INTRODUCTION TO SHIP TECHNOLOGY

LDD 10102

Lecturer:

REMEMBER TO WRITE THE IMPORTANTANT NOTES

SECTION 1- TOPIC 1
The principal oceanographic characteristics that make up the marine environment and their relevance to the design, construction, operation and maintenance of marine vessels
Oceanography in relation to ships / shipping activities The nature of wind, wind description, wind measurement, wind around coast line and the regular global wind. The nature of waves and swells and their principal effects on ships. The nature of tides, current and iceberg and their effects on ships and maritime activities. The six dimension of movement of a floating body and the design of a floating vehicle Type of marine industries and trade

Introduction OCEANOGRAPHY IN RELATION TO SHIPS / SHIPPING ACTIVITIES

Ship is any large floating vessel capable of crossing open waters
(i.e. ocean) and carrying materials and goods from one port to another port. In modern times it usually denotes a vessel of more than 500 tons of displacement.

Oceanography also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth Sciences that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor.

Ships
Ships are a vital element in the modern world. They still carry some 95 per cent of trade. In 1994 there were more than 80,000 ships each with a gross tonnage of 100 or more, representing a gross tonnage of over 450 million in total. Although aircraft have displaced the transatlantic liners, ships still carry large numbers of people on pleasure cruises and on the multiplicity of ferries operating in all areas of the globe. Ships, and other marine structures, are needed to exploit the riches of the deep.

Ships- continued
Although one of the oldest forms of transport, ships, their equipment and their function, are subject to constant evolution. Changes are driven by changing patterns of world trade, by social pressures, by technological improvements in materials, construction techniques and control systems, and by pressure of economics. As an example, technology now provides the ability to build much larger, faster ships and these are adopted to gain the economic advantages those features can confer.

MS Oasis of the Seas, the world's largest passenger ship, was built by South Korean-owned shipbuilding group STX Europe.

75% Of Earth Is Covered By Sea

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Lesson Plan No 1- Wind

What Is Wind?; Effect of wind on ship and wave. The wind is a large-scale movement of air caused by differences in atmospheric pressure between localities. Air under high pressure moves toward areas of low pressure. The greater the difference in pressure, the faster the air flows. Strong winds can add to the resistance a ship experiences and make manoeuvring difficult. Beam wind will make a ship heel and create waves. The wave characteristics depend upon the strength of wind, its duration and the distance over which it acts, which is called its fetch.

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Describing Wind :
Wind is described with direction and speed. The direction of the wind is expressed as the direction from which the wind is blowing. Winds have different levels of speed, such as breeze and gale, depending on how fast they blow. The strength of a wind is classified in broad terms by the Beaufort Wind Scale (Fig.1). The wind velocity varies with height. Beaufort wind speeds are based on the wind speed at a height of 6m.

Devised by British Rear-Admiral, Sir Francis Beaufort in 1805 based on observations of the effects of the wind Beaufort Number (force) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Wind Speed knots under 1 1-3 4-6 7 - 10 11-16 17-21 22-27 28-33 34-40 mph under 1 1-3 4-7 8 - 12 13-18 19-24 25-31 32-38 39-46 Wave Height (feet) 0.25 0.5 - 1 2-3 3 - 5 6-8 9-13 13-19 18-25

WMO* description
Calm Light air Light breeze Gentle breeze Moderate breeze Fresh breeze Strong breeze Near gale Gale

Effects observed on the sea Sea is like a mirror Ripples with appearance of scales; no foam crests Small wavelets; crests of glassy appearance, not breaking Large wavelets; crests begin to break; scattered whitecaps Small waves, becoming longer; numerous whitecaps Moderate waves, taking longer form; many whitecaps; some spray Larger waves forming; whitecaps everywhere; more spray Sea heaps up; white foam from breaking waves begins to be blown in streaks Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of crests begin to break into spindrift; foam is blown in wellmarked streaks High waves; sea begins to roll; dense streaks of foam; spray may begin to reduce visibility Very high waves with overhanging crests; sea takes white appearance as foam is blown in very dense streaks; rolling is heavy and visibility is reduced Exceptionally high waves; sea covered with white foam patches; visibility further reduced Air filled with foam; sea completely white with driving spray; visibility greatly reduced

9
10

41-47
48-55

47-54
55-63

23-32
29-41

Strong gale
Storm

11 12

56-63 64 and over

64-72 73 and over

37-52 45 and over

Violent storm Hurricane

Fig. 1 Beaufort Wind Scale

( note :1 knots = 1.852 kmph)

Gale

Strong gale

Storm

Violent storm

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Beaufort Scale
The scale is primarily used at sea, but it useful to anyone interested in the weather. In 1805, Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort (of the British Navy) devised the following scale of wind velocity. The numbers are arranged in sequential order, with a low value zero to a high value of twelve.

Wind Measurement

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Wind velocities are measured in a horizontal plane, although a definite vertical gust component exists. The term velocity indicates direction and speed, although not all wind velocities measure in both quantities. An anemometer is used to measure speed and the direction of the wind.

A hemispherical cup anemometer of the type invented in 1846 by John Thomas Romney Robinson

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Wind Measurement - continued

Winds are named in accordance with the direction from which they are blowing. E.g. a southerly wind is blowing from the south.

Wind direction is measured in a clockwise direction from North, either in 360o, eg. spanning 45o, 22.5o or 11.25o.

Fig. 2 Wind Direction

North West Wind

South Wind

Wind and Wave characteristics.

The winds affect the maintenance and decay of wave systems as well as their generation. Waves are built by the surface friction between the wind and the water or sea. A short, sharp blow will cause steep, but shallow waves known colloquially as a chop. A wind of longer duration will build up longer, larger waves that are less steep and less inclined to break. There are three basic wind forms experienced around coastline; frontal wind, pressure wind and land and sea breezes.

FRONTAL WIND
cold front

warm front

Frontal wedging: When a warm air mass and a cold air mass collide, you get a front. Remember how low-pressure warm air rises and cold high-pressure air moves into its place? The same reaction happens here, except the two forces slam into each other. The cold air forms a wedge underneath the warm air, allowing it to basically ride up into the troposphere on its back and generate rain clouds. There are four main kinds of fronts, classified by airflow momentum. In a warm front, a warm air mass moves into a cold air mass. In a cold front, the opposite occurs. In a stationary front, neither air mass advances. Think of it as two fronts bumping into each other by accident. In an occluded front, a cold front overtakes a moving warm front, like an army swarming over a fleeing enemy.

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Pressure Winds Formed by the circulation of air around pressure systems, these are the most common winds of our everyday life. They are fairly predictable in that they rotate around high and low pressure systems.

On the weather map the isobars, or lines of pressure, indicate their direction and approximate intensity:
winds circulating clockwise around a high-pressure system in the Northern Hemisphere. winds circulating anti-clockwise around a low-pressure system in the Northern Hemisphere. vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere.

Northern Hemisphere Isobars

The following weather map is from Australia and shows high and low pressure air masses with a front moving across the bottom of the country. There are strong winds (isobars close together) around the coast but not in the middle of the continent, which is typical for this large land mass.

Weather Report (Sattelite Image)

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Land and Sea Breezes In tropical and sub-tropical regions, land and sea breezes occur daily. The land breeze can be virtually ignored since it is quite a gentle offshore zephyr. Refer to online guide Forces and Winds http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/land/crc.rxml

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A: Sea breeze, B: Land breeze

Lake - Sea breeze and atmospheric depth A sea-breeze (or onshore breeze) is a wind from the sea that develops over land near coasts. It is formed by increasing temperature differences between the land and water which create a pressure minimum over the land due to its relative warmth and forces higher pressure, cooler air from the sea to move inland. Generally, air temperature gets cooler relative to nearby locations as one moves closer to a large body of water.[1]

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Global Winds There are regular winds around the world. Some blow the same way all year round such as the Roaring Forties south of Australia. Others change their direction depending upon the season. These winds are very strong and are collectively called trade winds because they have been used by trading ships for thousands of years. In the days of sailing ships, winds were essential, and sailing with the wind behind you was much quicker and easier than trying to sail into a strong head wind. The same principal still applies today even though the engine driven ships do not rely on wind power. However modern ships are so large and have such high square profiles that strong winds have a huge effect on fuel consumption and time taken for a trip. This affects the costs of the journey and in an industry where profit is all important, it is fundamental for all ship owners and masters to be aware of the global winds.

This creates cell-like patterns of wind around the world, as seen in the diagram to the left. However, winds do not simply blow in straight lines from north to south. Instead, they are bent by the spinning of the Earth:

to the right north of the equator, and to the left in the south.

Wind is a vital resource. It turns generators that power cities, provides opportunities for sport, and is affects commerce as ships sail from port to port. Understanding the global wind patterns can be both advantageous and necessary for industry that depend on the wind's energy. To understand the global wind patterns it is best to first view the Earth as a fixed (non rotating) planet.

view the Earth as a fixed (non rotating) planet

The global wind pattern is also known as the "general circulation" and the surface winds of each hemisphere are divided into three wind belts: Polar Easterlies: From 60-90 degrees latitude. Prevailing Westerlies: From 30-60 degrees latitude (aka Westerlies). Tropical Easterlies: From 0-30 degrees latitude (aka Trade Winds).

view the Earth as a rotating) planet.

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Lesson Plan No 2- Wave

Waves Seawater is effectively incompressible so its density does not vary with depth as such. The density of water varies with temperature and salinity; as does its kinematic viscosity. The density of seawater increases with increasing salinity. The term 'sea waves' is applied to waves generated locally by a wind. When waves travel out of the generation area they are called swell waves. Waves carry energy and are random in height, length, and direction. The wave form depends upon depth of water, current and local geographical features.

All deep sea waves follow the same shape regardless of other differences. That shape is a trochoid. A trochoid is defined as the curve traced by a point fixed on a circle as the circle rolls along a straight line. The standard wave form is a trochoidal wave and it is used for all naval architecture and ship structure calculations.

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Trochoidal Wave Form

The waves travel is not due to bodily movement of the whole mass of water, but is simply constant rotation of points in circles in definite positions. This motion applies to every particle in the wave, and is the reason why any floating platform can be unstable.

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Waves - continued

The following definitions are used in describing a wave: Speed or Velocity (V) usually expressed in knots is the speed at which individual waves travel. Length (L) is the horizontal distance between successive crests or successive troughs. Period or Time (T) expressed in seconds is the time interval required for the passage of successive crests or successive troughs past given point. Height (H) is the vertical distance between the top of a crest and the bottom of a trough.

Temperature, Density and Kinematic Viscosity

Temperature oC Density (kg/m3) Kinematic Viscosity (m2/sX106)

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Fresh water 0 10 20 30 999.8 999.6 998.1 995.6

Salt water 1028.0 1026.9 1024.7 1021.7

Fresh water

Salt water 1.828 1.354 1.054 0.849

1.787 1.306 1.004 0.801

The appearance of a rough sea holds little promise that the effect of waves on the behaviour of a ship can be predicted with any degree of certainty. There are two very important effects causing this problem, one, that waves cause a ship to roll and pitch and the other, that waves break on board. These will affect ship motions, shipping water, structural loading and loss of ship speed.

Code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Description of sea Calm (glassy) Calm (rippled) Smooth (wavelets) Slight Moderate Rough Very rough

Wave height (m) 0.00 0.00-0.10 0.10-0.50 0.50-1.25 1.25-2.50 2.50-4.00 4.00-6.00

7
8 9

High
Very high Phenomenal

6.00-9.00
9.00-14.00 >14.00

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Lesson Plan No 3- Tides, Current and

Iceberg
Tides Tide is a flow of a large mass of the sea due to a rise in sea level, which is caused by the gravitational effect of the sun and the moon on the earth. The moon exerts about twice the pull of the sun since it is so much nearer to the earth. The amount of attraction varies inversely as the square of the distance, and the moon attracts the part of the earth, which is nearest to it more strongly than the parts, which are farthest away. When the earth, sun and moon are in line their combined pull produces the largest movement of the water, the spring tides. When the three bodies are at right angles this gives the smallest movement, the neap tides. This happen fortnightly intervals.

Spring tide

Spring tides occur when the sun and moon are directly in line with the earth and their gravitational pulls reinforce each other.

The exceptionally high and low tides that occur at the time of the new moon or the full moon when the sun, moon, and earth are approximately aligned.

Neap tide

A tide that occurs when the difference between high and low tide is least; the lowest level of high tide. Neap tide comes twice a month, in the first and third quarters of the moon.

The effects of tides on maritime activity include: It may only be possible to exit and enter estuaries or bays at a certain time. For example, a large ship can only enter a port at high tide. Launching times. The maximum load the ship can carry. Fishing - because fish follow the current and tides. Design of the waterline of the ship.

High tides needed to clear bars, reefs etc under water.

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Current A current is defined as a body of water moving in a certain direction. Currents, like tides, are controlled by the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun. In summer some currents will flow in one direction, then in winter they will flow the opposite direction. Throughout the worlds oceans, there are a number of significant currents which have been used by ships for thousands of years. Vikings and ancient greeks knew the times of year to travel with the currents and make their sailing/rowing much easier. Modern ship owners use the same information to allow for more economical travel. Fishermen throughout time have also used the currents for their benefit. Fish, large and small, follow the currents as their food sources are also carried along by the currents.

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Icebergs The immersed volume of an iceberg is always greater than the volume above the water and increases with the age of the ice. Only 10% of the real size can be seen on the surface of the water and the other part remains under surface of water. The effects of iceberg on maritime activity include: Sea level / tides the melted ice will increase the sea volume so the sea level will increase flooding the low area nearby. Sea road usually the ship will use the safest way to travel. Material used for ships hull thicker plate metal used for ships hull. Type of ship there are icebreaker ships to break the iceberg to ease the ships passage.

Lesson Plan No 4- The six Dimension of movement of a floating body

Heave Yaw Pitch Sway

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Roll
Surge
(Relevance of oceanography characteristics i.e wave, wind to ship behavior)

Hogging & Sagging

When the vessel is suspended between the crests of a wave equal to its own length, and then; when the vessel is suspended on just one crest at midships. In the first case the hull will tend to sag and this is known as the sagging condition. In the second case, the hull tends to hog and this is known as the hogging condition.

Diagram showing the wreck of the Selendang Ayu, and the doublebottom tank leaks
The ship which is always crossing the oceans will encounter bad weather, rough sea with big waves and experienced hogging and sagging. Due to the weight of cargo onboard the process of hogging and sagging will make the hull of ship crack at the joining part and eventually the ship will be broken into two parts.

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Design of Floating Vehicles

The major requirements of the design of a floating vehicle are; Most importantly being afloat. Structurally withstand the forces of the ocean. Enable cargoes, passengers and crews to be carried safely.

Enable it to operate efficiently and economically.

Provide satisfactory conditions for habitation.
(Relevance of oceanography characteristics i.e sea, wave, wind to ship design)

Lesson Plan No 5- Corrosion

All materials including metals deteriorate. Some deteriorate faster than others, while some deteriorate more than others. This gradual process of deterioration or degradation is called corrosion and it affects the metals used in ship construction. All metals will corrode on contact with water and air. Effective coating and minimisation strategies are essential to the shipbuilding industry and the effective life-span of the components they manufacture.

The reduction or minimisation of corrosion is of vitally significant in determining the potential life span and suitability of materials to be used for shipbuilding, outfitting requirements and structural applications.

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The cause, effect and prevention of corrosion in the maritime environment .

Corrosion Corrosion can be defined as the destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction within its environment. Also, it can be defined as the conversion of metallic iron to a mixture of oxides and other compounds, resulting in a change in appearance and reducing its strength.

To reduce the waste of materials by corrosion, the correct materials must be selected, and protection and corrosion control is needed.

In the example above, zinc plates are used to induce sacrificial corrosion of the below the waterline components such as hull, stern and rudder areas.

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Lesson Plan No 6- Marine Industries

Merchant Industry
Transport of Raw Materials:
Oil- Crude oil is transported by sea in oil tankers Iron Ore- Iron ore is transported by ship in the form of crushed rock. It stows at about 0.4 0.5 m3/tonne and is one of the densest materials carried by ship. Coal - Coal stows at about 1.2 1.4 m3/tonne and is carried mainly in bulk carriers of more than 40,000 dwt. Bauxite- Bauxite stows at about 0.7 1.1 m3/tonne and is carried usually in medium size carriers or multi-deck cargo vessels.

Transport of Manufactured Goods:

Steel, Engineering Components, Electrical and Electronic Components,

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Trade
International trade evolved from the need for different countries to import and export various goods. Approximately three quarters of the worlds trade is moved by sea transport.

There is no country in the world that is totally self sufficient, they all import something.
Some countries, such as Japan, Singapore, Brunei and Papua New Guinea are highly dependent on imported goods.

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Trade Route
Route 1 Blue Atlantic and Indian Oceans - Europe, around Cape of Good Hope (Sth. Africa), around Australia (anti-clockwise), Japan. Route 2 Red Atlantic and Pacific Oceans Europe, around Cape Horn (Argentina), Japan Route 3 Green Atlantic and Pacific Oceans Europe, Panama Canal, Japan Route 4 Pink Atlantic Ocean, Red Sea and Pacific Ocean Europe, Red Sea, Suez Canal (Egypt), India, Asia, Japan Route 5 Blue Dash Atlantic Ocean Europe, United States of America Route 6 Blue Dash Pacific Ocean United States of America, Japan

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Examples of trade by sea:

Raw Material Iron ore From South Africa Australia Scandinavia USA Canada Australia South America Malaysia To Japan USA Europe Malaysia

Grain

Oil

USA

Timber

Indonesia USA Scandinavia

South Africa Eastern Europe USA Australia

Japan Australia
England Malaysia Western Europe Japan

Coal

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The Fishing Industry

The fishing industry provides an important protein-rich source of food for many populations in the world. This is due to the fact that of the land of the world is surrounded by sea making fish readily available. The major Malaysian fishing areas are: Endau, Mersing, Penarik Village, Merchong Village, Pulau Perak, Pulau Labuan, Pulau Mabul, Seas off Kota Kinabalu, Kudat, Miri, Tanjung Karang, Sungai Besar, Bagan Datoh, Lumut and Penang. There are four main countries that have relatively large fishing fleets: Japan Norway Indonesia California(a state of America) - product from deep sea.

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The Naval Defence Industry

Naval Defence vehicles are needed for:

Defence for countries

Defence and protection of main trade routes from the pirates, which rob the merchant ships.

Protection for fishing vessels from pirates

Prevention of fishing vessels trespassing and crossing the countrys fishing border. Protection of offshore rigs and oil platforms.

Oil & Gas Industry

Oil drilling rigs and supply platforms rigs

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Drilling for oil in the sea became a commercial necessity as the land supplies of oil became restricted. Drilling ships and rigs firstly sunk bores to establish the supply. The drilling platform does not sit on the seabed but floats on submerged tanks at the end of legs at each corner of the platform. Propellers all around the rig connect to satellite positioning equipment keep the ship above the bore hole to an accuracy of a few meters. Although in heavy seas drilling must be stopped. When the rig is drilling in a water level of several hundred meters this would be considered a very accurate positioning system. When oil has been located the well head must be tapped to allow the drilling rig to move on. This is done by capping the well head on the sea bed with a device known as a Christmas tree. The Christmas tree is simply a manifold with several valves constructed of stainless steel Oil Production Platform The oil production platform simply contains pumps and tanks for removing the oil to tankers or monitoring flow through a pipeline to shore. The production platform has accommodation for the crews who are flown on and off as tours of duty are completed.