn’t vaporise as easily)
hydrogen and carbon
only
4. The higher its boiling point.
Organic Chemistry
Crude oil is the major source of
energy in most industrial countries.
Over 90% is used as a fuel in
industry or transport.
Upper layers
Rock
Shale
Natural gas
Crude oil
Rock
7
1/21/2025
There are three
stages in the refining
of crude oil.
There are three
stages in the refining
of crude oil.
Fractional
distillation
8
1/21/2025
There are three
stages in the refining
of crude oil.
Fractional
distillation
Cracking
There are three
stages in the refining
of crude oil.
Fractional
distillation
Cracking
Reforming
9
1/21/2025
Fractional distillation
Crude oil is heated
and passed into a tall
fractionating column
Fractional distillation
Hydrocarbons with
the lowest boiling
points (gases) pass to
the top of the column.
10
1/21/2025
Fractional distillation
Hydrocarbons with
the highest boiling
points collect at the
bottom of the column.
Fractional distillation
Intermediate
fractions are also
collected
11
1/21/2025
Fractional distillation
The various fractions
are purified and
blended to use as
petrol, solvents, and
heating and diesel
oils.
Cracking
T he re is l e s s d e m a nd f o r t h e
t h i c ke r o i l s ( o i l s w i th h i g h e r
relative molecular masses and
higher boiling points). The thicker
oils are therefore often ‘cracked’.
12
1/21/2025
Cracking
T he re is l e s s d e m a nd f o r t h e
t h i c ke r o i l s ( o i l s w i th h i g h e r
relative molecular masses and
higher boiling points). The thicker
oils are therefore often ‘cracked’.
This means that the larger
molecules are broken down into
smaller ones suitable for making
petrol. This can be done in 2 ways.
Cracking
T he re is l e s s d e m a nd f o r t h e
t h i c ke r o i l s ( o i l s w i th h i g h e r
relative molecular masses and
higher boiling points). The thicker
oils are therefore often ‘cracked’.
This means that the larger
molecules are broken down into
smaller ones suitable for making
petrol. This can be done in 2 ways.
Thermal cracking – using heat
Catalytic cracking – using heat
and a catalyst
13
1/21/2025
Reforming
In reforming, hydrocarbons with
small chains of carbon atoms are
converted to hydrocarbons
consisting of larger molecules.
Alkanes
The simplest of all hydrocarbons
X
X
C X C X
X
X
Carbon 2:4 Forms four covalent bonds
14
1/21/2025
Alkanes
H
CH4
H C H Methane
H Four single
C-H bonds
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. All bonds are occupied.
Alkanes
Molecular Physical
Name
formula state
Methane CH4 Gas
Ethane C2H6 Gas
The Alkanes form
an homologous Propane C 3 H8 Gas
series.
Each member Butane C4H10 Gas
differs from the
next by the unit Pentane C5H12 Gas
–CH2
Hexane C6H14 Liquid
15
1/21/2025
Alkanes
Molecular Physical
Name
formula state
Methane CH4 Gas
Ethane C2H6 Gas
The homologous
series of alkanes Propane C 3 H8 Gas
has the general
formula:
Butane C4H10 Gas
CnH2n+2 Pentane C5H12 Gas
Hexane C6H14 Liquid
Alkanes
H H H
H C H H C C H
Ethane
H H H
Methane
H H H
H C C C H
Propane H H H
16
1/21/2025
Alkanes
H H H H
Butane
H C C C C H
H H H H
H H H H H
Pentane H C C C C C H
H H H H H
Alkanes and Isomerism
Compounds exhibit isomerism when they
have the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae.
All alkanes with more that three carbon
atoms have more than one structure.
17
1/21/2025
Alkanes and Isomerism
H H H H
Butane, C4H10 H C C C C H
H H H H
H H H
H C C C H
2-Methylpropane, C4H10 H H
H C H
H
What’s the formula?
• What will be the formula for alkanes
containing the following numbers of carbons?
Number of carbons Formula
12 C12H26
16 C16H34
31 C31H64
19 C19H40
18
1/21/2025
19
1/21/2025
Combustion of Alkanes
Alkanes burn in plentiful air to form carbon
dioxide and water:
Eg: Methane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
This is known as complete combustion.
20
1/21/2025
Combustion of Alkanes
Alkanes burn in limited air to form carbon
monoxide and water:
Eg: Methane + Oxygen Carbon monoxide + water
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)
This is known as incomplete combustion.
Alkanes and substitution
reactions
Alkanes, as saturated compounds, can
react by substitution. For example, when
a mixture of methane and bromine is
exposed to ultraviolet light – typically
sunlight – a substitution reaction occurs,
and the organic product is bromomethane.
CH4 + Br2 CH3Br + HBr
methane bromine bromomethane hydrogen
bromide
21
1/21/2025
Alkanes and substitution
reactions
One hydrogen atom of the methane
molecule is substituted by a bromine atom
H H
H C H + Br Br H C Br + H Br
H H
22
1/21/2025
Alkenes
X X
X X
X C X X C X
X X
X X
Ethane
Alkenes
X X
X X
X C X X C X
X X
X X
Alkenes are known as
H H Alkenes form a
unsaturated homologous series
hydrocarbons because
C C with the general
they contain a double formula CnH2n
H H
bond.
Double bond
23
1/21/2025
Alkenes
Molecular
Name n Structural formula
formula
H H
Ethene 2 C 2 H4 C C
H H
H H
Propene 3 C 3 H6 H C C C
H H H
Butene 4 C 4 H8
Pentene 5 C5H10
Chemical properties of
alkenes
1. Alkenes are generally more reactive than
alkanes.
2. Ethene burns with a smoky flame. This is
because it contains a relatively high
percentage of carbon:
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
Other alkenes do not burn with a smoky flame
24
1/21/2025
Chemical properties of
alkenes
3. Alkenes and unsaturated compounds undergo
addition reactions.
An addition
reaction is one in
which two
molecules combine
to form a single
molecule.
Chemical properties of
alkenes
3. Alkenes and unsaturated compounds undergo
addition reactions.
For example: alkenes react with bromine to
form 1,2-dibromoethane:
H H H H
C C + Br Br H C C H
H H Br Br
25
1/21/2025
Chemical properties of
alkenes
3. Alkenes and unsaturated compounds undergo
addition reactions.
For example: alkenes react with bromine to
form 1,2-dibromoethane:
H H H H
C C + Br Br H C C H
H H Br Br
26
1/21/2025
Test for an alkene.
Alkenes will decolourise bromine water as the alkene reacts
with it.
Eg. Ethene + Bromine Water Colourless solution
(colourless) (yellow-brown)
Ethanol
Ethanol belongs to the group of organic compounds
known as the alcohols.
Alcohols contain the hydroxyl group, -OH
The alcohols form a homologous series with the
general formula CnH2n+1OH
Eg. Ethanol C2H5OH H H
H C C O H
H H
27
