LAND, WATER USE AND

MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
In the process of developing the land, the Ifugaos look at it as a
partner and trust it with care and respect. They do not contest
with nature rather abide with it or enhancing it. They have innate
sense of reverence to whatever is God-made. This belief is highly
observable in the rice terraces where the structure follows the
contours of the landscape. Big rocks are left undisturbed even in
the pond field, this serves as a cornerstones or boundary mark.
With this arrangement, erosions are not likely to happen. This is
the case where there is harmony between man and the
environment, between the Ifugaos and its habitat.
Villages and hamlets are also situated in such a way the people
are near the rice fields, their main workplace and not so far
from the forests, the source of fuel and materials for
handicrafts and other necessities. The kind of landscape in a
way determines to a large extend the culture of the people.
Indigenous knowledge is simple and very practical way to meet
the challenges of day to day living. This people have not
forgotten the knowledge and wisdom of their forebears, they
have sustained it until today even being duped as a primitive.
During the last decades of the 20th century, there is a growing
consciousness and awareness about the importance of the
knowledge and wisdom of indigenous people. Alan R. Emery
(1997) stated it so truthfully when he said, “Around the world,
there is a sense of urgency to collect traditional knowledge
because the elders die, there is a danger that the knowledge
will die with them because young people are not following the
traditional ways”. There are four traditional land management
systems of the Ifugaos: protected areas, production
areas/agricultural areas, settlement areas and infrastructure
areas.
Ifugao Tophography

Ifugao is located in Northern Philippines at the foot of the Cordillera

mountain ranges. It is bounded on the north by Mt. Province, on the
east by Isabela, on the west by Benguet and on the south by Nueva
Vizcaya. It is a landlocked province where there is no outlet to the sea.
According to DENR (CY 2007), the natural boundaries which surround
Ifugao are as follows: Eastern "lagud" side between the provinces of
Ifugao-Isabela is the Magat River; Western "kay-ang" side between
Ifugao-Benguet is Mount Pulag; Northern "huddokna" between Ifugao
- Mountain Province - Mount Polis; and on the Southern muyadna"
portion lies the Lamut river that separates Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya.
Ifugao, in the Gran Cordillera Central is generally mountainous.
The Pulag mountain range is found on the west at the
municipality of Tinoc. Thickly forested, this mountain chain
gives rise to creeks, streams and gullies that are tributaries to
the major rivers. These rivers flow from a north to south-
southeast direction to join the Magat river heading to the
Cagayan River. Rising from the southwestern side of the
province, from Asipulo and Kiangan flowing south is the Lamut
river. From the northern mountain ranges of Mt. Polis flowing
to Banaue and passing through Hingyon, Kiangan and Lagawe
is the Ibulao river. Tributaries coming from Kiangan, Tinoc and
Hungduan also feed the Ibulao river.
From the Mt. Amuyao chain of mountains in the north passing
through Mayoyao, Aguinaldo and the eastern barangays of
Lagawe flow the Alimit river. Ifugao terrain observes a
generally mountainous west-northwest region that gradually
melts into rolling hills, valleys, and narrow plains towards the
south-southeastern area of the province that is Lamut,
Kiangan, Lagawe, Aguinaldo and Alfonso Lista.
LANDFORMS IN IFUGAO
Landforms refer to the shape and form of a land or region
including its characteristics. They are the naturally formed
features of the land surface like the following: valley
(nundotal), mountain (duntug, bilid), and hill (pugu), plains
(nundoddotal). Other landforms are: rocky (talugtug, kalipkip),
slopes (natigging, nunyopah), cliffs (doplah), and ridges
(bantiligna, fhuludna).
1. Duntug/Juntug/bilid/pfuludna (Mountains)
The mountain peaks mentioned below are actually the highest
elevations of the Cordillera mountain ranges situated at the central
portion of northern Luzon. On the east is the whole stretch of the
Cagayan valley and on the west is the Ilocos region.

a.) Mt. Amuyao is the highest point of Mayoyao.

b.) Mt. Atugu, this mountain towers over barangay Burnay on the southeast,
Umalbong on the northeast, Mompolia and Anao on the north and
northwest, respectively.

c.) Mt. Kappugan or the Three Kings is an idyllic trekking and camping
destination.
d.) Mt. Kesimelan which is almost perfect cone is located partly at
barangays Namal and Antipolo, Asipulo, Ifugao.

e.) Mt. Nagchayan is a historical testimony to the fall of the Japanese

Imperial Army It was once filled with crawling Japanese soldiers who
tried to defend this post and resist the Americans until the American
bombers came in 1945.
f.) Mt. Napulawan is considered by the locals as a magical or
miraculous mountain because of the ocular illusions that occur during
a definite hour of the day.
g.) Mt. Polis mountain range lies between the provinces of
Ifugao and Bontoc.

h.) Mt. Pulag, the second highest mountain in the Philippines

is located between the provinces of Ifugao and Benguet.
i.) Mt. Binahagan is a mountain range located in Lagawe surrounded
by the barangays of Jucbong and Abinuan on the northwest and
barangays Ponghal and Pullaan on the Southeast.

j.) Mt. Munsuyusuy is located on the boundary between the

Municipality of Tinoc and Buguias, a municipality of Benguet.
2. PUGU (HILLS)
Bugat Hills is found in barangay Buyabuyan stretching towards
barangay Abinuan. This used to be an extensive grazing area of the
Ayangan people of Eastem Lagawe since a large portion is grassland.
It is now slowly being developed as watersheds by the inhabitants.
A popular pugu in Kiangan is the Million Dollar Hill. It is called so because accordingly, during WW
II, the American forces spent plenty of ammunitions worth a million dollars to claim victory over the
Japanese soldiers

Rolling Hills of Pugol in Lamut was previously dry and good only for corn and pastureland for cattles
and other live stocks.
3. NUNDOTAL (VALLEY, PLAIN)
The barangays of Lagawe namely Poblaciones North, East,
West and South, constitute the Lagawe Valley because it is
plain though small in area and also surrounded by mountains
and hills. In fact, the old name of Lagawe is "Dotal".
4. LINGAB/ LIYANG (CAVE)
Nahtoban Cave is found two kilometers away from
Poblacion, Boliwong towards Jucbong. It has three chambers:
small, medium and large. Today the local government is
trying to develop and promote it as a park or beauty spot.
Bintacan Cave is just a few meters away from the Ibulao
bridge on the Lagawe side.

Pangaggawan Cave is found on top of one of the mountains

of Bolog, Kiangan is unknown to many.
WATER FORMS IN IFUGAO
Water forms refer to the inland bodies of water like rivers,
lakes, falls, creeks brooks or streams and springs. These inland
waters give life to the Ifugao Rice Terraces. The Ifugaos have
stories of the origin of the different water forms in their
localities.
1. Wangwang, gwanggwang (River)
Rivers in Ifugao
River Location (Municipality) Destination
1. Alimit River Mayoyao Magat River
2. Ducligan River Banaue Alimit River
3. Galong Hungduan Ibulao River
4. Galgalong Lagawe Ibulao River
5. Hapao Hungduan Ibulao River
6. Hingyon Hingyon Lagawe River
7. Ibulao Lagawe, Kiangan Magat River
8. Lgawe River Lagawe Ibulao River
9.Lamut River Lamut Magat River
10. Matuno River Tinoc Magat River
11. Montabiong River Lagawe Lagawe River
12. Munggayang River Kiangan Ibulao River
13. Payawan River Lamut Lamut River
14. Potia-Taotao River Alfonso Lista Magat River
15. Umalbong River HIngyon Lagawe River
2. LOBONG, FHANNAW (LAKES)
These are large inland bodies of water usually fresh water that
do not have any outlet. The water is stagnant. Ambuaya Lake
which is located some two kilometers away from Poblacion
Kiangan, is one of the tourist attractions of Ifugao because of
its beauty and its interesting legend.
A.) Munpoy-ah, Munphoja-a (Falls)
These refer to water falling over a cliff usually steep rock
O'pfaw Mahencha (Leap of Mahencha) Falls in Mayoyao is six
kilometers away from the town proper

Tenogtog Falls is found in Mayoyao five (5) kilometers away from the
town proper. It has three natural pools arising from the waterfall about
12 meters high.

Other falls worth mentioning are the Balentimol Falls in Hungduan,

Munbungug Falls in Liwon, Asipulo and Uttu Falls in Kiangan.
MAATUNG AN OB-OB (HOT SPRINGS)

1. Bogya Hot Spring was formerly at the bank of the Hapao River, a
few meters away from Hapao proper but now it is found between sitio
Matukutki and Dayandi
2. Ahin Hot Spring located at Ahin Tinoc, Ifugao.
3. Tukukan Hot Spring is located at Tukukan, Tinoc,Ifugao.
LAND MANAGEMENT

Conklin(1980), in his book, "Ifugao Ethnographic Atlas", presented a

96 sq. km land surface except rivers and rock outcrops. Needless to
mention that with the passing- of time, the land area of Ifugao
underwent changes. The DENR (2007) came out with data of 2,517 sq
km land area of Ifugao inclusive of all features found within its present
delineated boundaries. From his study, Conklin identified eight
landscape types and gave each a percentage. They are: grassland (3%),
forest (22.2%), caneland (27.2%), woodlot (24.8%), swidden (4.3%),
house terrace (7%), drained field (.4%), and pondfield (17.4%).
1. Acquisition and Loss of Land

To understand better how the early Ifugaos managed their land

resources, a rundown on how land is acquired and disposed is
important. Boltan (Inheritance), gatang/ hubli (purchase), pallog
(barter), hakmo/pidon /balal/hapoa (mortgage), prize in winning in a
land dispute, pun-anupan (hunting ground), pinangahan or inuhatan,
punlubukan (burial) and punhalopan (fishing ground) are modes or
indicators of land possession.
1.1. Modes of Acquisition

a. Boltan (Inheritance).

b. Gatang/hubli (Purchase

c. Pallog (Barter

d. Pinangahan or inuhatan

e. Hakmo/Pidon/balal/hapoa (Mortgage)

f. Prize in a land dispute.

g. Pun-anupan (Hunting ground).

h. Punlubukan (Burial ground)

i. Punhalopan (Fishing ground

LOSS OF LAND PROPERTY

When it comes to loss of real estate like land, the parents who
bequeathed their land to their children lose said property. The one who
sells or exchanges his land for money or some other valuables ceases
to be the owner of that particular property. The mortgagor temporarily
stops to develop his land until such time he returns in full the money
of the mortgagee at the stipulated time.
2. Management of Land Surface
To use and manage the land sustainably is the expertise of Indigenous
people like the Ifugaos. It is for this reason that Ifugao was inscribed
by UNESCO in 1995 as a world heritage site. Their villages, forests,
pond fields and grasslands are situated in such a way that the natural
setting of the natural resources is sustained. Whatever developments
they introduce should enhance not upset in anyway the natural order of
the environment.
Figure 17 (Illustration by Guimbatan, 2005) shows a typical Ifugao community
with the areas identified. The protected area is the topmost part (red boundary)
which is the muyung/alah considered as the community forest. Next to the alah is
muyung (green boundary) still but this time it is owned by a private individual or
a family or clan. These two areas are well managed; the trees and the soil are
taken cared of because of its role as the watershed. At the foot of the slopes, just
below the muyung are the terraces. They serve as catchment basin for the water
from the creeks/gullies and therefore cultivated into pond fields or rice terraces
(light pink boundary). A stream may be formed at the lowest part where the extra
water will drain. This areal arrangement is common throughout the province with
little variations in some places. On a chosen portion of the landscape is the
boble/village or the residential area (dark pink boundary). The choice of the
residential area varies from community to community, however easy access to the
other areas is one of the factors that influence the decision. In this picture, it is on
an elevated section of the land.
a.) Numboblayan/Boble/Pfuglay (Village/ Residential)
This pertains to the area or a piece of land where the houses of the
people are built. They call it boble/nunboblayan / nunhituwan /
ponhetogwan.

b.) Munmogmog/Livestock raising in the Bobleh

Native chickens are raised at residential areas. They are free to
scavenge the soils in the yard, fields or forest nearby. Like any other
fowls, the native chickens are used as food, sold in the market or
sacrifice during a ritual ceremony.
PUNPAYOHAN/POND FIELDS
A. Payoh in plains, valleys, rolling hills and mountain slopes
In this mountainous region of the Cordillera including Ifugao, there are very
narrow plains and valleys mostly along the lower parts of the rivers.
The one cropping system is generally practiced in areas of higher elevation like
Hungduan, Banaue and Hingyon

The world famous Ifugao Rice Terraces found in Banaue, believed to have been
constructed a before Christ, is a classic example of terracing the mountain slopes.
It follows the contour of the terrain and therefore the paddies are small in size
called pukung/ poong, or narrow but long naguanet/nawanit. Terracing help
prevent slides and erosions and using banong to store water in the pond helps
retain the water longer for the next planting season.
There are two types of rice terraces; the stonewalled and the
unstonewalled.

1. Site selection. The most preferred site where the rice terraces will be
constructed along an area slightly sloping having less stones, below the
muyung/forest/watershed, availability of water for irrigation, and along
an area should be exposed to the sun.
2. Hikwatan/Clearing. Clearing is done by cutting all the vegetation in
the area with the use of otak (bolo). Trees good for lumber are taken.
Tall vegetations adjacent to the terraces are pruned or cut.
3. Apuyan/Burning is accomplished late in the afternoon
4. Tuping/Stone walling and terracing. Stone walling and terracing
which could be simultaneous or one after the other is done from
bottom to top of the slope. Gaud /spade is usually used in
accomplishing the activity.
5. Banong/Dike construction. A banong, a foot or less in width and
height are finally constructed out of clay mud to contain the water
from the rain or paluk
6. Paluk/Irrigation. The last stage in preparing the rice terraces is
irrigating the field via gravity from the hebheb/ob-ob (spring) or
constructed fongfong (bongbong) in the river or creek/Alak
(irrigation canals) with a width of 2 feet and 1-2 feet deep are
constructed to bring water to the terraces.
B. Payoh utilized as fish pond

The rice paddies are used for fish and other shell production
simultaneously with the tinawon/tinagon production. In one area,
usually at the center of the field, a lawu/luho'/luhuk, which is a deep
hole is constructed to serve as housing and breeding area for the
mudfish in times of extreme weather condition.
3. Habal/kaingin/umah (swidden)
Swidden farming or habal/lkaingin/inum-an/uma system is said to be
the oldest form of agro-forestry. Portions of land in the mountain
slopes, in the valleys, or in the plains which are not irrigated are used
for swidden farming.

The habal among all the Tuwali and Ayangan involved seven steps
while Kalanguya claims that they practice eight steps.
a. Site selection. The choice of area is based on the presence of tall runos
(Mescantos species), black soil, not stony, and not too steep. Among the Kalanguya,
the husband usually chooses the site.

b. Hikwatan/Clearing. The Tuwali and Ayangan usually start by establishing about

1-2 meters cleared strip called gohat/ghohat through the use of otak (Bolo) around
the proposed kaingin site.
Among the Kalanguya, when the site is determined, markings called bah-lak are
placed at the four corners of the site to inform people that the area is reserve.

c. Apuyan/Burning of the cut vegetation is done late in the afternoon. Burning in

sloping area may start from the side or from the top to the bottom of the kaingin so
that fire will slowly and fully bum objects on its path and avoid wildfire. In flat
areas, fire breaks are made around them.
After the burning, a Kalanguya cuts the unburned and charred wood,
gathers them and utilizes them for firewood or for the construction of
a-abong (shack) near the kaingin to serve as resting place or shelter.

d. Lotang/gohang/fencing/trench making. To protect the kaingin from

astray or wild animals a fence/trench is made around it. The fence is of
two types;

(1). Alad - makes use of poles and branches previously selected during
the clearing.
(2). Atol/atul /stonewall- A fence made of stones placed strategically
one on top of the other
e. Muntanom/Planting is done through the use of dohag, a flat sharpened iron
with wooden handle with a length of 1-1.5 feet and done in any of the
following:

(1). Ohay nitanom /mono cropping - one type of crop usually camote,
is planted in one kaingin.
(2). Dakol di nitanum /multiple cropping - two or more crops are
planted in the same habal/inum-an. Such crops may be sweet potato,
corn, beans, etc.; and
(3). Relay cropping - two or more crops are planted at different periods
of planting while the earlier crop is still existing.
f. Mungabut/Weeding is usually done through the use of dohag

g. Harvesting. Several months after planting depending on the kind of

crops raised the fruits of the crops are harvested

h. Fallowing. When the kaingin produces low yield, it is abandoned for

at least 2. 5 years in order to become fertile again.
4. MUYUNG, ALAH, PINUGU/PINUCHU (FOREST)

Forest is a very important part of the ecological surrounding because it

is needed to conserve water for the terraces and supply the daily needs
of the people. It is a very efficient means to control soil erosion and to
preserve the environment from toxic carbon dioxide. Muyung simply
means forest. There are muyungs that are family-owned and
community-owned. Family-owned is exclusive for that particular
family or clan whereas community-owned means its resources may be
utilized by any member of the community while observing certain
unwritten laws. These communal forests are usually located at a
considerable distance away from the villages.
Dulawan (2006) forward the following intensive indigenous practices:

1. Hikwatan/Regular Cleaning.

2. Tanoman/Planting and Replanting.

3. Selective cutting.

4. Technique of Felling.

5. Permission to Cut

6. Maintenance of Boundaries.

7. Resolution of Boundary Disputes

5. PA'LABAN (PASTURE LAND)

Wide grasslands that cannot support rice, corn or legume production

may be turned into ranches or graze lands for carabaos, cattles or goats.
III. OTHER METHODS IN WATER MANAGEMENT

If land is life, so is water. The main function of the water from the
creeks, streams and rivers is to water the rice terraces aside from the
daily kitchen use for cooking, washing, etc because there is a direct
connection between the forest and water product of the ifugao sees to it
that the muyung is sustained. The interconnectedness of the natural
resources, the pinuggu, grassland, settlement, and the rice terraces is
very clear in mind. Depletion of one resource will lead to the next and
the cycle goes on its disadvantage. There are also some indigenous ways
where the produce these water resources is managed. They are the
following:
1. The halop method
The Ifugaos have used herbal pesticides like umli(vines), tuba(shrub)
and others kind of herbals to catch fishes the volume of water in its
natural path then apply any of these herbal pesticide cause dizziness
among the fishes for easy catching

A.)The use of pituk (iron rod)

B.)The use of pinaad (torch)

C.)The Use of Bunwit, pfongguet

IV. CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES ON LAND USE AND
MANAGEMENT

Ancestral domain/Ancestral land (R.A. 8371) - It is an act to

recognize, protect and promote the rights of indigenous cultural funds
therefore indigenous peoples, establishing implementing mechanism
appropriate funds therefore, and for other purposes.
Ancestral Domain refers to all areas generally belonging to ICCS/IPs
comprising lands, inland waters, coastal areas and natural resources
therein, held under a claim of ownership, occupied or possessed by
ICCS/IPs, by themselves or through their ancestors communally or
individually since time immemorial continuously to the present except
when interrupted by war, force majeure or displacement by force
deceit, stealth or as consequence of government projects or any other
voluntary dealings entered into by government and private
individuals/corporations, and which are necessary to ensure their
economic, social and cultural welfare.
It shall include ancestral lands, forests, pasture residential, agricultural,
and other land individually owned whether alienable and disposable or
otherwise, hunting grounds, burial grounds, worship areas, bodies of
water mineral and other natural resources, and lands which may no
longer be exclusively occupied by ICCS/IPs but from which
traditionally had access to for their subsistence and traditional
activities, particularly the home ranges of ICCS/IPs who are still
nomadic and/or shifting cultivators (Section 56, R.A. 8371)
Ancestral Lands refer to land occupied possessed and utilized by
individuals families and clans who are members of the ICCS/IPs since
the time immemorial by themselves or through their predecessors-in-
interest, under claims of individual of traditional group ownership,
continuously, to the present except when interrupted by war force
majeure or displacement by force deceit, stealth, or as a consequence of
government projects and other voluntary dealings entered into by
government and private individuals/corporations, including, but not
limited to, residential lots, rice terraces or paddies, private forests,
swidden farms and tree lots (Section 56, R.A. 8371)
1. Ancestral Domain
At the onset of the autonomous movement, this issue of ancestral
domain was thoroughly discussed and it was found that it is not hard to
identify or delineate because often the land was divided based on the
location of the ethnic communities.

When the political government was set in place in the early 20th
century, the political divisions of the Province of Ifugao almost spelled
out the ancestral domains of the tribes which were made into
municipalities. However, there are still boundary issues and disputes
between some municipalities of the province.
2. Land Titling

This is the act of formal government in order to classify lands according to

their different uses as watershed/forest or timberland, parks and wildlife
reservations, alienable and disposable lands for agriculture, residential and
commercial use. In Ifugao, 85% of the land is classified as watershed hence,
it cannot be alienable and disposable for private owners. Most of the 15% A
and D lands are concentrated in Alista, Aguinaldo, Mayoyao and Lamut
Except for some parts of central Ifugao that was titled by DA DENR and the
courts most of the land in Ifugao cannot be titled because it is watershed
forest in classification making the occupants squatters in their own land.
3. Watershed

Today, the muyung system of the Ifugaos is recognized as a forest

management model by many world renowned institutions. It also
debunked the notion that the Ifugao a forest killer since he also is a
kaingero. For all the years that the Ifugao practiced the muyung system
which provide water for the lowlands especially Nueva Vizcaya and
Isabela, Dams were built to irrigate their nice fields and generate
electricity for their region and rake in millions of pesos their provinces
year in and year out. It is a good thing that we are given a share in
Income but there should be a revisit to the sharing scheme for a better
equitable sharing of the profits.
V. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
There are two major educational implications that this chapter would
contributed. First is integration of IK in the Curriculum. This attempt
of incorporating Indigenous Knowledge (IK) on land use and
management into the curriculum will help the students be aware of the
hazards of modern technology alongside its enormous advantages
modern life. The students should be conscious of their responsibility to
help sustain t environment with the proper attitudes, practices and
technology. It guides students especially in the agriculture and forestry
courses about the indigenous agro-forestry practices of the Ifugaos
which are effective, productive and sustainable.
The second is the development of conceptual framework. The
indigenous knowledge on land use and management of the Ifugaos
could serve as a conceptual framework or a working model for
researchers, environmentalists, scientists, teaches and policy makers of
non government and government entities in the local, national are
international levels.
SUMMARY

1. Ifugao province is marked by rugged mountains, massive forest and rivers, creek and
streams coming from the north and west and by gently rolling hills and plain towards the
southeast portion of the province.
2. Indigenous acquisition and loss of land. The Ifugaos claim right to land ownership through
ancestral domain/ancestral land. Other ways of acquiring lands: inheritand purchase,
mortgage, barter and prize in winning in a land dispute.
3. Land use. Land is life to the Ifugaos. Inherited lands for the Ifugaos are valued, possible
should not be sold by any family member but should be added through purchase. Uses of
land: residential,agricultural, forest or watershed, hunting ground, pasture land, burial
grounds.
Although the Ifugao IPs had occupied their lands for centuries, all lands in Ifugao with the
exception of Lamut and Alfonso Lista are considered forest zone. To help the Ifugaos benefit
from the land they are occupying, land titling should be given priority by our government.