Chapter 2: PERFORMANCE

CHARCTERSTICS OF
INSTRUMENTS
Learning objectives

• To study the static performance characteristics of

instruments.

• To study the dynamic performance characteristics

of instruments.

•To study the static error analysis.

Basic components in a measurement system

Basic components in a measurement system are shown below:

Amplification and Conditioning

It is also important to mention that a power supply is an important

element for the entire system.
INSTRUMENTATION CHARACTERISTICS

• Shows the performance of instruments to be used.

• Divided into two categories: static and dynamic
characteristics.
• Static characteristics we mean attributes associated
with static measurements.
• Measurement of quantities which are constant or vary
slowly with time.
• Static characteristics of instruments can broadly be
divided into two categories. Such as Desirable and
undesirable characteristics.
Static characteristics
Static
characteristics

Desirable Undesirable

Accuracy Repeatability linearity Sensitivity Drift Dead zone Static error

Threshold

Hysteresis

Creep

Resolution
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

ACCURACY

– Accuracy determines the closeness of an

instrument reading to the true value of the
measurand.
– Always related to the extent of the wrong
reading/non accuracy.
– Normally shown in percentage of error which
of the full scale reading percentage.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

– Suppose a known voltage of 200V is being

measured by a voltmeter and the successive
readings are 204,205,203 and 205 [Link]
the accuracy is about 2.5%.

– The accuracy can be improved upon by better

calibration of the instrument.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1 bar
with an accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-scale) has a
maximum error of:
5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Notes: It is essential to choose an equipment
which has a suitable operating range.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 - 10 bar
is found to have an error of ± 0.15 bar when
calibrated by the manufacturer.
Calculate :
a. The error percentage of the gauge.
b. The error percentage when the
reading obtained is 2.0 bar.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Answer :
a. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 1.5%
10.0 bar
b. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 7.5 %
2.0 bar

• The gauge is not suitable for use for low range reading.
• Alternative : use gauge with a suitable range.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a
full scale accuracy of ± 5%. Sensor A has a range of 0-
1 bar and Sensor B 0-10 bar. Which gauge is more
suitable to be used if the reading is 0.9 bar?

Answer :
Sensor A :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.05 bar x 100 = ± 5.6%
0.9 bar
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sensor B :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 10 bar = ± 0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.5 bar x 100 = ± 55%
0.9 bar
Conclusion :
Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar
because the error percentage (± 5.6%) is smaller compared
to the percentage error of Sensor B (± 55%).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

PRECISION

• Precision is another term which is often used in

the same connotation as the accuracy. But in
reality precision is different from accuracy.
• An equipment which is precise is not
necessarily accurate.
• Defined as the capability of an instrument to
show the same reading when used each time
(reproducibility of the instrument).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

PRECISION

• To improve the precision of an instrument ,its

design and construction have to be improved
upon.
• Symbolically, if a denotes accuracy ,p the
precision and c the calibration error then

a=p+c
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

PRECISION
• Significant figures convey information regarding
the magnitude of precision of a quantity.
• The simple rules arriving at such figures in
mathematical manipulation of data are now
enumerated.
• Addition and subtraction: after performing
the operation write the result rounded to the
same number of decimal places as the least
accurate figure.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
PRECISION

Example:
• suppose four resistors of values 28.4 , 4.25 , 56.605
and 0.76 ohms are connected in series .what should be
the value for the total resistance?
• Four capacitors of values 45.1uF , 3.22uF , 89.309uF
and 0.48uF are connected in parallel. Find the value of
the equivalent capacitor to the appropriate number of
significant figures?
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

PRECISION
• Multiplication and division : after performing the
operation write the result rounded to the same number
of significant figures as the least accurate number.
Example:
• A current of 3.12A is flowing through a resistor of
53.635 ohm. Find the value of the voltage drop across
the resistor to the appropriate number of significant
figures?
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example : XXX
XXX
X : result
Centre circle : true value

Low accuracy, high precision

XXX
XXXX
XXX
X X

High accuracy, high precision x x

Low accuracy, low precision

Accuracy vs Precision

High accuracy means that the mean is close to the true value,
while high precision means that the standard deviation σ is
small.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

TOLERANCE
• Closely related to accuracy of an equipment
where the accuracy of an equipment is
sometimes referred to in the form of tolerance
limit.
• Defined as the maximum error expected in an
instrument.
• Explains the maximum deviation of an output
component at a certain value.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Range
• The input range of an element is specified by the minimum
and maximum values of I.
• The output range is specified by the minimum and
maximum values of O.
• Thus a pressure transducer may have an input range of 0
to 10,000Pa and an output range of 4 to 20 mA; a
thermocouple may have an input range of 100 to 250 °C
and an output range of 4 to 10 mV.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

SPAN

• Defined as the range of reading between

minimum value and maximum value for the
measurement of an instrument.
• Has a positive value e.g..:
• The range of span of an instrument which has a
reading range of –100°C to 100 °C is 200 °C.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

BIAS
• Constant error which occurs during the measurement of
an instrument.
• This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias reading. This
equipment always gives a reading of 1 kg even without
any load applied. Therefore, if A with a weight of 70 kg
weighs himself, the given reading would be 71 kg. This
would indicate that there is a constant bias of 1 kg to be
corrected.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

LINEARITY
• An element is said to be linear if corresponding values
of I and O lie on a straight line.
• The ideal straight line connects the minimum point
A(I MIN, O MIN) to maximum point B(I MAX, O MAX)

• where:
• K=ideal straight-line slope
• a=ideal straight-line intercept
Linearity

Thus the ideal straight line for the above pressure transducer is:

O(I)=1.6 ×10−3I+4.0

Output
Readings

Measured Quantity
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

SENSIVITY

• Defined as the ratio of change in output towards the change in

input at a steady state condition.

Sensitivity (K) = Δθο

Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in input
Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance
Thermometer changes when the temperature increases.
Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for this equipment is
Ohm/°C.
Most sensitive

Variation of the physical variables

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
Pressure sensor A with a value of 2 bar caused a
deviation of 10 degrees. Therefore, the sensitivity
of the equipment is 5 degrees/bar.

• Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k1 x k2 x k3

x .. x kn

θi k1 k2 k3 θo
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example:
Consider a measuring system consisting of a transducer,
amplifier and a recorder, with sensitivity for each
equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/°C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V

Therefore,
Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3
k = 0.2 mV x 2.0 V x 5.0 mV
°C mV V
k = 2.0 mV/°C
Example :
The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is
as follows:

Input(°C) Output(Ohm)

0 0
100 200
200 400
300 600
400 800

Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.

Answer :
Draw an input versus output graph. From that graph, the
sensitivity is the slope of the graph.
K = Δθο graph = (400-200) ohm = 2 ohm/°C Δθi
slope (200-100) °C
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Non-linearity

• In many cases the straight-line relationship defined in the

previous slide is not obeyed and the element is said to be
non-linear.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Environmental effects
• In general, the output O depends not only on the signal
input I but on environmental inputs such as ambient
temperature, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, supply
voltage, etc.

• There are two main types of environmental input:

• A modifying input IM causes the linear sensitivity of an

element to change. K is the sensitivity at standard conditions
when IM=0. If the input is changed from the standard value,
then IM is the deviation from standard conditions.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

• The sensitivity changes from K to K+KMIM, where KM is

the change in sensitivity for unit change in IM
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

• An interfering input II causes the straight line

intercept or zero bias to change. A is the zero bias at
standard conditions when II =0.

• The zero bias changes from a to a + KIII, where KI is the

change in zero bias for unit change in II.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Hysteresis

For a given value of I, the output O may be different depending

on whether I is increasing or decreasing. Hysteresis is the
difference between these two values of O
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND

Output
Reading

- +

Measured
Variables

Dead Space

• Defined as the range of input reading when there is

no change in output (unresponsive system).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

RESOLUTION

• The smallest change in input reading that can be

traced accurately.
• Given in the form ‘ % of full scale (% fs)’.
• Available in digital instrumentation.
Generalized model of a system element

• If hysteresis and resolution effects are not present in an

element but environmental and non-linear effects are, then
the steady-state output O of the element .

O(I)=KI + a + N(I) + KMIMI + KIII

Generalized model of a system element