Module 1 - Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology 3

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND

TOXICOLOGY (FOR 3)
North Eastern Mindanao State University
Cantilan Campus
Cantilan, Surigao del Sur
Engr. Janice Catian-Orozco
First Semester, SY: 2022 - 2023
FORENSIC 3
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

FORENSIC SCIENCE
is the application of science to criminal and civil laws, mainly—on
the criminal side—during criminal investigation, as governed by the legal
standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure.

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FORENSIC 3
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Is the application of chemistry to criminal investigation. It is the study of the

makeup of non-biological evidence found at a crime scene.
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
Deals with examination of human internal organs, food samples and water and
gastric contents for the purpose of detecting the presence of poisonous substance, its
dosage, effects and treatment.
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FORENSIC 3
 History of Forensic chemistry

Forensic chemistry as such has its roots in history with early cases
involving chemical analysis of compounds dating back to 18th century France
when chemists were asked by authorities to help them solve poisonings and
other crimes using their knowledge about chemicals found at or near where a
suspect lived.
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FORENSIC 3
List of Contributors behind Forensic Science

a.Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930). Popularizing scientific crime detection through his
fictional character Sherlock Homes
b.Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853). FATHER OF FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY. Published the first
scientific treatise on the detection of poison and their effects on animals.
c.Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914). FATHER OF CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION. Devised the
first scientific system of personal identification.
d.Karl Landsteiner. Analysis of blood and determined there are actually four (4) types of
human blood
e.Leone Lattes. Devised a relatively simple procedure for determining the 10/24/22
blood group
5
of
bloodstain.
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 List of Contributors behind Forensic Science
a. Ludwig Teichman. Develop the first of a number of crystalline test, still used today in
the characterization of blood.
b. German Scientis Schonbein. Developed the first presumptive test for blood.
c. Dr. Paul Leland Kirk. Coined the word criminalistics and considered as the FATHER
OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
d. Alec Jeffrey. Used the DNA fingerprinting to solve a double murder case in England. He
used DNA to identify Colin Pitchfork as the murdered of two young girls in England.
e. Rudolp Reiss. Work on ink discharge; forged more on the analysis of minute evidence.
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FORENSIC 3
SCOPE
 Includes the chemical side of criminal investigation.
 Analysis of any material quality of which may give rise to legal
proceeding.
 Has invaded other branches of forensic sciences including legal
medicine, ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy and
photography. 10/24/22 7
FORENSIC 3
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY IN CRIMINOLOGY
Forensic chemistry is a part of criminology that deals with the
detection and identification of drugs, explosives, or other
contraband substances that can be found at crime scenes.
Forensic chemists are scientists who analyze and interpret the
evidence and testimony collected from crime scenes. They then
attempt to identify and connect the pieces together. This is done
by using chemical tests on the collected materials. 10/24/22 8

FORENSIC 3
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Forensic chemistry plays an important role in solving crimes
and determining if someone has committed a crime or not. It involves
analyzing biological fluids, fibers, hairs, or other evidence to
determine if someone has been involved in any criminal activity.
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PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY FORENSIC 3
The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages:
1. Collection or reception of the specimen. The proper collection, preservation and transportation of specimens
are essential in the investigation of a crim.
 Factors to Consider when collecting specimen for examination:
a. Sufficiency of Samples. As much as possible the investigator should collect sufficient amount of specimen for
examination.
b. Standard Comparison. When the evidence on question is located in or added with the foreign substance, a
sample of such foreign substance must be submitted for analysis.
c. Maintenance of Individuality. Each piece of evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate sample.
d. Labeling and Sealing. It is a well settled rule that evidence will have no value in court in spite of the good report
of the expert if the specimen cannot be identified by reason of improper labelling.

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2. The actual examination
a. The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully and write down in the
laboratory record/logbook a complete description of the external appearance including the manner in
which it is secured and the particulars of the sealing. If possible take a photograph of the specimen
including the inner wrappings and take note of its descriptions.
b. The second step in the examination is to measure or weigh the object and all the measurements
and weights should be entered in the laboratory record/logbook. The specimen should then be placed in
the proper container or wrapper and must be kept in the proper evidence room.
c. The third step is the laboratory examination which consists of the chemical, physical and
confirmatory tests.
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3. The communication o the results of the examination. The results of the examination
should be communicated with the requesting party in the form of a written report which must
include enumeration of the facts on the specimen received for examination with detailed
description of the packaging, sealing and labelling, date of receipt and from whom it was
received, the purpose of the examination, the finding and conclusion.
4. Court appearance. The written report of a Forensic Chemist is usually supplemented by
testimonial evidence in a later date if the case is brought to court or the fiscal’s office.
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SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRATICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY FORENSIC 3
1. GO SLOWLY. Good work cannot be hurried, therefore. Take all the time necessary to make the case
complete no matter how urgent it may appear.
2. BE THOROUGH. Make careful and minute examination of everything and don’t be satisfied with a
quantitative analysis if a quantitative one is possible.
3. TAKE NOTES. Keep a full and clean record of everything seen and done.
4. CONSULT OTHERS. Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar and
when this happens he should consult those who know better.
5. USE IMAGINATION. An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as the most
dangerous creature.
6. AVOID COMPLICATED THEORIES. The simplest explanation is fundamentally the right one.
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SOME EQUIPMENTS USED IN THE FORENSIC EXAMINATION FORENSIC 3
 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)
A type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the

surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample,
producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography and
composition of the sample.
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 ULTRAVIOLET – VISIBLE SPECTROPHOTOMETER (UV-VIS)
The instrument used in ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer which is used for the

quantitative and qualitative analysis of organic compounds. UV-Vis spectroscopy is an
analytical technique that measures the amount of discrete wavelengths of UV or visible light
that are absorbed by or transmitted through a sample in comparison to a reference or blank
sample.
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 FOURIER TRANSFORM – INFRARED SPECTROMETER (FT-IR)

Used for identification of pure organic substances. It identifies organic substances
particularly abused rugs and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional
group. In layman’s term, the resulting spectrum could be referred to as the fingerprints of
the substance.
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 HIGH POWERED LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

This scientific equipment is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of a
volatile or non-volatile compound based on the chromatographic separation of components.
Is a form of column chromatography that pumps a sample mixture or analyte in a solvent
(known as the mobile phase) at high pressure through a column with chromatographic
packing material (stationary phase).
Chromatography Is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and
quantify each component in a mixture.
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FORENSIC 3
PARTS AND FUNCTION OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A microscope is a
laboratory instrument used to
examine objects that are too
small to be seen by the naked
eye. Microscopy is the science
of investigating small objects
and structures using a
microscope.
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FORENSIC 3
EVIDENCE
A proof of allegation, it is a means sanctioned by law of ascertaining

in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact ( Sec Rule 128,
Revised Rules on Evidence).
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
May be defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a

judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact, wherein scientific
knowledge is necessary.
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FORENSIC 3
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Consists of tangible objects, such as biological material, fibers and latent

fingerprints. Physical evidence is any object that can connect a victim or
suspect to a crime scene.
Physical evidence refers to any item that comes from a nonliving origin,
while biological evidence always originates from a living being. The most
important kinds of physical evidence are fingerprints, tire marks,
footprints, fibers , paint, and building materials . Biological evidence includes
bloodstains and DNA.
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FORENSIC 3
Evidence may be
a. Direct Evidence. Which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness
testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted, is direct.
b. Indirect Evidence
- Circumstantial Evidence. A kind which seek to establish a conclusion by

inferences from the facts proven.
c. Hearsay. A statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not

from his own personal knowledge or observation.
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FORENSIC 3
FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
a) Real or Autoptic. Evidence address to the sense of the court; not limited to that which
can be known by the sense of vision but extends to those which are perceived by the
sense of hearing, taste, smell or touch.
b) Testimonial Evidence. An expert may be called on the witness stand to answer all
questions pronounced by both parties in the case.
c) Documentary Evidence. Any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is

relevant to the subject matter in dispute (formal written report, expert opinion, certificates
and dispositions).
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FORENSIC 3
PRESERVATION AND SAFEKEEPING OF EVIDENCE

1. Proper chain of custody shall always be observed.
2. All examined pieces of evidence shall be personally turned over by the examiner on case to the
evidence custodian.
3. Evidences shall be properly placed in suitable dry containers for proper preservation and shall be
placed inside the concrete evidence room.
 Firearms evidence shall be kept in a separate evidence room.
 Hazardous evidence ( explosives and other inflammable evidence) are photographed after
examination with its corresponding case number before turning it over to Explosive Ordinance
Disposal Unit(EODU) with proper receipt for safekeeping or disposal.
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FORENSIC 3
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES
 FEBRUARY 14, 1829. Massacre occurred in Chicago. Then a group of public-minded individuals was responsible
for the establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that City which today marked its placed in the historical
annals of police science.
 MARCH 31, 1876. Creation of “Medicos Titulares” by virtue of Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain.
 DECEMBER 15, 1884. Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral waters of
Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist.
 SEPTEMBER 13, 1887. Establishment of “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila”under the inspection of the “Direccion
General de Administracion Civil” and the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”
 1894. “Laboratorio Medico-Legal” was created under the dependency of the judicial branch of the government and
the laboratory functioning under the direction of a physician and assisted by pharmacist-chemist.
 1895. Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory where some original works in chemistry were done.
Unfortunately all prospects of the advancement of the scientific laboratories were paralyzed as a result
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of the
revolution in 1986.
FORENSIC 3
 1899. The first scientific laboratory was established in a small building on the banks of Pasig River with Lt. R.P. Strong of
the US Army was in-charged.
 1901. Actual scientific work began under the initiative of Dean C> Worcester by virtue of Act. No. 156 approved by the Civil
Commission.
 July 1901. the Bureau of Government Laboratories was created for the purpose of performing biological and chemical
examinations as we as for the production of vaccines and sera.
 March 11, 1915. The Department of Legal Medicine was created pursuant to the resolution of the Board of Regents.
 October 14, 1924. Through the passage of Act. No. 3043 by the Philippine Legislature, the same Department of Legal
Medicine became a branch of the Department of Justice at the same time an integral part of the University of the
Philippines.
 December 01, 1937. The “Division of Investigation” was created under Commonwealth Act. No. 181 with two medico-legal
officers and a chemist.
 September 1945. The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) was organized with the Division of Investigation as the
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nucleus. The chemical laboratory of the Medico-Legal Section was expanded into a Forensic Chemistry Division.
FORENSIC 3
 At present there are four (4) distinct laboratories in the Philippines

performing forensic chemical analyses namely:
1. Forensic Chemistry Division of the NBI
2. The Criminal Investigation Laboratory of the Manila Police Department
3. The Criminal Investigation and Detection Laboratory of the Philippine

Constabulary
4. Manila Investigation Service Laboratory
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WITNESS
FORENSIC 3
A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
Under the law, an ordinary witness must have the following qualifications:
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive
2. Perceiving can make known his perception to others
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by law, 123 Rules of Court
The opinion of the witness regarding a question of science, art or trade, where he is skilled
therein, may be received in evidence. This kind of evidence is called the testimony of an
expert witness.
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FORENSIC 3
WITNESS
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN AN ORDINARY AND EXPERT WITNESS
ORDINARY WITNESS EXPERT WITNESS

Can only state what his senses can perceived State what he has perceived and also give his
opinion, deductions or conclusions to his
perception
May not be skilled on the line he is testifying Must be skilled in the art, science or trade he is
testifying
Cannot testify things or fact he has not perceived Testify on things he has not seen by giving his
except those provided for by law opinions, deductions or conclusions on the
statements of facts
 QUALIFICATIONS OF AN EXPERT WITNESS
1. The degree of learning of the witness
2. The basis and logic of his conclusions; and

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3. The other proof of case

BLOOD & BLOODSTAIN
ANALYSIS
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FORENSIC 3
BLOOD
Is a constantly circulating tissue of the body. Consist of formed elements

suspended in a liquid called plasma. The formed elements are the red blood cells or
erythrocytes, the white blood cells or leukocytes and the blood platelets. The average
person has about 5 liters (more than a gallon) of blood.
A liquid called plasma makes up about half of the content of blood. Plasma
contains proteins that help blood to clot, transport substances through the blood, and
perform other functions.
Whole blood contains red cells, white cells, and platelets (~45% of volume)
suspended in blood plasma (~55% of volume).
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FORENSIC 3
BLOOD COMPOSITION
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FORENSIC 3
BLOOD COMPOSITION
 Red Blood Cells (RBCs). Or erythrocytes, give blood its distinctive color. Produced in our bone
marrow, they carry oxygen from our lungs to the rest of our bodies and take carbon dioxide back to our
lungs to be exhaled. There are about one billion red blood cells in two to three drops of blood.
 Serum. Is the fluid and solute component of blood which does not play a role in clotting. It may be
defined as blood plasma without the clotting factors, or as blood with all cells and clotting factors
removed
 White Blood Cells. Or leukocytes, are one of the body’s defenses against disease: some destroy
bacteria and others create antibodies against bacteria and viruses or fight malignant disease. But
while our own white cells help us stay healthy, they can be dangerous to someone who receives
donated blood. That’s because leukocytes may carry viruses that cause immune suppression and
release toxic substances in the recipient.
 Platelets. Or thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell fragments in our blood whose main function is to
stick to the lining of blood vessels and help stop or prevent bleeding. Platelets are made in our bone
marrow.
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 Plasma. Is the liquid portion of blood; our red and white blood cells and platelets are suspended in
plasma as they move throughout our bodies.
FORENSIC 3
IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF BLOOD
 Circumstantial evidence or Corroborative evidence against or in favor

of the perpetrator of the crime
 Evidence in case of disputed parentage
 Determine of cause of death and length of time the victim survived the
attack
 Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant
 The determination of the approximate time the crime was committed
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FORENSIC 3

 Circumstantial evidence is indirect evidence presented in a civil or criminal trial that suggests a
fact is true rather than providing direct proof.
 Examples
1. A suspect is seen running away from a murder scene with a weapon in hand is circumstantial
evidence he committed the murder.
2. Eyewitness testimony that a person was seen fleeing from the scene of a crime.
3. A person’s fingerprints found at the scene of the crime alongside other people’s fingerprints.
4. An audio recording of the defendant stating his or her intent to commit a crime before the alleged
crime actually occurred.
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5. Harassing emails or text messages a defendant sent to a person who was later assaulted.
FORENSIC 3
 Corroborative evidence is additional/separate evidence which connects the accused to

the crime. Corroboration warnings are also used to protect people from being convicted
based on suspect evidence.
 Example
1. If you swear before a judge that you saw a suspect in front of a convenience store at a
certain time, the store's security video might be corroborating evidence for your testimony.
2. If you accuse your neighbor of denting the door of your car, a corresponding dent in her
bumper could be corroborating evidence.
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FORENSIC 3
COLLECTION OF SAMPLE
 Fluid Blood
 Victims of crime in violence
 Parents and child in case of disputed percentage
 Dried Blood or Blood Stains
The points that are usually required to be determined regarding stains are:
a. nature of stain (whether the stains is blood or not)
b. the species (human or animal) from which the blood has come from
c. blood group
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FORENSIC 3
 If materials with blood stains are sent to the laboratory, the
following procedures should be complied:
1. air-dry the material on a clean paper
2. When dried, put the material inside a paper bag, Mark the bag with initials, the date and an
exhibit number before fastening it. Do not bag items if they are not thoroughly dried.
3. If the material has to be folded, cover the stained area with clean paper. Avoid folding
across the stained area.
4. Bloodstained materials should be packaged individually.
5. Collect a comparison standard which is 5 cc of blood each taken from the victim and the
suspect which are placed in separate vials. A qualified physician is tasked with extracting
the blood. The vials are marked with the donor’s name, doctor’s name, the date, exhibit
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number and other pertinent information.
FORENSIC 3
FOUR CHRONOLOGICAL TEST FOR BLOOD

PRELIMINARY
TEST
CONFIRMATORY
BLOOD TYPING TEST
PRECIPITIN 10/24/22 40
TEST
FORENSIC 3
1. PRELIMINARY TEST
 A test that is used to determine presence of blood in a sample or specimen.
1. Benzidine Test
2. Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle-Meyer Test)
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen or Day’s or Schoinbein Test)
4. Leucomalachite Test
5. Luminol Test
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FORENSIC 3
 Benzidine Test – positive is an Intense blue

color. Is an extremely sensitive test that can
be applied to minute stain even when very old
and decomposed stain. The positive result
only indicative that the blood maybe present.
It’s sensitivity is up to 1:300, 000 dilution
Benzidine, also called 1,1'-biphenyl-4,4'-

diamine, is an organic compound with the
formula (C₆H₄NH₂)₂. It is an aromatic amine.
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 Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle-Meyer Test) – Can FORENSIC 3
detect blood in a dilution of 1:80, 000, 000 parts. A

positive result is highly indicative of blood. The
negative result, therefore, valuable and is conclusive as
to the absence of blood. Positive result produces a
rose color or deep pink or permanganate.
Phenolphthalein is an organic compound which is

used medicinally as a cathartic. It has a chemical formula
C20H14O4. It is used in acid-base titration as an indicator.
•How it works: A Phenolphthalein solution is used to show

the possible presence of blood based upon a peroxidase
reaction of hemoglobin which produces a pink color.
•Precautions: This test is presumptive because it has

produced false positives from other substances, such as
saliva, pus, malt extract, vegetable extracts, and the salts 10/24/22 43
of certain heavy metals.

FORENSIC 3
 Guaiacum Test (Van Deen or Day’s or

Schoinbein Test)
One of the first presumptive tests for blood

developed. It relied on guaiacum (a resin isolated
from trees) in combination with hydrogen peroxide.
If a stain turned blue when treated with these
reagents, it was considered a positive result
indicative of blood.
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FORENSIC 3
 LEUCOMALACHITE TEST
Is a presumptive test for blood. The leucomalachite green presumptive test for

blood is a catalytic test which is based on the peroxidase-like activity of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin has the ability to cleave oxygen molecules from H2O2 and catalyze the
reaction from the reduced form of leucomalachite green to the oxidized blue-green
colored product.
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 LUMINOL TEST FORENSIC 3
Luminol is an organic compound which, when oxidized, emits light — a phenomenon known as
chemiluminescence. This is similar to the reactions that fireflies uses to emit light, and to those used
in "glow-sticks" and some roadside emergency lights.
How it works: A chemical compound, known as Luminol, is used in solution or sprayed onto
suspected surfaces. This compound gives a strong blue fluorescence when viewed with a UV light.
The Luminol reacts with hematin, a substance formed as bloodstains age, and produces a
luminescence which is best observed in the dark. The luminescence lasts for several minutes and
can be photographed. Aged bloodstains tend to give more intense and longer-lasting luminescence
than fresh blood, and can be re-sprayed with Luminol to be viewed again.
Precautions: False positives have been observed with the presence of copper salts. Most brass,
bronze, and similar alloys which contain copper gave a false positive reaction, which is important to
consider when dealing with locks, door handles, and other fixtures made of these materials
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FORENSIC 3
LUMINOL TEST
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2. CONFIRMATORY TEST
 Find out the actual proof that a stain is really a blood specimen
1. Microscopic Test
Examiners first have to look for the intact RBC’s. They are readily seen in
cases where blood is fresh or clotted. However, when the bloodstain dries, intact
RBCs are no longer visible.
 FACTORS AFFECTING MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF BLOOD
 Aged stains
 Environmental factors
 Heating 10/24/22 48
 Certain bleached chemicals

1a. Microscopic Examination of Intact RBCs
Microscopic examination of intact RBCs is only used in fresh or

clotted blood samples. As in dried stains, all cellular material is broken down
and becomes unrecognizable.
1b. Microscopic Examination of WBCs
In some cases, looking for WBCs is known to be a viable option for the
forensic examiner. In this, staining of blood extract is done using Leishman
stain. Leishman stain is used as a blood smears agent for differentiating and
identifying the WBCs and malaria parasites.
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2. Microchemical or Microcrystalline Test or Microcrystal Assay Test For
Blood
A chemical test that results in the distinctive morphological development of
microscopic crystals as a sign of blood confirmation. These microscopic heme
crystals can easily be seen from a standard microscope.
 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF MICROCRYSTAL ASSAY TEST
Altogether, they only react with the non-protein part of

Hemoglobin (porphyrins) i.e. only with the oxygen-carrying protein of RBCs.
Different microcrystal assay tests produce different shaped crystals but almost
react the same with Heme hexavalent. Because of Heme’s hexavalent structure, it
can interact with six different sites. Four of the heme sites are acquired by nitrogen
and iron ( Fe+2) bonding.
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The fifth interaction is between the iron atom and the nitrogen of histidine.
Lastly, either bonded with water or oxygen (oxygenated Hb). So, if the blood is dried
or made to dry (by heating), these two binding sites get active to react with different
microcrystal assay reagents.
Moreover, each microcrystal test binds differently with these 2 active sites.
That’s the reason why they form different microstructures as confirmatory signs of
blood.
TWO MAJOR DISADVANTAGES OF MICROCRYSTAL ASSAY TEST

 It is less sensitive than presumptive test, and
 Can’t define whether the blood is human or not
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2a. Teichmann Test. Is a microcrystal confirmatory test for blood, used by forensic
experts. It is also called Hemin or Hematin test. Its positive result is indicated by
the formation of rhombic-brown crystals on the reaction of heme with salt and
glacial acetic acid.
 Other names for Teichman test:

•Hemin Crystal Assay Test
•Hematin Crystal Assay Test
•Ferriprotoporphyrin Chloride Test
•Hematin Chloride Test
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 Principle of Teichmann Crystal Test
The test is based on the reaction of the heme part of blood with NaCl and
glacial acetic acid to form brown-colored rhombic crystals. These prismatic-rhombic-
shaped brown crystals are a sign of the formation of hematin chloride
(ferriprotoporphyrin chloride) crystals.
Generally, a Hemoglobin has six binding non-proteinous sites. Four have
nitrogen coordination bonding to tetrapyrrole ring with iron (Fe 2+). While the fifth bonding
is between the iron atom and nitrogen of the deprotonated proximal histidine residue.
Lastly, it either has a water or oxygen bonding (oxygenated Hb).
When NaCl with glacial acetic acid reacts with heme, a heme derivative
known as Hematin is formed with a central iron in the ferric state (Fe3+). 10/24/22 54
The following is the chemical reaction involved in the Teichmann Assay Test that results in
the formation of Ferriprotoporphyin chloride crystals.
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2b. Takayama Test or Hemochromogen Test
It was first developed by Masaeo Takayama who was a Japanese forensic pathologist in
1912. The test is used as a confirmatory test for blood with characteristic features of pink
feathery crystals of hemochromogen.
How it works: Through the application of a specific solution developed by Takayama,

hemochromogen crystals form by treating a small amount of blood or a stain fragment. The
crystals are observable under a microscope and look like salmon-pink rhomboid crystals.
This test does not require heating, and can be used on older samples.
Precautions: This test requires a relatively large amount of sample (0.1 mg hemoglobin).
Based on the research results this test can still be used to identify dried blood spots on clothing
aged 20 years, and able to detect positively the presence of blood with the formation of pink
crystals. 10/24/22 56
 Principle of Takayama Crystal Test
The principle is based on the formation of hemochromogen (or called pyridine
ferroprotoporphyrin) with a reaction with pyridine.
In general, heme has six bonding sites of which four are attached to classic nitrogen
bonding. While the other two sites also have N bonding but with the organic base of
pyridine. In addition, the central iron atom has a 2+ charge i.e. Fe2+.
This altogether makes a hexa-coordination complex which has feathery pink
structures that are known to be:
•Takayama crystals,
•Ferroprotoporphyrin,
•Pyridine hemochromogen crystals,
•Pyridine ferriprotoporphyrin crystals, or 10/24/22 57
•reduced alkaline haematin crystals.

The following are the reactions involved to form pyridine-hemochromogen
crystals.
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2c. Wagenaar Test
Is a crystal assay confirmatory test for blood that uses a mixed preparation
of acetone and chloride ions to form acetone-chlor-hemin crystals. It was first
developed in 1935 by M. Wagenaar. It is easy to perform and confirms whether
the given fluid/stain is blood or not.
 Principle of Wagenaar Test

The principle of this test depends on the active reaction between acetone,
and chloride ions from hydrochloric acid with the hemin. This allows a combined
reaction among all to form a special Wagenaars crystal or acetone-chlor-chloride
crystals. 10/24/22 59
The following are the reactions involved to form pyridine-hemochromogen
crystals.
10/24/22 60
3. SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Spectroscopic examination of blood (or precisely hemoglobin and
its derivative) is considered to be one of the most reliable confirmatory
tests for both fresh and dried bloodstains. In addition, the analysis is also
non-destructive in nature.
10/24/22 61
PRECIPITIN TEST
Standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal origin.
FOR HUMAN BLOOD, the positive result is a white cloudy line or milky precipitate at the
contact point of the fluids
10/24/22 62
PRECIPITIN TEST
 Serum made in rabbit contains antibodies against human blood
 Crime scene blood is layered on the top of the anti-human serum in a test tube
 If the sample is positive for human blood, a cloudy precipitate will form where the 2
(two) layers meet
10/24/22 63
BLOOD GROUPING/TYPING
Could be a good evidence to prove whether a particular child belongs to a father or a
mother; in the case of disputed parentage this could be very useful.
These are based on the ability of the blood serum of one person to clump or bring
together the red blood cells of certain individuals.
If a suspension of human red cells is mixed with its won serum, or the serum of
similar group, the cells remain even. But if they mixed with serum of another group, the cells
clump or agglutinate. This process is called AGGLUTINATION, which was first observed by
Lansteiner in 1990. This was explained on the basis that the red blood cells (RBC) contain
an antigen or agglutinogen and that the serum contains antibodies or agglutinins.
10/24/22 64
BLOOD GROUPING/TYPING
10/24/22 65
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN
ANALYSIS
10/24/22 66
SEMEN
Also known as seminal fluid, is an organic bodily fluid produced by the
male reproductive organs. It is composed of spermatozoa (sperm) in a semi-
viscous fluid. It is secreted by the gonads (sexual glands) and other sexual
organs of male or hermaphrodic animals and can fertilize the female ovum.
A viscid whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa

suspended in secretion of accessory gland.
10/24/22 67
MORPHOLOGY of a SPERMATOZOA
10/24/22 68
MORPHOLOGY of a SPERMATOZOA
10/24/22 69
CASES WHEREIN SEMEN HAS NO SPERMATOZOA
 Aspermia. A condition in which the male produces no semen at ejaculation.

Aspermia is a very rare condition in which men cannot ejaculate, and thus to
produce a semen sample for example even for seminal analysis.
 Oligospermia. A condition whereby males have abnormally low sperm counts

or few spermatozoa. You are considered to have a low sperm count if you have
fewer than 15 million sperm per milliliter or less than 39 million sperm total per
ejaculate.
 Azoospermia. Is the medical term used when there are no sperm

10/24/22 in the
70
ejaculate.
LOCATION of SEMINAL FLUID SAMPLE
 Semen can be found fresh in:

1. Vaginal contents of the victim
2. Rectal contents of the victim
 Can be found as wet or dried condition /secretion on:

1. Pubic hair
2. Skin around the genitals
 Semen can be found as dry/stains on:

1. Underclothing
2. Bed sheets/bed clothing
10/24/22 71
EXAMINATION FOR SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS
1. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OR VISUAL EXAMINATION

 Color: thick, yellowish white, glairy, opalescent secretion having a
characteristic odor
 Texture: on touch, seminal fluid are starchy
 Appearance: garments sent for forensic examination are usually dirty having
a variety of stains (in natural light some are reddish coloured, while others
are brown, yellow or faint grey) which are often mixed with stains of blood
vaginal discharge, urine or semen.
10/24/22 72
2. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
2a. Florence Test
A minute fragment of the stained garment is cut away, transferred to a slide, and treated with
a drop of distilled water. It is then allowed to soak for two to three minutes after which a small drop of
the reagent (Florence reagent: (PotassiumIodide+Iodine+Water) is added along the edges and
the slide is covered with a watch glass.
Examination is made microscopically for seminal crystals which have the appearance of
hemin crystals. It produces rhomboidal shape dark crystals of choline periodide which are
dark brown, rhombic or needle shaped that appear singly or in clusters.
10/24/22 73
2b. Barberio Test

Was invented by Barberio in 1905. A saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution of picric
acid when added to dried stain extract on a glass slide covered with a coverslip, produces
yellow needle-shaped crystals of spermine picrate. The reaction depends on the
presence of spermine from prostatic secretions.
10/24/22 74
2c. Acid Phosphatase test
The male prostate gland produces and secrets into semen a high amount of
the enzyme acid phosphatase (AP). Using a standard chemical reaction, a forensic
laboratory can analyze a given stain for the presence of this enzyme. In the presence of
Alpha-Naphthyl acid phosphate and Brentamine Fast Blue, AP will produce a dark
purple color in less than a minute (test is also known as the Brentamine spot test).
The shade of this purple color will depend on the activity of the enzyme, which
can be negatively impacted by the age of the stain and the storage conditions. The test
for AP remains highly presumptive due to the fact that vaginal secretions and other bodily
fluids contain detectable levels of this enzyme.
10/24/22 75
3. MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION. Microscopically, detection of spermatozoa is

also considered as confirmatory evidence for the presence of semen in a suspected
stain. In order to conduct microscopic detection, part of the stained garment should be
dissolved in acidulated water in test tube.
4. BIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION. This test was proposed by Farnum in 1901. This test
is also known as spermato-precipitin which is of great value in the identification in
certain cases like bestiality. Only a sector can be determined by this test.
10/24/22 76
In the investigation of crime involving the use of firearms, three most
common problems may arise:
• Determination of whether or not person has fired a gun

• Determination of the probable gunshot range
• Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun
10/24/22 77
10/24/22 78
GUNSHOT RESIDUE (GSR)
 The basic components of ammunition are the case,
primer, powder, and projectile.
 Case: The container that holds all the other

ammunition components together. It's usually made of
brass, steel, or copper.
 Primer: An explosive chemical compound that ignites
the gunpowder when struck by a firing pin. Primer may
be placed either in the rim of the case (rimfire) or in the
center of the base of the case (centerfire).
 Gunpowder: A chemical mixture that burns rapidly
and converts to an expanding gas when ignited.
 Projectile: The object expelled from the barrel. A bullet
is a projectile, usually containing lead, fired through a
handgun barrel. 10/24/22 79
GUNSHOT RESIDUE EXAMINATION
 PRIMERS
To explode a low explosive, flame is required. In guns, the flame is applied

by means of a primer. Primer produces flame on percussion.
A typical primer consists of a case containing an initiating explosive such as

mercury fulminate, an oxidizing agent such as potassium chlorate or barium nitrate
and a fuel such as antimony sulfide. This component is the basis for examination of
GSR particularly primer residues for distance determination.
10/24/22 80
GUNSHOT RESIDUE (GSR)
 COMPONENTS OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
• Primer or lead residue

Is an igniter used to initiate the burning of a propellant
• Gunpowder residue
Also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the
earliest known chemical explosive. Gunshot residue, also known as cartridge discharge residue,
"gunfire residue", or firearm discharge residue, consists of all of the particles that are expelled from
the muzzle of a gun following the discharge of a bullet.

• Elemental component from cartridge cases residues
10/24/22 81
COMPOSITION OF PRIMER
1. Major primer elemental composition: lead (Pb), barium (Ba) or

antimony (Sb)
2. Trace element: aluminum (Al), sulfur (S), tin (Sn), calcium (Ca),
potassium (K), chlorine (Cl) or silicon (Si)
3. Inorganic compound: mercury fulminates (present in most ammunition

manufactured in Eastern Europe and used in Middle East).
10/24/22 82
GUNSHOT RESIDUE
 Gunpowder
Or power charge in a cartridge is the propellant which, when ignited by the

primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet shot charge
through the barrel and to the target.
First invented by the Chinese and Arabs. Roger Bacon, an English Monk first
invented the gunpowder in 1248.
Berthold Schwartz a German Monk for the application of gunpowder to the

propelling of a missile in early 1300s.
10/24/22 83
GUNSHOT RESIDUE
Types of Gunpowder
1. Black Powder. The oldest of the propellant; consists of irregular grains that have either dull
or shiny black surface; when fired it produces large volumes of grayish smoke and
considerable residue left in the barrel.
Composition:
• nitrate, typically potassium nitrate (KNO3), which supplies oxygen for the reaction (75%)
• charcoal, which provides carbon and other fuel for the reaction, simplified as carbon (C); (15%)
• sulfur (S), which, while also serving as a fuel, lowers the temperature required to ignite the mixture,
thereby increasing the rate of combustion (10%)
10/24/22 84
 TYPES OF GUNPOWDER
2. Smokeless Powder. Does not gives off huge cloud of white smoke unlike the
black powder.
 Types of Smokeless Powder
1. single-based. When the basic ingredient is nitrocellulose
2. Double-based. Nitrocellulose + 1 to 40% nitroglycerine
3. Triple-based. Nitrocellulose + nitroglycerine + nitroguanidine
* These can be differentiated using a mass spectrophotometer.
10/24/22 85
Composition of cartridge case, bullet coating and metal jacket:
1. Cartridge and primer cases: BRASS (7:3 COPPER-ZINC)
2. Bullet cores: lead, antimony and few iron alloy
3. Bullet jackets: brass (9:1 copper zinc), some are iron or aluminum
alloy. Some contain nickel
10/24/22 86
• PURPOSE
GSR examinations are performed to help the investigators in
1. determining whether a person has discharged a firearm or not;
2. whether a firearm was discharged or not;
3. And the possible gunshot range or the distance of the shooter to the victim.
Both hands of the suspect as well as those of the victim, the firearms and clothing of the victim
must be examined to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates.
10/24/22 87
 TYPES OF POWDER USED IN THE AMMUNITION OF SMALL FIREARMS
1. Black Powder. This consists of a mixture of carbon (charcoal), sulfur and potassium
nitrate. This mixture is used as an igniter in smokeless gun propellant. It consists of a
mixture of 15% charcoal, 10% sulfur and 75% potassium nitrates. Aluminum is added to
enhance the burning property. When this powder is burned, combustion reaction takes
place.
2KNO3 + 202 + S + C CO2 + SO2 + K2O2 +2NO2
10/24/22 88
TYPES OF POWDER USED IN THE AMMUNITION OF SMALL FIREARMS
2. Smokeless Powder. Mixture consists of cellulose or glycerol nitrate combined with some
stabilizers (nitrobenzene or graphite nitrates, dichromate and oxalates).
Cellulose nitrate: C12H14O4(NO3)6 + 6H2O + 3N2 + 4CO2 + 8CO + H2
Glycerol nitrate: C3H5(NO3)3 + CO2 + H2O +N2 + O2
10/24/22 89
 DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
1. Paraffin Test
2. Lead Residue (detection limit: up to 30 feet and always present on the

opposite sides of the penetrated target)
3. Gunpowder residue examination (detection limit: highly variable up to 20

cm, and up to 21 inches is common)
4. Other examinations
10/24/22 90
 DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
1. Paraffin Test
 History of Paraffin Test/Dermal Nitrate/DPA Test
Originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used paraffin for collecting
gunpowder residues from discharged firearm.
In 1933, Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Identification Laboratory, Mexico City

introduced the test in the USA. In this test, the hands were coated with a layer of
melted paraffin. After cooling, the casts were removed and treated with DPA (5%
DPA in 60% sulfuric acid). 10/24/22 91
 Paraffin Wax
Is a white translucent, tasteless, odorless solid consisting of a mixture

of solid hydrocarbons of high molecular weight. It is insoluble in water and
acids and soluble in benzene, ligroin, warm alcohol, chloroform, turpentine,
carbon disulfide and olive oil. Combustible, auto ignition temperature at 473◦F
(245◦C).
10/24/22 92
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Paraffin Test
A test to determine whether a person fired a gun or not with his bare hands
Positive result – deep blue specks develop when nitrates come in contact with DP reagent
Basis of this test is based on the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder residue
When a warm melted paraffin wax is applied to the hands of alleged shooter, it will cause the pores
of the skin to open and exude the particles of gunpowder residue.
Will appear as blue specks, when DPA is added on the cast. It must be noted that the specks are
generally located on the area of the thumb and forefingers.
10/24/22 93
 PRINCIPLE BEHIND THE PARAFFIN TEST
1. Paraffin Test
As a rule, in paraffin examination, the Forensic Chemist/Chemical officer should personally conduct
the paraffin casting on the alleged shooter. However, a competent laboratory technician under the
supervision of the examiner-on-case may also perform the paraffin casts taken from both hands of
the alleged shooter to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates.
Paraffin casting of the alleged shooter shall only be done within seventy-two (72) hours from the
time of the alleged shooting incident. No person shall be subjected to paraffin casting after the lapse
of the specified period.
Embalmed cadaver who allegedly discharged a firearm no longer be subjected to paraffin
examination because of the impossibility of extracting the gunpowder nitrates from the former’s
hands.
10/24/22 94
• Taking of Paraffin Casts

Materials and Apparatus
- Paraffin wax
- Absorbent cotton
- Bond paper
- Burner
- Beaker or casserole
- Tong
10/24/22 95
Taking of Paraffin Casts
 Procedure
1. Heat the paraffin wax in a container until it melts. Allow cooling for a few minutes so that it will
not burn the skin.
2. Let the subject wash his hands with water without using any soap or detergent. Wipe the
hands of the subject with clean absorbent cotton.
3. Let the subject place his hands on a clean sheet of bond paper with the palms facing
downward and the fingers closed together. Using a spoon or tong with cotton, pour the melted
paraffin wax on the hands of the subject from the thumb and index fingers and the dorsal
portion to the little finger side of the hands.
4. Cover the hands and fingers thoroughly with paraffin wax and place a thin layer of absorbent
cotton to reinforce the wax. 10/24/22 96
5. Pour another layer of the wax until the absorbent cotton has totally absorbed the wax.
TAKING OF PARAFFIN CASTS
6. Duplicate the wax to cool and solidify before peeling them off.
7. When cool, direct the subject to move his fingers first and slowly moving his hands out from the
casts.
8. Place on the bond paper the case number, name of the subject, time and date, technician who
took the cast, witnesses and label the right and left hand.
9. Place another bond paper on top of the paraffin casts and staple together.
10. Place the paraffin casts inside an envelope or a box for proper preservation.
10/24/22 97
• Point to remember
It must be noted that upon casting, the melted paraffin wax penetrates the
minute crevices of the skin thus, the burned gunpowder nitrates which are
embedded on the hands of the shooter are extracted. Upon application of
DPA reagent on the paraffin casts, the appearance of “tailing deep blue
specks” indicates the presence of gunpowder nitrates.
10/24/22 98
• What should be noted in the interpretation of results:
a. Time of Reaction
- Number and characteristic of blue and minute specks
- The location and character of the blue specks
- Distribution and location
a. Different names of this test:
- Lunge’s test
- Diphenylamine test
- Dermal Nitrate test

10/24/22 99
- Gonzales test (named after the one who improved the test)
• Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands? How
long will they stay in the pores?
NONE. Ordinary washing will not remove the nitrates from the pores
of the skin. Usually, gunpowder nitrates that are embedded on the skin stay
for 72 hours. That is why paraffin casting should be conducted within the
specified period.
10/24/22 100
 SUBSTANCES GIVING FALSE POSITIVE RESULT:
1. Fertilizers
2. Explosives
3. Tobacco
4. Urine
5. Certain cosmetics
6. Food sample
7. cigarette
10/24/22 101
• Will these substances not give positive results for paraffin test?
If the hands of the subject person are contaminated with nitrates other
than from gunpowder, one will expect to find smudges or just a smear of blue
color or a conglomeration of blue specks. But nitrates from gunpowder
appear as blue speck with tailings, because these particles were
embedded into the hands with force.
10/24/22 102
• Is paraffin test result a conclusive evidence? Why?
NO. It is just a corroborative evidence which intends to support the

testimony of eyewitness/es. There are instances wherein a person who
actually discharged a firearm would still give a negative result to the paraffin
test because of several factors.
 Question: What are these factors?

1. Types of caliber or ammunition. A hand discharging a revolver is more likely to give a
positive result for gunpowder nitrates compared to that of a hand discharging a pistol. In
an automatic pistol, the chamber is an integral part of the barrel, whereas in the revolver,
the chamber is located in the cylinder and separated from the barrel with airspace
10/24/22 103
 False positive result
a. Contamination or transfer of gunshot residue (GSR) to the body by mishandling or

when the body is heavily contaminated by GSR from previous shooting
b. Washing of hands where samples are collected
c. Type of ammunition such as rifle and shott gun3. Length of the barrel
2. Length of Barrel. In a longer barrel, the hand is farther away from the muzzle end of
the gun. It takes a bullet to travel in more time, thus using up/burning up more, if not all, of
the nitrates. In a short barrel, the bullet travels through the barrel in less time leaving
behind a greater amount of unburned particles.
10/24/22 104
3. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism. Complete combustion of the conversion of all
nitrates into its end product is more likely to occur in a new weapon compared to an old one.
4. Direction of firing. More powder residues will be obtained when the gun is discharged
pointing upward than downward.
5. Wind direction and velocity. In high velocity (strong wind), the powder residues will be
blown in the direction of the wind. One is more likely to be positive for gunpowder nitrates if
there is no wind, or the wind direction is towards the shooter.
6. humidity/percentage moisture in air. Humidity lessens the the extent of combustion

yielding more gunpowder nitrates.
10/24/22 105
8. When 72 hours had already lapsed (3 days)
 False Positive Reaction
smear of blue color or conglomeration of blue specks on both dorsal and

palm aspects of the hand
10/24/22 106
 GUNPOWDER RESIDUE TEST ON FIREARMS
A deep blue color resulting from the reaction of nitrates with the reagent indicates
presence of gunpowder residue. The DPA reagent is also applied to cotton swabbing of the
barrel and chambers of the gun to determine if the firearm was discharged or not.
 ESTABLISHED FORENSIC RULES
a. The Forensic Chemist on case shall conduct the GPR examination without delay
b. After the examination is done, firearm shall be returned to the representative of the
requesting unit if the request is solely for GPR examination, or submitted to the FAID if
ballistic examination is required
10/24/22 107
• GSR Determination( also known as gunshot distance determination)
The method of determining the distance between the firearm and the target. This is
usually based on the distance of the powder patterns or the spread of the shot pattern.
 Distance determination. The method of determining the distance between the

firearm and the target. This is usually based on the distance of the powder patterns
or the spread of the shot pattern.
• Importance of Distance Determination
1. In connection to self-defense pleas
2. In the distinction between murder and suicide. It is possible to state with certainty the
distance of the gun from the target by means of the patterns and residues left on the
10/24/22 108
target. Not only the type of gun, but also the condition and ty-e of ammunition that will
affect this pattern.
10/24/22 109
In ascertaining the gunshot range (GSR) the examiner

should note and observe the following:
1. Entrance and exit holes.
2. Powder residue pattern (burning, singeing, smudging,

tattooing)
10/24/22 110
In ascertaining the gunshot range (GSR) the examiner should note and observe the following:
- Entrance hole contains gunpowder residue (bullet wipe residue) and it is slightly burned
- The diameter of entrance hole is smaller than exit holes.
- Entrance wounds will usually have some kind of discoloration around them; perhaps a black or
grey ring caused by the burning of the gunpowder as it makes contact with the skin.
- The entrance wound is normally smaller and quite symmetrical in comparison to the exit wound,
which can sometimes be ragged with skin, tissue, and muscle and bone damage. Entrance wounds
are often ringed with the residue of gunpowder and cordite – the two substances contained within a
bullet.
10/24/22 111
- The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward.

In ascertaining the gunshot range (GSR) the examiner should note and observe the
following:
- Exit wounds, in comparison, are larger and more irregular. They show outward beveling
of the soft tissue and the margin. Entry wounds will be free of characteristics, including
flame burns and singeing, soiling and redding from gas, as well as tattooing from
unburnt particles and metal scraps. They do not have an abrasion rim or grease collar,
except when the skin is shored against a hard surface.
10/24/22 112
Entry wound of a rifled small arm (revolver) showing Exit wound from a rifled small arm (revolver)
the abrasion collar. Note that the location of the showing larger injury, in comparison with the entry
injury was over the chest, with layers of intervening wound. Also, the injury is irregular in shape, with
10/24/22 113
clothing, leading to loss of soiling and tattooing outward beveling of the margin
 OTHER ENTRANCE HOLE CHARACTERISTICS:
- Angled bullet entrance hole has elongated hole. Bullets that strike a target
at an extreme angle will usually leave an elongated hole. These holes
typically will still have fairly even margins.
- Contact fires have uneven margins but all entrance holes typically have
even margins
- Grazing bullet hole (several small holes created from a folded garment)
10/24/22 114
 CLASSIFICATION OF GUNSHOT DISTANCE
 Burning (direct)
 Singeing (1 to 2 inches)
 Smudging (2 to 8 inches)
 Tattooing (8 to 18 inches)
• The distance of the muzzle of the gun to the target is classified

into three (3):
1. Direct contact
2. 2 inches to 36 inches away 10/24/22 115
3. 36 inches away or more

• Test for GSR
Nitrite
Lead residue chemical examination
• Characteristic of Gunshot wounds
1. direct/contact wounds
- Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
- Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
- The presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance hole
10/24/22 116
2. Wounds inflicted at a distance from 2 to 36 inches
If the gun is discharged closely to the body of the victim, two(2) types of
discoloration will be observed around the hole of the entrance namely:
 Smudging. Produced when the gun is held from about 2 inches to the
maximum of 8 inches.
 Powder tattooing. Black coarsely peppered pattern. Individual specks of

tattooing around the hole are visible by the naked eye.
10/24/22 117
10/24/22 118
• The size of the smudge depends upon the following:
1. Length of the barrel
2. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism
3. Direction of firing
4. Wind direction and velocity
5. Humidity/percentage moisture in air
10/24/22 119
• Take note that the size of the area of powder tattooing will also
depend on the following:
 Caliber
 Powder charge
 Distance of firing
10/24/22 120
3. Wounds inflicted at a Distance of more than 36 inches
- Powder tattooing is seldom present
- Nitrates found will not be sufficient for GSR
 Bullet comparison. Type of examination using a microscope which is

commonly used in comparison of an empty shell containing characteristic
marks from groves of the gun barrel and firing pin of specific firearm used.
10/24/22 121
 Firearm Examination
Methods used to determine the probable time the firearm has been
discharged:
a. Lucas Test
b. Odor (hydrogen sulfide)
c. Odor of the Barrel
d. Presence of Nitrates (by cotton swabbing method)
e. Dermal Nitrate Test

10/24/22 122
• Distance from which the gun has been discharged
Significance
a. In connection with self-defense
b. In the distinction between murder and suicide. It is possible to state with

certainty the distance of the gun from the target by means of the patterns and
residues left on the target. Not only the type of gun, but also the condition
and type of ammunition that will affect this pattern.
10/24/22 123
• Distance from which the gun has been discharged
 Scorching or Singeing
 Other methods of examination
- AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy)
- NAA (Neutron Activation Analysis)
- SEM-DEX (Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray

Analysis)
- ICP-MS (Inductively couled plasma with Mass Spectrophotometer)

10/24/22 124
• Collection, Preservation and Transit of Specimen
a. Clothing removed from the victim should be cautiously and carefully handled to prevent
powder residues from becoming dislodged.
b. Do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment
c. Secure the area to be tested between two layers of heavy cardboard fastened together tightly
to prevent the specimen from becoming postlude about in the transit.
d. Each specimen should be wrapped tightly and marked.
e. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thouroughly before packing.
f. Gun recovered from the scene of the crime and ammunition available should be preserved.
g. Person suspected to have discharged a firearm should be subjected to a paraffin test.

10/24/22 125
EXPLOSIVES AND
EXPLOSION
10/24/22 126
EXPLOSIVE AND EXPLOSION
Any substance that may cause explosion by its sudden decomposition or

combustion.
It is any chemical compound or mixture that under the influence of heat, pressure,
friction or shock, undergoes a sudden chemical change or decomposition.
An explosive is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential

energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the
production of light, heat, sound, and pressure.
10/24/22 127
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
I. ACCORDING TO VELOCITY OF REACTION INVOLVED
a. Low explosives
 classes of explosives
a. Primer (consists generally of lead azide, mercury fulminate)
A unit, package or cartridge of explosives which conaines a detonator and is used o initiate other explosives
b. Igniter (black/gun powder)
Igniter in a gun propellants and safety blasting fuses, delay fuses, signal and distress rockets and in firecrackers are
used in mining and power explosions.
 Composition:
- Potassium nitrate (KNO3 + charcoal + sulfur)
- Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) + charcoal + sulfur
- Sulfurless black powder = KNO3 + charcoal
- Pyrodex = KNO3 + potassium perchlorate

10/24/22 128
- KClO4 + charcoal + sulfur + cyanoguanidine
c. Propellant
Are used in launching projectiles from guns, rockets and missile system. It is a mixture of one or more
energetic materials, plasticizers to improve processing characteristics, stabilizers to increase storage life and
inorganic additives to facilitate handling, ignitability and decrease muzzle mesh
 Kinds of propellants
The most widely used propellants is based on nitrocellulose (NC).

1. Smokeless powder
- Single-based
- Double-based
- Triple-based
2. Nitrates/Nitrites (found in black powder)
10/24/22 129
- salts of nitrates such as KNO3, is used as ingredient in fireworks, gunpowder, blasting powders, matches
(improve burning property).
B. Primary and Initiating Explosives
This kind of explosive is extremely sensitive to detonation by heat, shock, friction and impact. It
detonates without burning like lead azide and mercury fulminate. Used primarily to start an explosion.
Examples: initiators, blasting caps, shock primer and stab

 Characteristics of Primary Explosives
1. can be ignited by a mechanical shock
2. Primary explosives are friction and heat sensitive materials
3. Readily ignited when comes in contact with flame or sparks
C. High Explosives
These have very fast or high detonating rate like dynamites, TNT and cyclonite (RDX). The speed of
its detonation speed equals to 1000m/s and pressure equals to thousands of atmospheres. Such intensity can
break a material into fragments long before its opportunity to move away. 10/24/22 130
II. ACCORDING TO THEIR CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
a. organic explosive. Nitro-containing organic compounds
carbon-nitro (C-NO2) group
Nitrate ester (C-O-NO2) group
Nitramines (C-N-NO2) group
b. inorganic explosive. Salt containing explosives
III. ACCORDING TO THEIR APPLICATION OR DESIGN

a. Military Explosives
composition: 4 (C4) mixtures of RDX= ployisobutylene + di-(2-ethylhexyl)secabate + fuel oil
Amatol = 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) + ammonium nitrate (AN) mixture
Cyclotol = TNT + ammonium picrate 10/24/22 131
Tritonal = TNT + Aluminum

b. Industrial Explosives
a. Dynamites. First explosive invented by Alfred Nobel. It contains up to 75% Nitroglycerin absorbed and
desensitized by 25% diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr)/Oxidizer can be relapsed to increase the energy yield.
b. Ammonium nitrate explosives. (AN-nitro mixture and AN-fuel oil or ANFO)
c. water explosives. Slurries and water gel, explosive emulsions.

- slurries and water gels. Made of aqueous solution of ammonium nitrate and sodium or calcium
nitrate, gelled by guar gum or cross linking agent.
- explosive emulsions – sensitized by air bubbles, introduced by means of hollow glass or plastic
bubbles. The storage time is limited because of the bubbles.
d. Home-made or Improvised explosives. These are improvised explosives usually assembled at home.
These are easy to assemble.
10/24/22 132
e. Explosives with limited use. Include those which were used in the past and became obsolete.
b. SOME COMMON COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES
1. Blasting caps. One of the most commonly found explosives used to set off main charge.
2. Safety Fuse. A time delay device much like a firecracker fuse.
3. Detonating Cord. Usually, this has a white exterior containing PETN. This is used to set off multiple
charges simultaneously.
4. Blasting Agents. A combination of fuel and oxidants such as fuel oil and ammonium nitrate.
5. Boosters. Cylinder shaped with holes in which blasting cap is inserted.
6. Dynamites. Cartridge or sticks typically 1 to 3 inches in diameter and 8 to 24 inches in length.
7. Slurries or gels. Liquid and semi-liquid form of commercial explosive.
8. Black or smokeless powder. Common over the counter explosive used in reloading gun
ammunitions.
10/24/22 133
 SOME COMMON MILITARY EXPLOSIVES
1. Grenades
2. Fuses. Used to initiate explosive in any warhead.

- Types of Fuses
a. Point Detonated (PD). By impact, proximity or delay
b. Variable Time (VT). Detonates when the warhead is at certain distance from the target.
3. Ammunitions
4. Rockets and Missiles
5. Mines
6. Submunitions
7. Air Drop
8. Incendiaries. Devise that burns rather than explode 10/24/22 134
9. Chemical Ordinance. Simple as riot grenade or smoke bomb or as lethal as sarin nerve gas.
 LABORATORY EXAMINATION
Suspected explosives and extracted powder from live bombs or blasting caps
should be examined qualitatively which includes chemical and confirmatory test to
determine the presence of explosive and/or explosive ingredients.
 Why do Law Enforcers need to know about explosives?

1. they often encounter explosives which are found at the construction sites or those
buried underground.
2. Law enforcers encounter explosives at the crime scene
3. They should know some lands may contain toxic chemicals and explosives
ordinance.
10/24/22 135
 EXPLOSION
Is a violent bursting or expansion caused by the release of mechanical, chemical or nuclear energy from a
confined area. This is a phenomenon resulting from a sudden release of energy and this happens so rapidly that a
local accumulation of energy occurs at the site of explosion moving outward in various ways.
 IMPLOSION
Is a similar phenomenon except that the energy released is initially directed inward.
 TYPES OF EXPLOSION
a. Mechanical Explosion. It is a sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting into pieces by internal
pressure, such as those caused by expansion of gas producing high pressure beyond the capacity of the
container. Also known as pressure explosion.
b. Atomic Explosion. Resulting from atomic transformations.
c. Chemical Explosion. A source of explosion wherein the source of energy comes from an explosive
substance such as gunpowder produced through the extremely rapid transformation of the unstable
10/24/22 substances
136
accompanied by the formation of heat.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EXPLOSION OR BRISANCE
a. Method of Initiation
b. Nature of Explosive
c. Size and confinement of the charge (smaller container tends to increase the
temperature from the growing heat of reaction)
d. Physical condition (such as air density and temperature)
NOTE: It must be noted that the term “explosion” should not be limited only to a
phenomenon resulting from atomic transformations wherein the source of energy comes from
an explosive substance. Explosion may be caused by sudden breaking apart, shattering or
bursting into pieces by internal pressure, such as those caused by expansion of gas
10/24/22 137
producing high pressure beyond the capacity of the container.
MECHANISM AND EFFECT OF EXPLOSION
As an explosion produces very rapid growing shockwaves moving outward as it transforms into
a more stable substance. It is accompanied by aloud and sharp report as it liberates great amount of
energy in the form of heat, light and other form of gases.
Chain reaction causes the decomposition and rearrangement of molecule with a greater
release of energy.
EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH
The amount of an explosion can be established based on the amount of energy that is
released.
The absolute measure of explosion size is determined in terms of the energy released by
10/24/22 138
exploding an explosive.
DAMAGE MECHANISM
a. BRISANCE. Is the direct measure of energy transmission from explosion to the target.
This is the most severe because of its shattering action. It is directly proportional to the speed of
decomposition of explosives.
b. SENSITIVITY. Is the effort required to initiate explosive decomposition. The lesser the
effort required, the more sensitive is the explosive.
c. SHOCK WAVE. The damage produced depend on the location of explosion.
d. BLASTWAVE. If the detonation occurs above or just below the surface of the ground,
most of the damage will be given off by the blast, splinters or fragments from the explosive case
that travels as fast as the speed of sound (1000 m/s).
10/24/22 139
 DAMAGE MECHANISM
Blast wave is generated when the atmosphere surrounding the explosion is

forcibly pushed back.
1. Earth Shock. Wave produced when an explosive detonates underground

producing earthquake.
2. Water Shock. Wave produced when an ordnance is detonated under water.
10/24/22 140
 SAFETY PROCEDURE WHEN RESPONDING TO AN EXPLOSION INCIDENT
1. Do not use two-way radios, radar or television transmitting device within 500 feet
(mobile data terminals, cellular phones, EMR given off by these devices can detonate the
item).
2. Notify proper authorities (BFP, Police Department, EOD, etc.)
3. Clean and control the area. The size and type of explosive, terrain, shielding and other
factors will determine the area to be controlled.
4. Stage emergency medical service, Fire and Police units outside the control point.
5. Do not proceed to the suspected explosive. It may have sensitive or acoustic fuses that
function when disturbed or senses target. Use binoculars to observe the area.
6. Reduced potential effect of blast and flying shrapnel by opening doors and windows and
by placing emergency vehicles in the path of the blast wave to act as shield.
10/24/22 141
HAIR
10/24/22 142
HAIR
Hair is the outermost covering of the different parts of the body with the exception of the palm of the hand and
the sole of the foot. It is a filamentous outgrowth of dead cells from the skin found only on mammals. is made up
mostly of complex cross-linked protein polymers. These polymers are very resistant to breaking down. Hair grows
from a tubelike organ in the sublayer of skin (dermis) called a hair follicle.
The average human body has about 5 million hairs! Most of these are fi ne, downlike hairs that cover practically
your entire body. Blond people have the most hair on their head—about 120,000 strands. Redheads have at least
80,000. People with black and brown hair have about 100,000. Hairs are continuously shed and renewed at a rate of
about 100 each 24-hour period from the scalp alone, so it’s not surprising that hair is commonly found in our personal
environment.
The hair’s root is embedded in the follicle. The follicle is linked to the body’s blood supply, so whatever is taken
into the body is distributed to the part of the hair growing at that time. This can be important in analyzing hair for
drugs and poisons. The hair shaft extends out through the outermost layer of skin (epidermis) and ends at the tip.
Human hair ranges in diameter from 25 to 125 micrometers (μm). Coarser hairs grow at a10/24/22 143
slower rate and fall
out less frequently than finer hairs do.
 Forensic Scientists Perform 3 Major Types Of Hair Analysis: (
https://knowledge.carolina.com/interdisciplinary/forensic-hair-analysis-activity/
https://www.encyclopedia.com/sports-and-everyday-life/food-and-drink/food-and-cooking/hair-analysis
1. testing the hair shaft for drugs or nutritional deficiencies in a person’s system (chemical assay)
2. analyzing DNA collected from the root of the hair, and
3. viewing hair under a microscope to determine if it’s from a particular person or animal. They usually study the
hair’s scale pattern and appearance of the medulla to identify a hair of unknown origin
 Scientists study a cast of the hair shaft for determining scale pattern. The arrangement and
shape of hair scales can vary greatly from species to species and are often very distinctive.
Scientists usually classify scales into 1 of 3 categories:
1.Coronal—Completely encircling the hair shaft
2.Spinous—Long, narrow, and not encircling the hair shaft
3.Imbricate—Short, wide, and not encircling the hair shaft 10/24/22 144
HAIR
In the case of human hair, the following can be determined:
1. the race of the person the hair originated from – Negroid, Mongolian and Caucasian
2. the area of the body surface that the hair originated – head, face, chest, axilla and
pubic regions
3. how hair was removed – naturally or forcibly
4. whether the hair was cut with dull or sharp instrument or was crushed or burned
5. usually examination will not permit conclusive determination of age and sex
10/24/22 145
MORPHOLOGY OF A HAIR
10/24/22 146
MORPHOLOGY OF A HAIR
 STRUCTURAL PARTS OF THE HAIR
a. Inner Aspect (the hair shaft)
1. Cuticle. Outermost part which is scale-like in appearance. consists of overlapping scales, with the free ends of the
scales directed toward the tip of the shaft..
2. Cortex. Is made up of keratin molecules aligned parallel to the length of the shaft. In the cortex is the pigment that
makes hair black, brown, yellow, or red. The absence of pigment makes hair gray or white.
3. Medulla. The central core of a hair shaft is a row of cells like a canal running along the center of the cortex (see
Figure 5.6). It may appear dark or translucent depending on whether there is air, liquid, or pigment within it, and it can be
continuous, interrupted, or in pieces (fragmented). Animal hairs show a wide variety of medullar patterns; investigators can use
these patterns to identify some species. The central canal of the hair or the central core of a hair shaft which is composed largely
of air spaces.
b. Outer Aspect
1. Tip. The distal end portion of the hair
10/24/22 147
2. Shaft. Portion of the hair above the surface of the skull

3. Root. Portion that is embedded in the skin
HAIR
 PURPOSE OF HAIR EXAMINATION
The purpose of hair examination are the following:
1. to determine whether the hair in questioned originated from an animal

or human being and the comparison of the questioned and known hairs.
2. to ascertain whether two or more individuals could have come in

contact or whether one or more individuals could have come in contact with
an object.
10/24/22 148
HAIR
 VALUE/SIGNIFANCE OF HAIR AS EVIDENCE
The value of hair as evidence in the criminal cases has been well-recognized.
Tough it is seldom conclusive as evidence, but in conjunction with other details, has
proven to be an essential aid to the investigation.
Hair transfer may occur during any physical contact of the perpetrator with the
victim. Examination of hair is useful in the crimes of violence such as homicide,
sexual assault and aggravated assault where physical contact may have occurred.
10/24/22 149
TEXTILE FIBER
10/24/22 150
FIBER
Fiber is the smallest unit of a textile material that has a length many times
greater than its diameter. It is the smallest unit forming the basis of the textile yarn.
Yarn is composed of numerous fibers which are spun, twisted or drawn together to
prepare the unit for weaving or knitting. In layman’s term, a yarn is also called a
thread.
VALUE OF FIBERS AS EVIDENCE
Whenever a fiber is found on the clothing of the victim matches the fibers of a
suspect’s clothing, it can be a significant event. Matching dyed synthetic fibers or
dyed natural fibers can be very meaningful, whereas, the matching of common fibers
such as white cotton or blue denim cotton would be less significant.
10/24/22 151
FIBER
 FIBER CLASSIFICATION
• Textile fibers can be broadly classified into two categories:
• Natural fibers
- Cotton
- Kapok
- Linen
- Jute
• Man-made fibers
10/24/22 152
QUESTIONED
DOCUMENTS
153
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
The discipline of forensic document examination, often

referred to as “questioned documents,” is frequently associated
with white-collar crimes such as check fraud; however, in practice,
this area of forensic science can be used in a wide array of cases
from medical malpractice to art forgeries to homicides.
10/24/22 154
Principles of Forensic Document Examination
Forensic document examiners often deal with questions of document authenticity. To determine
whether a document is genuine, an examiner may attempt to:
1. confirm who created the document
2. determine the timeframe in which it was created
3. identify the materials used in its preparation or uncover modifications to the original text.
Documents can be examined for evidence of alterations, obliterations, erasures and page
substitutions. Or the examiner can study the methods, materials or machines that created the document,
providing key information that can identify or narrow the possible sources of the document. The ink, paper,
writing tools, ribbons, stamps and seals used in production of the document may all reveal important clues.
The examiner may even discover valuable evidence in a document’s invisible impressions.
155
10/24/22
Forensic examination and comparison of handwriting, which includes hand printing
and signatures, is based on three main principles:
1. Given a sufficient amount of handwriting, no two skilled writers exhibit identical

handwriting features;
2. every person has a range of natural variation to his or her writing;
3. No writer can exceed his or her skill level (i.e., it would not be possible for a
marginally literate person who has only learned to produce very basic hand-printed letters
to execute perfectly formed, highly skilled cursive writing
10/24/22 156
Why and when is forensic document examination used?
Forensic document examiners are called to investigate the

authenticity of documents in situations such as:
forgeries • counterfeiting • identity theft • fraud • suicides • homicides •
bank robberies • kidnappings • extortion • stalking • contested wills •
contested contracts • medical malpractice
10/24/22 157
A common problem brought to

forensic document examiners
involves alterations, especially to
legal documents.
Although the black inks appear the

same in visible light, when subjected to certain
frequencies of infrared light, the ink used to
prepare the genuine check reacts differently
than the ink used to alter the check, making
the alteration obvious.
10/24/22 158
Documents in a suspect’s possession may also

reveal clues from hidden impression evidence (also
known as indented writing) that could link a
suspect to a crime.
Examiners can also identify the materials, inks

and even the type of office equipment or writing
implements used to produce the document. This is
especially useful in fraud cases because these
details can identify the time frame in which a
document was created.
10/24/22 159
HOW IT’S DONE
 EVIDENCE THAT MAY BE EXAMINED
Questioned material may consist of:
identification cards contracts wills
titles and deeds seals stamps bank checks
handwritten correspondence currency and electronic documents
machine-generated documents (such as those from photocopiers, fax machines, and printers),
In some circumstances, graffiti and digital signatures may be examined; however, the client
should be aware that the examination of these types of evidence can be problematic.
Documents that don’t contain visible identifiable marks may contain valuable impression
evidence if they were underneath other documents when the writing was performed. Even
documents that were shredded or burned may prove useful if reconstructed. In addition, writing
instruments, rubber stamps, envelopes and makes/models of office equipment in the suspect’s
possession may be collected by the investigator. In digital documents, evidence could even be
culled from the metadata of electronic signature files, providing information such as who the
author is and when the document was written.
10/24/22 160
HOW IT’S DONE
 COLLECTING THE KNOWN AND UNKNOWN
When conducting examinations, forensic document examiners must have known specimens to
which they compare the material in question. These samples may come from any number of known
sources, such as a particular ink manufacturer or machine. In cases involving handwriting, samples are
usually divided into two types: requested writing specimens and collected writing specimens. Requested
specimens are writings dictated by the investigator to the writer.
These specimens are created under carefully controlled conditions, with the writer being closely
monitored. Collected writing specimens, however, are writings that were completed by the subject
prior to the investigation. Good sources of writing specimens may include items such as cancelled
checks, letters, diaries, signed receipts, medical records, real estate contracts, tax records or other signed
legal documents.
10/24/22 161
 REVEALING TEXT FROM INDENTED IMPRESSIONS
Documents that may contain indented impressions not visible to the naked eye can be
visualized through the use of an Electrostatic Detection Device (EDD) such as the
Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA).
An EDD uses applied charges and toner to visualize areas of indented writing, making
them visible to the eye. The ESDA uses the principle that indented areas of the document carry
less negative charge than surrounding areas. This causes the toner used in the EDD to be
attracted to these areas, revealing indentations that are present. Using this technique, indented
impressions have been recovered from up to seven layers of paper beneath the original
writings.
Research has demonstrated that impressions can be successfully visualized from

documents up to 60 years old, provided the papers are not mishandled or stored properly
10/24/22 162
 DETECTING ALTERATIONS, OBLITERATIONS, ERASURES AND PAGE
SUBSTITUTIONS
Alterations, obliterations and erasures not visible to the human eye can often be detected
through use of photography and other imaging devices that utilize ultraviolet and infrared
wavelengths of light.
Using radiation filtered at various wavelengths, an imaging instrument such as a video

spectral comparator (VSC) can reveal writing that has been added with a different ink, or has been
altered or removed by exploiting variations in the way different inks respond to different
wavelengths of light. For example, under certain light sources combined with an infrared filter, a
document containing information written in ink that has faded over time may be enhanced or
processed to appear darker and therefore more legible.
10/24/22 163
SUBSTITUTIONS
10/24/22 164
SUBSTITUTIONS
Alterations, obliterations and erasures not visible to the human eye can often be detected
through use of photography and other imaging devices that utilize ultraviolet and infrared
wavelengths of light.
Using radiation filtered at various wavelengths, an imaging instrument such as a video

spectral comparator (VSC) can reveal writing that has been added with a different ink, or has been
altered or removed by exploiting variations in the way different inks respond to different
wavelengths of light. For example, under certain light sources combined with an infrared filter, a
document containing information written in ink that has faded over time may be enhanced or
processed to appear darker and therefore more legible.
10/24/22 165
 Determining Individual Dye Components
An examination called liquid chromatography can be conducted to identify the chemical
composition of inks on a document.
In this technique, a small cutting from the questioned document is dissolved in a solvent and
analyzed. This is one of the few destructive techniques employed by the document examiner.
 Typewritten and machine-printed documents

Documents created on a typewriter or printed with ink jet, laser printers, fax machines and
photocopiers may be sourced to a particular make or model, or even to a specific machine. The printing
process used to prepare documents can also be identified. When possible, the examiner should obtain known
standards and any available accessories from the machine in question and the machine itself should be
submitted for examination.
10/24/22 166
 Seals and stamps
Questioned documents bearing rubber stamp impressions, embossed seals, watermarks,
or other mechanically printed marks may be submitted for examination.
When possible, it is best to provide the examiner with any suspected devices associated
with the questioned document that may have been involved in its preparation. This includes writing
instrument(s), papers, or other substrates, rubber stamp(s), sealing devices (such as notary seals),
printing devices or other mechanisms.
10/24/22 167
Examination of handwriting
When a sufficient amount of writing from two different people is closely examined, there are always
identifiable differences. Comparisons of writing samples take into consideration a wide variety of
handwriting characteristics including word and letter spacing, slant or slope, speed, pen position, use of
capitalization, embellishments, legibility, use of punctuation, and proportion of letters and other attributes. . A
trained forensic document examiner can discriminate between natural variations in a writer’s own
handwriting and significant differences denoting different writers.
To conduct handwriting comparisons, the investigator should obtain known writing samples that
are similar in character to the document in question.
a. If it is written in cursive, it should be compared to known cursive writing.
b. If it contains upper- and lower-case letters, the known writings must also contain upper- and lower-
case letters.
10/24/22 168
 Examination of handwriting
Wherever possible, the investigator should also obtain known writing containing similar
combinations of letters and numbers seen in the questioned documents.
For comparison purposes, it is recommended that investigators obtain 20–30 repetitions of

signatures, 15–20 repetitions of bank checks, 3–4 repetitions of entire written letters.
The investigator should also attempt to obtain known writing that is prepared around the
same time period as the questioned writing. This is particularly important in cases involving
writing from young people (up to mid-teens), as writing formation may still be at a developmental
stage, and by elderly persons, as writing may deteriorate with age or illness.
10/24/22 169
 What are the limitations of forensic document examination?
1. Non-original evidence. (such as photocopies or faxes) submitted for examination. Every time
a document is subjected to a copying process, a small amount of information is lost. Original
documents may bear defects, flaws or characteristics that are not reproduced in a copy
2. Insufficient quantity of questioned material. If there is not enough material for an adequate
examination, the examiner will most likely be unable to render a definitive conclusion.
3. Insufficient quality. If the quality of either the questioned document or the known samples is
not sufficient for proper examination, the examiner will likely be unable to render a definitive
conclusion
10/24/22 170
 What are the limitations of forensic document examination?
4. Insufficient known specimens submitted for comparison. This refers to situations where there is not
enough known writing, or the samples are inadequate, poor-quality or machine-printed and not suitable for
comparison.
5. Lack of comparability between the questioned documents and the known samples. An examiner
cannot determine the counterfeiting process by looking at only a photocopy of the suspected counterfeit.
Likewise, the examiner cannot determine if an identification card is fraudulent unless a known standard is
also submitted for comparison.
6. Lack of contemporaneous writings submitted for comparison. It is important to obtain known writing
that is prepared around the same time frame as the questioned writing.
7. Distortion or disguised writing. The writing on the questioned document or the known sample may be
too distorted or disguised.
10/24/22 171

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FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND

Is the application of chemistry to criminal investigation. It is the study of the

 History of Forensic chemistry

List of Contributors behind Forensic Science

 List of Contributors behind Forensic Science

 Includes the chemical side of criminal investigation.

 Analysis of any material quality of which may give rise to legal

 Has invaded other branches of forensic sciences including legal

medicine, ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy and

Forensic chemistry is a part of criminology that deals with the

detection and identification of drugs, explosives, or other

contraband substances that can be found at crime scenes.

Forensic chemists are scientists who analyze and interpret the

evidence and testimony collected from crime scenes. They then

attempt to identify and connect the pieces together. This is done

by using chemical tests on the collected materials. 10/24/22 8

Forensic chemistry plays an important role in solving crimes

and determining if someone has committed a crime or not. It involves

analyzing biological fluids, fibers, hairs, or other evidence to

determine if someone has been involved in any criminal activity.

The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages:

are essential in the investigation of a crim.

 Factors to Consider when collecting specimen for examination:

sample of such foreign substance must be submitted for analysis.

of the expert if the specimen cannot be identified by reason of improper labelling.

2. The actual examination

including the inner wrappings and take note of its descriptions.

received, the purpose of the examination, the finding and conclusion.

4. Court appearance. The written report of a Forensic Chemist is usually supplemented by

complete no matter how urgent it may appear.

quantitative analysis if a quantitative one is possible.

when this happens he should consult those who know better.

 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

A type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the

 ULTRAVIOLET – VISIBLE SPECTROPHOTOMETER (UV-VIS)

The instrument used in ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer which is used for the

 FOURIER TRANSFORM – INFRARED SPECTROMETER (FT-IR)

 HIGH POWERED LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

A proof of allegation, it is a means sanctioned by law of ascertaining

May be defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a

Consists of tangible objects, such as biological material, fibers and latent

- Circumstantial Evidence. A kind which seek to establish a conclusion by

c. Hearsay. A statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not

c) Documentary Evidence. Any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is

PRESERVATION AND SAFEKEEPING OF EVIDENCE

 Firearms evidence shall be kept in a separate evidence room.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES

 At present there are four (4) distinct laboratories in the Philippines

1. Forensic Chemistry Division of the NBI

2. The Criminal Investigation Laboratory of the Manila Police Department

3. The Criminal Investigation and Detection Laboratory of the Philippine

4. Manila Investigation Service Laboratory

A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.

1. He must have the organ and power to perceive

2. Perceiving can make known his perception to others

ORDINARY WITNESS EXPERT WITNESS

 QUALIFICATIONS OF AN EXPERT WITNESS

1. The degree of learning of the witness