Computed Tomography

By: Yassir Eltayeb Ali Hassan

Computed Tomography
Course content :My load:1. Technical Concepts of X-ray deliver the Lectures for the all Computed Tomography Scanners mentioned point (1- 8) 2. X-ray Source Your load:3. X-ray Detectors 4. Imaging in Computed Prepare Assignments + some Tomography Devices ppt. in some of the 5. The Physics of Data Acquisition mentioned topics 6. Reconstruction Techniques 7. Algebraic Reconstruction Note :- evaluation Techniques 90 % for the exam 8. Evaluation of CT Devices 10 % for the Assignments +ppt

Course content
Data Acquisition Systems
1.
2.

X-ray Sources
1.
2. 3.

3.
4. 5.

First-Generation Scanners Second-Generation Scanners Third-Generation Scanners . Fourth-Generation Scanners. Spiral Scanners

The Physics of X-ray Sources X-ray Tubes Electrical Aspects of Xray Tubes
Detector Matrices Detector Parameters

X-ray Detectors
1. 2.

Course content
Imaging in Computed Tomography Devices
1. 2. Luminance of the Image Discretisation and Quantization of the Image The Display of Reconstructed Images

The Physics of Data Acquisition 1. X-ray Propagation Through

2. 3. 4. Matters The Radon Transform X-ray Collimators Physical Causes of Artifacts in the Reconstructed Image

3.

Course content
Reconstruction Techniques
1. Reconstruction from Parallel-beam Projections Reconstruction from Fan-beam Projections Reconstruction from Spiral Tomography Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques

Evaluation of CT Devices
1. Technical Parameters of CT Devices 2. Phantoms.

2.
3. 4.

ATS Phantom Mostrms Phantom Low-contrast Resolution Phantom Spatial Resolution Phantom. CT Linearity Phantom

Introduction
Tomographic examination is currently one of the basic techniques of medical diagnosis. The significance of tomographic techniques in medicine is clearly demonstrated by the fact that when this type of apparatus in a hospital breaks down, doctors will avoid making a definitive diagnosis until an examination can be carried out in another centre.

Introduction cont.
The discovery of x-ray was made on 8th November 1895 by the German scientist Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen (18451923)

Wilhelm C. Rntgen (a) and the room where he discovered X-rays

Introduction cont.
Rntgen was working on the properties of cathode rays, and in particular on the determination of their range outside the tube During the experiment, he observed something unusual; a screen coated with crystals of barium platinocyanide started to glow. The screen was made of fluorescent paper, which at that time was used routinely to detect ultraviolet radiation. Rntgen noticed that the screen was too far away from the source for the cathode rays to have been the cause of the glow. He was also surprised that tightly covering the tube with cardboard did not eliminate the effect; this contradicted his assumption that the glow, occurring during the electrical discharge inside the tube, was the cause of this phenomenon.

Introduction cont.

circuitry similar to that used in his famous experiment Crookes tube from the time of Rntgen

I have discovered something interesting but I dont know if my observations are correct

Introduction cont.
on 28 December 1895,he was finally certain that the mysterious rays really existed, he sent a report of his research to the Wrzburg Physical Medical Society, in which he wrote:If the discharge of a fairly large induction coil is put through a Hittorf vacuum tube or through a Lenard tube, Crookes tube or other similar apparatus, which has been evacuated, the tube covered with thin, quite tightly fitting, black cardboard, and if the whole apparatus is placed in a completely dark room, then with every discharge a bright flickering is observed on a paper screen coated with barium platinocyanide, placed near the induction coil

Introduction cont.
At report was the famous X-ray picture of a hand, which most probably belonged to Rntgens wife, Bertha The report contained a detailed list of the properties of Xrays. From the point of view of the medical applications of the radiation, the most significant of these were:1. The ability of various materials of the same thickness to transmit X-rays depends to a great extent on their densities 2. The ability of samples of the same material to transmit Xrays depends on their thickness; an increase in thickness of the material decreases the transmission of the rays 3. Photographic plates are sensitive to X-rays

Rntgens success crowned in 1901 with the Nobel Prize, the first in history to be awarded for physics.

Introduction cont.
1. People began to build devices for taking X-ray pictures for medical purposes ,and X-ray research developed so quickly that by 1897, William Morton had taken the first picture of a whole skeleton using X-rays 2. Over the years, the design of X-ray equipment was refined to obtain better and better two-dimensional images of the inside of the human body 3. The American Thomas Alva Edison made a significant contribution to the development of medical imaging techniques. He was, among other things, the author of many improvements to the design of Xray tubes.

Introduction cont.

X-ray room from the early years of radiography

Introduction cont.
4. The German Hermann von Helmholtz investigated the nature of X-rays; he was interested in the mathematical equations describing their properties and in measuring their penetration through different materials. 5. the experiments of Doctor Karol Mayer ( he obtained images using a moving X-ray tube and a stationary film cassette, a method which resembles the process of scanning by computed tomography) 6. Carlo Baese patented a similar imaging method in 1915 for the location of foreign bodies in the human body by use of X-rays. The technique devised by Baese depended on movement of both the tube and film cassette.

The discovery of X-rays was a necessary but insufficient condition for the rise of computed tomography. Its design also depended on the development of computational techniques, which enabled the building of the computer. Allan MacLeod Cormack in 1956, began work on the problem of image reconstruction of X-ray projections. First, he solved the problem theoretically and then confirmed the results of his research experimentally using slices of horsemeat and pork, and apparatus that he had built himself.
The first laboratory tests revealed the great complexity of the technical problems facing the builders :- individual exposures took a long time, so scans took as long as nine days.

Introduction cont.

Introduction cont.
The first experiments were carried out on a human brain prepared in formalin, the brain of a living calf and the kidneys of a pig and it was difficult to differentiate the healthy tissues from the unhealthy Hounsfield finally patented his device in 1968

After about 28 thousand measurements and a process of reconstruction taking about 2.5 hours, an image was obtained with enough contrast to enable By the end of 1973, the first commercial CT scanner was on the market the observation of the differences between the tissues of the brain The resolution of the image was80 x 80 pixels

Laboratory scanner used by G.N. Hounsfield

an image of a preserved brain

Introduction cont.
By the end of 1973, the first commercial CT scanner was on the market market; this was the EMI CT 1000, a development of the Mark I computer

Co-creators of computed tomography: Allan MacLead Cormack (a), Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (b)

Introduction cont.
Nowadays, hospitals in most major cities are equipped with CT devices Computed tomography is used in the diagnosis of many conditions, both chronic and acute

The installation of a CT scanner requires complex preparatory work; The CT room must meet several requirements:1. it must have floors with adequate load-carrying capacity 2. its walls must be constructed of X-ray absorbing material (this is usually a barium plaster) 3. the floor should be lined with material that is both anti-slip and antistatic.

Separate rooms should be provided for the CT scanner and for the radiographers The rooms must be separated from each other by special window-glass (containing lead, Pb), to protect against X-rays. a suite of CT rooms must comply with all the health and welfare regulations, which are typically required for units carrying out medical X-ray examinations

A general view of a CT scanner installation

The CT scanner is composed of two layers: 1. The computer layer. 2. The physical layer. The computer layer consists of the operating system responsible for running the tomography application file management communication with external devices

CT scanner elements
A CT scanner consists of the following main elements:1. a data acquisition system that carries out the X-ray projections 2. a computer to reconstruct the images from the projections and to assist in the analysis of the reconstructed images 3. a variable power supply 4. a monitor to display the routine operation of the computer system and to act as an interactive interface in the diagnosis of the reconstructed images 5. a documentation camera to produce an image on film similar to traditional X-ray images 6. storage devices(data archiving systems) such as tape or disk 7. other elements

CT scanner elements
Data Acquisition Systems:Whatever the differences in design of the different generations of scanners, the main elements remain the same. 1. The gantry into which the patient is moved during the examination. 2. The X-ray tube( the source of the X-rays) 3. The detector array (converts the projection values, in the form of radiation intensities, into electrical quantities) 4. The table (allows the patient to be guided easily into position). The table can be controlled manually before the actual scan begins, but it moves automatically during the scan.

The orthogonal views of a standard design of data acquisition system

Front view

Side view

top view

The scanner
contains a number of sub-systems that drive and control the device enable precise positioning of the patient during the scan as well as facilitate communication with the patient. The design of each of the CT scanner generations contains one of three basic tube-detector projection systems:1. a projection system using a parallel beam of radiation (a parallel-beam system) 2. a system using a beam of radiation in the shape of a fan (a fan-beam system) 3. a system using a beam of radiation in the shape of a cone (a cone-beam system).

First-Generation Scanners
pencil beam or translation/rotation single detector scanners uses a parallel-beam projection system
In this type of scanner, there are two movement of the rigidly coupled tube-detector system:1. a lateral movement to make a single projection 2. a circular movement about the central opening in the gantry to gather all the projections necessary to reconstruct the image

First-Generation Scanners
The acquisition of the individual projections can be either continuous or discrete, but each of these projections is obtained only at a discrete angle of rotation of the projection system This method of scanning is not fast enough Both the single detector and the X-ray tube must travel a distance equal twice the diameter of the gantry opening during each projection

Second-Generation Scanners
1. These second-generation scanners, sometimes called partial fan beam or translation/rotation multiple detector scanners 2. The use of the fan-shaped radiation beam enabled the projections to cover a larger area of the patients body at any one time and resulted in the reduction of the number of projections needed to reconstruct an image of satisfactory quality

Third-Generation Scanners
a projection system with a beam of radiation in the shape of a fan with an angular spread of between 40 and 55 degrees, enough to encompass the whole of the test object Number of detector increased hence the time to acquire a reconstructed image was reduced to about 5 s

Fourth-Generation Scanners
rotate-fixed scanner

The projection system moved in a spiral around the patient In the initial phases of the development of spiral tomography, the scanners used a detector array in shape of an arc of a circle (single-slice spiral computed tomography scanner or SSCT.) In 1998 the multi-slice spiral computed tomography scanner (MSCT) in this type the detector array was made up of between 8 and 34 rows of detectors, making it possible for this design of scanner to obtain four adjacent slices The beam now took the shape of a cone(The first cone-beam spiral CT scanners (CBCT) were put into operation in the years 20012002)
Spiral scanners are currently the standard tomographic equipment used in clinical practice

Spiral Scanners

Spiral Scanners
The main advantages of this design :1. The increased scanning speed (2 min, or even less) 2. The reduction of the impact of collimation inaccuracies on the quality of the reconstructed image. 3. reduction in the power of the X-ray tube 4. Because of the reduced time needed to complete a scan, they can be used to study organs, such as the heart or lungs, to obtain a dynamic tomographic image

Spiral Scanners cotinu.

Rotation of the tube around the The movement of the projection patient combined with a smooth displacement of the patient through system relative to the patient in a spiral scanner the gantry

X-ray Sources
By: Yassir Eltayeb Ali Hassan

X-ray Sources
1. The Physics of X-ray Sources 2. X-ray Tubes 3. Electrical Aspects of X-ray Tubes

The Physics of X-ray Sources

EMS

The Physics of X-ray Sources

The X-ray tube is the fundamental element in the projection system of every CT scanner. The Physics of X-ray Sources: X-rays are generated by physical processes that take place within matter at the atomic level Quanta of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the range (0.01100 ) and in medical applications, in the range of (0.061.2 ) are produced as a consequence of two processes:1. Transition of electrons between the inner shells of an atom 2. The deceleration of charged particles caused by electromagnetic fields within matter Both of these phenomena occur during the generation of X-radiation in X-ray tubes.

X-ray Generation
In electron-impact X-ray sources, the radiation is generated by the deceleration of fast electrons entering a solid metal anode, and consists of waves with a range of wavelengths roughly between The radiation energy depends on the electron velocity, , which in turn depends on the acceleration voltage, Ua, between cathode and anode Acceleration energy is measured in units called electron volts (eV). 1 eV is the energy that an electron will gain if it is accelerated by an electrical potential of one volt. The same unit is used to measure Xray photon energy.

X-ray Generation
Acceleration voltages: In medical diagnostics acceleration voltages are chosen between 25kV and 150 Kv radiation therapy they lie between10kV and 300kV material testing they can reach up to 500kV Electrons are emitted from a filament, which is directly heated to approximately 2400 K to overcome the binding energy of the electrons to the metal of the filament The binding energy, Ev, is due 1. The formation of a dipole layer at the cathode surface. 2. When a free inner electron moves toward the surface of the metal, electrostatic forces prevent the electron from escaping. Due to their thermal energy, electrons are boiled off from the filament. This process is called thermionic emission. The temperature of the metal must be high enough to increase the kinetic energy, Ekin, of the electrons such that
Ekin Ev

X-ray Generation
When a free inner electron moves toward the surface of the metal, electrostatic forces prevent the electron from escaping. However, before reversing its direction, the electron overshoots the outer metal ion layer, and, as a result, an electron is missing inside the metal for charge neutralization. The electric field inside the dipole layer slows down electrons trying to leave the metal (WDipole ) and the a mirror-image force

X-ray production - macroscopic and microscopic

Macroscopic:Electrons are produced by thermionic emission from a hot cathode in an evacuated tube, focused, and accelerated to a target anode by a high voltage The energy acquired is mostly dissipated as heat (typically 97%) and only about 1% appears as X-rays.
The target material must: Microscopic

1. Be able to withstand high temperatures and dissipate heat 2. Have high Z for efficient Xray generation. Typical target materials are tungsten, W, and molybdenum, Mo.

Electrons incident on the target can produce 4 effects at the atomic scale, increasing in probability as the electron energy increases as follows: 1. Outer shell excitation 2. Outer shell ionization 3. Inner shell ionization 4. Bremsstrahlung The first two processes occur at relatively low energies and are unimportant in Medical X-ray.

X-ray production-microscopic view

The entry of accelerated electrons into the anode associated with several processes take place close to the anode surface:As known from classical electrodynamics, acceleration and deceleration of charged particles creates an electric dipole and electromagnetic waves are radiated The processes are:1. Auger process 2. Braking radiation 3. Characteristic radiation 4. Collision with the nucleus

Auger process:entire energy, eUa, of an electron is transformed into a single photon ,one electron is kicked out but there is no x-ray emission .

X-ray production-microscopic view

Braking radiation:When the incident electron passes very close to the atomic nucleus the electron is deflected and loses energy in a form continuous X-ray spectrum

An electron passing close will suffer a stronger interaction than those which pass some distance from the nucleus.

X-ray production-microscopic view

Characteristic radiation:The electron ejects an inner shell electron from the atom. The vacancy causes electrons from higher levels to fall down to occupy the lower levels, emitting characteristic radiation (line spectra). Energy jumps are very specific to the transition occurring and since the energy levels are specific to the particular element in the target of the x-ray tube the line spectrum will be characteristic of that element

X-ray production-microscopic view

Characteristic radiation:K - Jump from L to K shell K - Jump from M to K shell K - Jump from N to K shell, etc. L - Jump from M to L shell L - Jump from N to L shell, etc.
Line spectra from inner shell ionisation Incident electron
Upper Energy Limit

E N E R G Y K Target atom K

L L K

X-ray production-microscopic view

Collision with the nucleus :An incident electron which gives up all its energy to the nucleus (head-on collision) will emit a single x-ray photon with an energy equal to the energy of the incident electron (maximum photon energy)

X-ray production-microscopic view

bremsstrahlung

The probability of the Auger process is constant for all elements. However, the probability of emitting characteristic radiation is given by the ratio
Auger process

characteristic emission

where a is a positive constant

Direct electron nucleus collision

For elements with low atomic numbers, the Auger process dominates, whereas for heavy elements, characteristic emission dominates

X-ray production-microscopic view

The conversion efficiency from kinetic electron energy to x-ray can be described by

where K is a material constant theoretically be when the acceleration voltage, Ua, is given in kV.

X-ray Tubes

X-Ray Tube

X-Ray Tube

X-Ray Tube
Temperature Load:The quantum efficiency of the conversion from kinetic energy into X-ray radiation, within a tungsten anode (W, Z =74), and working with an acceleration voltage of Ua = 140 kV, is roughly in the magnitude of = 0.01 So heat is a very serious problem in the CT application

X-ray Focus and Beam Quality

The size and shape of the X-ray focus The probability of this backscattering seen by the detector determines the effect increases as :1. The atomic number of the anode quality of the image material increases The effective target area (the optical 2. The angle between the surface focus), depends on the orientation of the and the anode rotation axis anode surface that is angulated with decrease respect to the electron beam

A large angle between the incident electron beam and the anode surface is generally not desired because there is a certain probability that the electrons are elastically reflected from the surface and thus do not contribute to Xray generation.

X-ray Focus and Beam Quality

Typically, the X-ray focus diameter for diagnostic tubes is between 0.3 mm and 2 mm In practice, the radiation is homogeneous over 4. For this reason, X-ray tubes have a protective housing with a window for the useful beam to prevent patient and the radiologist from being exposed to an unnecessary dosage

With a flying focus the spatial resolution of the sampling unit can be doubled

X-ray Focus and Beam Quality

self absorption:X-ray beams leaving the anode tangential to the anode surface are reduced in intensity due to the self absorption of photons by the anode, caused by the microscopic roughness of the anode surface
Heel effect:The X-ray intensity decreases gradually with a reduction in the angle, between beam and anode surface

X-ray Focus and Beam Quality

Beam Filtering:low-energy X-ray is more strongly attenuated when passing through matter than high-energy X-ray ,so we need to shift the beam to higher energies using filters
solid-state principle of the anode

Special Tube Designs:-

Directly cooled Straton

References
[1] T.M. Buzug, Computed Tomography From Photon Statistics to Modern Cone-Beam CT, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. [2] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011.

PhotonMatter Interaction

Interactions of X-ray with matter

Beers law of attenuation:We need to understand the 4 basic mechanisms of x-ray matter interaction:1. Coherent Scattering The linear attenuation coefficient, , of the above equation is an additive 2. Photoelectric Effect combination of a scatter coefficient, 3. Compton Scattering s, and an absorption coefficient, , 4. Pair Production When X-rays strike a scintillator crystal a range of physical The attenuation coefficient is phenomena are produced, namely measured in units of [] = Beers 1. The photoelectric effect. law holds for pencil-beam geometry 2. The Compton effect. only, where the scattered radiation is completely removed from the main 3. Pair production. beam.

Interactions of X-ray with matter

Coherent Scattering (classical scattering or elastic scattering):Photoelectric Absorption:-

In this process An X-ray photon is The X-ray photon is deflected by absorbed by the atom, resulting in the ejection of an inner electron electrons in atoms but loses no from the atom with some kinetic energy. energy. The inner vacancy is filled by No absorption or ionization is involved. Low energy photons are either radiative processes or radiationless (Auger) processes. involved, and the process is not important for medical imaging.

Interactions of X-ray with matter

Photoelectric Absorption:1. The primary X-ray photon is completely absorbed (not scattered) 2. Energy of this photon must be > binding energy of electron ejected 3. Probability of photoelectric absorption is 4. Probability of photoelectric absorption is
Photoelectric Absorption:-

The photoelectric effect is most useful in Medical Imaging because :1. dependence gives the contrast mechanism, thus bone (Ca, etc) absorbs far more than soft tissue (C, H, O, N) 2. Photon is absorbed, not scattered However, the high energy photoelectron emitted does some biological damage!

Interactions of X-ray with matter

Compton Scattering :Attenuation due to Compton An incident X-ray photon undergoes scattering is a billiard ball type collision with an (1) Largely independent of Z electron in the medium, in which (2) Proportional to electron density energy and momentum are conserved. The photon is scattered Compton scattering is a is not useful with the loss of some energy to the for Medical Imaging because:electron. The energy loss depends on 1. Scattering degrades image (lowers the scattered angle . resolution and increases noise).
2. It causes hazard for personnel because X-rays can come out at unexpected angles, escaping shielding. 3. It does not even provide a contrast mechanism for different Z, variations in electron density are insufficient for contrast.

Interactions of X-ray with matter

Pair Production This occurs with very high energy used in another medical imaging technique, Positron Emission Tomography photons only, E > 1MeV (PET)
1. Radionuclide in body emits positron. 2. Positron travels a short distance (~1mm) and annihilates an electron. 3. 2 -rays each of energy 511keV are produced, traveling in opposite directions

Pair production is not important in normal X-ray imaging. It is important in radiotherapy

Mass Attenuation Coefficient

It is often convenient to normalise the linear attenuation coefficient as defined above to allow a direct comparison of different materials allowing for variations in density or changes of state

Mass Attenuation Coefficient

Mass attenuation coefficient, l, versus incident photon energy for lead and water
For the diagnostic energy window of CT, E = [50keV140keV], photoelectric absorption is dominant for lead and Compton scattering is dominant for water. Pair production is possible for quantum energies of E 2MeV

Radiation by Compton scattering

Radiation by Compton scattering has a significant contribution to the patients total dose, as well as to the radiologist, in interventional imaging procedures . Therefore, the radiologist must wear a shielding lead apron

The patient becomes a source of radiation himself. For that reason, it is important to know the spatial iso-dose lines of a CT system to be obtained by a standard scattering phantom

Radiation by Compton scattering

a Due to Compton scattering the patient becomes a source of radiation and organs outside the region of examination are subjected to X-rays as well. Radiation protection must be designed on the basis of scatter diagrams, b and c, for a particular CT system

Causes of attenuation

Causes of attenuation: Wavelength of the incident beam, atomic number, mass density, and thickness of the medium

References
[1] T.M. Buzug, Computed Tomography From Photon Statistics to Modern Cone-Beam CT, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. [2] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011.

X-ray Detection

X-ray Detection
Quanta are not measured directly, but are detected via their interaction products (for example, emitted photoelectrons). The overall detection efficiency is primarily determined by:1. The geometric efficiency ( the fill factor) 2. The quantum efficiency ( the capture efficiency) . The geometric efficiency refers to the X-ray sensitive area of the detector as a fraction of the total exposed area The quantum efficiency refers to the fraction of incident quanta that are absorbed and contribute to the signal. The overall detection efficiency is the product of the geometric and the quantum efficiency.

X-ray Detection
Gas Detectors or xenon proportional chambers

in which the electrical output signal is proportional to the intensity of the radiation that ionizes the gas atoms inside micro gap gas chambers (MGC)

X-ray Detection
Gas Detectors or xenon proportional chambers

High voltage of about 140 kV is applied across the electrodes. If an X-ray photon penetrates the detectors window there is a high probability of it ionizing the xenon inside. This Probability is proportional to the length of the chamber and the pressure inside it .

X-ray Detection
Gas Detectors or xenon proportional chambers

Pros:1. No heating occurs after the ionization event 2. Short after glow (takes a short time for them to return to a state of readiness) 3. The efficiency of these detectors is about 60%. 4. Their main advantages are low cost and small size

X-ray Detection
The choice of material is critical Solid-State Scintillator Detectors:and depends on the desired Scintillation detectors make use of the quantum efficiency for the photoelectric effect. Photons of X-rays conversion from X-ray to light and on knock electrons out of their orbit and the time constant for the conversion these, in the presence of a phosphor, process, which determines the produce a flash of light (luminescent afterglow of the detector radiation) in the ultraviolet or visible range of wavelengths Detector arrays in the newer scanners are constructed with scintillation detectors made from materials such as :1. sodium iodide (NaI) doped with thallium (Tl) 2. caesium iodide (CsI) 3. cadmium tungstate (CdWO4) 4. zinc sulphide (ZnS)and other compounds based on rare earth elements,or gadolinium oxysulfide (GD2O2S).

X-ray Detection
The components of a scintillator detector unit:-

1. Scintillation detectors have a high time resolution . This is because the duration of the flash in a Scintillator is extremely short. 2. Because the materials from which Scintillator are made have a large atomic number, these sensors absorb radiation strongly and this affects their detection efficiency. Cons:Because there are two processes involved in this type of measurement, we have to take care that the light contact between the scintillator and the photo-detectors is good enough to maintain an adequate level of detection efficiency

X-ray Detection
Solid-State Flat-Panel Detectors:-

Siemens Medical Solutions

General Electric Medical Systems

Siemens Medical Solutions

Philips Medical Systems

Crystal- and ceramic-based solidstate detectors can be extended to multi-row or multi-slice detector systems The key feature of such multi-row arrays is a maximum effective X-raysensitive area Xenon high-pressure gas detector array systems cannot be easily extended to flat area detector systems all modern multi-slice CT systems are based on solid-state scintillation detectors.

X-ray Detection
Each sensor element consists of a photodiode and a thinfilm transistor (TFT) made of amorphous silicon on a single glass substrate The pixel matrix is coated with an X-ray-sensitive layer. Multichip modules are used as readout electronics at the edge of the detector field
signal conversion chain=[ inside the detector Composition of a digital flat-panel X-ray detector

Solid-State Flat-Panel Detectors:-

X-ray Detection
Solid-State Flat-Panel Detectors:-

.Adigital flat-panel detectormounted on an experimental rotating Carmdevice for testing cone-beamreconstruction algorithms (courtesy ofGeneral ElectricMedical Systems)

X-ray Detection
Detector Parameters:-

The quantum efficiency :-

parameters that describe the quality of measurements achieved by various X-ray detectors 1. quantum efficiency 2. energy resolution 3. afterglow 4. stability over time 5. Inertia(the tendency to maintain its state of rest unless acted upon by an external force) 6. spatial resolution 7. resistance to irradiation damage 8. internal detector noise.

The ratio between the number of quanta registered by the detector and the total number of quanta striking the detector Semiconductor detectors have significantly better quantum efficiencies than xenon proportional chambers. Degradation of the output signal occurs when there are sudden large changes of attenuation coefficient along the path of the rays reaching the detector.

The smaller the width, the higher the energy resolution of the detector and the less image distortion caused by a polychromatic X-ray beam.
Uncovered detector array of the compact Philips Tomoscan EG scanner

Thecesium iodide scintillation layer of a flat-panel detector element (picture takenwith an electron microscope, courtesy of General Electric Medical Systems: Brunst [2002])

CT main systems
1. 2. 3. 4. Imaging system Computer system Display, recording, storage system Data acquisition system

CT system
GANTRY X-RAY TUBE GANTRY CONTROL

DETECTORS
HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR DAC

S/H

ADC

SCAN CONTROLLER

ARRAY PROCESSOR HOST COMPUTER STORAGE

CONSOLE

CT scanner parts
1. Gantry 2. Patient couch The main gantry characteristics are: Aperture most of the scanners have 70cm aperture Tilting range (tilting range of most scanners +30 to -30 degrees) The gantry contain:1. X-ray tube 2. Generator (low voltage design) 3. Collimators 4. Detectors

coordinate system

coordinate system

coordinate system

Iso-center

patient couch
distributed weight limit scanable range (eg. 162cm)

Imaging system components

1. x-ray tube 2. generator high voltage generator 3. collimators 4. filter 5. detectors 6. detector electronics Functions :1. production of x-rays 2. shaping of x-ray beam energy 3. filtering x-ray beam 4. Detecting of x-ray intensities after passing the patient

computer system
1. reconstruction and post processing 2. control of all scanner components 3. control of data acquisition, processing, display. 4. control the data flow direction computer system composed of: 1. Hardware 2. Software (help the CT user to communicate with the CT system) CT operating system:programs that control the hardware components and the overall operation of the CT computer

Host computer
1. control of all components 2. control of data acquisition, processing, and display. 3. data flow direction

Array processor and data acquisition system (das)

Array processor:1. Takes detector measurements form hundreds of projections. 2. Responsible for retrospective reconstruction and post processing of data.

data acquisition system :set of electronics between detectors and host computer. it contains: 1. Amplifier 2. ADC 3. DAC 4. Generator 5. S/H

DAS
GANTRY X-RAY TUBE GANTRY CONTROL

DETECTORS
HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR DAC

S/H

ADC

SCAN CONTROLLER

ARRAY PROCESSOR HOST COMPUTER STORAGE

CONSOLE

References
[1] T.M. Buzug, Computed Tomography From Photon Statistics to Modern Cone-Beam CT, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. [2] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011.

X-ray Propagation Through Matters

X-ray Propagation Through Matters

If we have a beam of monoenergetic photons. One of the fundamental quantities associated with radiation is its intensity I The intensity :The amount of photon energy passing through unit area in unit time When an X-ray beam of intensity I(0) is directed at an object, certain physical processes take place within the object. These processes are responsible for the attenuation of the radiation, mainly due to :1. The photoelectric effect (absorption) 2. Incoherent and coherent scattering linear attenuation coefficient

where h is Plancks constant. V is the frequency of the photon of radiation. S is area. t is time. attenuation coefficient is the link between the physical processes occurring inside a substance as X-rays pass through and the mathematical relationships allowing us to quantify the interaction

X-ray Propagation Through Matters

If we have a heterogeneous sample of material (such as the human body), we should use this equation 1. Allows us to define the spatial structure of the human body in terms of the ability of its individual layers to attenuate radiation. Allow us to distinguish the body tissues in a tomographic image.

2.

the function defining the attenuation coefficient distribution along the path of the radiation.

Linearly increasing attenuation coefficient homogeneous attenuation coefficient

X-ray Propagation Through Matters

The transmission of an X-ray beam through a sample with specific attenuation characteristics is governed by :-

Projection:Is the image produced on the screen by the X-rays falling on it after they have passed through the patients

body. To obtain an image of the crosssection of an object in the plane of where I(0) is the initial X-ray intensity. the projection, we need to identify I(U) is the X-ray intensity after passing parameters for the quantity p 1. The variable s, describing the through a distance U axis perpendicular to the direction l(x, y) is the function defining the spatial of the incident X-ray distribution of the attenuation coefficient 2. The angle at which, at any in the sample given moment, the projection is To obtain a picture of the inside of an object, it made is necessary to collimate the stream of X-rays to create a suitably shaped beam with which to obtain the projection

Projection
s, describing the axis perpendicular to the
direction of the incident X-ray The angle at which the projection is made

Projections carried out at an angle

Projection
Finding the logarithm of both sides of Equation where the parameters vary within the ranges:

This equation is often called the Radon transform we obtain a quantity that has fundamental significance for image reconstruction algorithms The Radon transform is performed physically by the attenuation of the X-rays as they pass through the tissues The problem lies in the dependence of the We can write the variable p and its attenuation function on the spatial variables parameters as follows (x, y).

Projection
The Radon transform:The integration with respect to variable u takes place along a line at a distances from the projection axis. This means that we need to find a formula for converting from the fixed coordinate system (x, y) into the moving system (s, u), which is rotated by an angle with respect to the (x, y) system

The geometry of the parallel-beam scanner

Trigonometric relationships between the moving coordinate system (s, u) and the fixed system (x, y)

The Radon transform

Using the trigonometric conversions given

in order to determine the projection function for a particular point s on the screen and a particular angle of rotation of the scanner, we need to sum the values of the attenuation coefficients of the patients body along the path of the ray that strikes that point on the screen.

The Radon transform

X-ray Collimators in CT
X-ray Collimators:To obtain a useful beam of the desired shape, the X-rays need to be collimated a a parallel beam of radiation

b a fan beam of radiation

The symbol Rd represents the distance of the screen from the main projection axis (the middle of the (x, y) coordinate system) and Rf represents the distance of the focus from the main projection axis

c a beam in the
form of a cone

The image acquisition process model

The image acquisition process can be modeled in signal transmission layers from the X-ray tube to the visualization of the image data on a display

References
[1] T.M. Buzug, Computed Tomography From Photon Statistics to Modern Cone-Beam CT, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. [2] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011.

Artifacts in the Reconstructed Image

Artifacts in CT image
Artifact :- any feature which appears in an image which is not present in the original imaged object. Or distortion or fuzziness of an image caused by manipulation. We can group the origins of these artifacts into four categories: 1. Physics-based artifacts, which result from the physical processes involved in the acquisition of CT data. 2. Patient based artifacts, which are caused by such factors as patient movement or the presence of metallic materials in or on the patient 3.Scanner- based artifacts which result from imperfections in scanner function 4. Helical and multisection artifacts which are produced by the image reconstruction process.

Physics-based Artifacts
Beam Hardening
Cupping Artifacts:X -rays passing through the middle portion of a uniform cylindrical phantom are hardened more than those passing though the edges because they are passing though more material.

Streaks and Dark Bands

Two types of artifact can result from this effect: 1. Cupping artifacts 2. The appearance of dark bands or streaks between dense objects in the image.
In very heterogeneous cross sections, dark bands or streaks can appear between two dense objects in an image

Patient related artifact and Scanner based Artifacts

Scanner based Artifacts:Patient related artifact:Metallic Materials The presence of metal objects in the scan field Patient Motion Patient motion can cause misregistration artifacts Ring Artifacts If one of the detectors is out of calibration

Incomplete Projections
If any portion of the patient lies outside the scan field of view

Physical Causes of Artifacts in the Reconstructed Image

All image reconstruction methods produce post-scanning distortions, due to simplifications made during signal processing some artifacts are resulted from the physical conditions in which the projections were made. Technical and design limitations of the projection system can have a negative impact on the image quality obtained by computed tomography techniques
Some of the more serious physical factors affecting image quality include:

1. The polychromatic nature of the Xray beam 2. The non-zero thickness of the beam 3. Shortcomings in the collimator 4. The presence of metal elements in the patients body 5. Measurement noise

Spectral Nonlinearities
Assumptions about the The Radon transform, is the polychromatic nature of the integral of the attenuation values radiation can be expressed along the path of the ray, but only as follows when the radiation is monochromatic. radiation intensity measured by the individual detectors is express by

where I0(E) is the energy spectrum of the radiation source. U is the distance that the ray travels from the source to the detector. l(x, y, E) is the attenuation of radiation with quantum energy E at a specific point in the test object.

Image nonlinearity
1. Spectral Nonlinearities 2. Beam-width Nonlinearities :- is related to the fact that the beam width of the collimated X-rays is non-zero with respect to the z axis

3. Scatter Nonlinearities
The radiation intensity recorded is the sum of these two components
Components of radiation intensity measurements made at angles 0 and 90 4. Metal Artifacts

Metallic elements in the body form regions of very strong X-ray attenuation when compared to the surrounding soft tissue or even when compared to bones. This is due to the high atomic number of metallic elements

References
[1] T.M. Buzug, Computed Tomography From Photon Statistics to Modern Cone-Beam CT, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. [2] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011. [3] Artifacts in CT: Recognition and Avoidance Julia F. Barrett, MSc Nicholas Keat, MSc

X-ray Photon Statistics

Introduction
Why X-ray Photon Statistics?
1. Statistics is considered in many fields of X-ray signal processing applications 2. Particular reconstruction methods are based on the statistical nature of X-ray quanta 3. The evaluation of image quality is based upon the physically correct model of noise statistics Statistical properties of the X-ray source and on those of the X-ray detector.

Statistical Properties of the X-ray Source

Let N electrons arrive at the active focus volume in the time window [0, T], and, let each of the N electrons have a probability of interacting in the same time interval with one of the target atoms in such a way that an X-ray quantum emerges
collision process between fast electrons and target atoms is statistically independent of all other collisions inside the focus volume The number of emerging X-ray quanta (n) , is
X-ray quanta generation as a statistical counting process

This means that the number of X-ray quanta, N, is a binomially distributed random variable with N out of {0, . . . N}

Statistical Properties of the X-ray Source

Bernoulli distribution:-

The number of fast electrons arriving at the focus volume in the time interval, [0, T], can be approximated via the anode current. Let I = 160mA

Despite of that number , the probability, p, of a successful collision is very small where is the expectation value of the number of X-ray quanta

Statistical Properties of the X-ray Source

substitute
into resulting in

Statistical Properties of the X-ray Source

Taylor expansion for the exponential function

Statistical Properties of the X-ray Detector

be the probability that entering X-ray quanta ionizes a xenon atom of the detector The probability that n quanta are detected, if N quanta enter the detector

Statistical Properties of the X-ray Detector

Shifting the sum index gives

The statistical chain from generation of the quanta inside the X-ray tube, via the attenuation inside the object of interest, to the measurement by the Xray detector, is called a cascaded Poisson process.

Statistical Law of Attenuation

The traveling length, s, of X-ray quanta The transmission probability for the entire through an object of interest is subdivided traveling length, s, is given by into m slices An X-ray quantum arriving at position has the probability

The probability of being absorbed

The transmission probability of the X-ray quantum running through interval i is given by
with

Statistical Law of Attenuation

T he probabilities of X-ray quantum transmission and absorption during traveling through the entire object are given by

with an expectation value

The expectation value of the X-ray quanta number

with p + q = 1. Applying the operator p lp to both sides of the above equation

Moments of the Poisson Distribution

To evaluate the image quality of the CT imaging process quantitatively, one has to discuss the moments of the Poisson distribution function. The first moment of the Poisson distribution is given by An important value for quantitative signal or image quality evaluation is the signal-to-noise ratio, defined as the ratio between signal mean and standard deviation

Where is the expectation value The second central moment is given by

the variance, 2, of the distribution. The square root of the variance is the standard deviation,

Typical circuit of X-ray machine

Typical circuit of X-ray machine

Evaluation of CT Devices

Evaluation of CT Devices
Technical Parameters of CT Devices:When planning the purchase of a scanner, a health service department should carefully analyze the models on the market using standardized parameters that describe both their properties and capabilities They need to strike a balance between the price of the equipment and their expectations of the device
Parameters for the evaluation of the quality of a CT scanner include:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Cycle time Spatial resolution Low-contrast resolution (contrast detail) Uniformity Linearity (sensitometry) Slice thickness Computed tomography dose index (CTDI) Pitch

Evaluation of CT Devices
Cycle time:The total time taken to scan and reconstruct the image. The smaller the cycle time, the greater the chance of avoiding the creation of artifacts caused by patient movement, including physiological movements such as the beating heart or chest movements while breathing Spatial resolution:The minimum area in the image in which changes can be detected The value of this parameter depends on the properties of the detectors and X-ray source used in the scanner Low-contrast resolution (contrast detail):The ability to detect small differences of attenuation coefficient in tissues. It is defined as the ratio between the smallest detectable difference of attenuation coefficient (on the Hounsfield scale) and the average value within an object of a given size

Uniformity:-

Technical Parameters of CT Devices

A measure of the homogeneity of the image This can be calculated from the average attenuation coefficients measured at selected areas of a uniform standard water phantom using the formula:

Using the highest and the smallest average attenuation coefficient from among all the selected areas of the phantom
Linearity (sensitometry) :-

Defines the relationship between the attenuation coefficients measured at the average energy of the scanner and the values assigned to them on the Hounsfield scale for all types of tissue
using the formula:-

is the attenuation coefficient assigned to a given tissue is the attenuation coefficient measured at the average energy of the scanner I is the number of the tissue under consideration

Technical Parameters of CT Devices

Slice thickness:The nominal thickness of the image cross-section. This is often determined using the value of the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the scanner
Computed tomography dose index (CTDI)

This index is measured in milligrays (mGy). It defines what dose a patient absorbs when scanned by a particular CT apparatus

Pitch:This factor is only relevant to spiral scan systems and is the ratio between the displacement of the table with the patient on it and the thickness of the scanned layer for one revolution of the scanner

Phantoms
In order to control or verify the parameters of a scanner, specially developed phantoms are used 1. ATS Phantom 2. Mostrms Phantom 3. Low-contrast Resolution Phantom 4. Spatial Resolution Phantom 5. CT Linearity Phantom 6. Slice Thickness Phantom 7. Phantom Simulating a Skull Bone 8. Phantom Sets

Hounsfield scale
For convenience during diagnosis, the Hounsfield scale has been introduced to define the degree of attenuation of radiation by various substances. The Hounsfield number for a particular tissue is defined relative to the attenuation properties of water, as follows

Hounsfield numbers can range from -1,000 for gases up to a maximum of 3,000 for bone

ATS Phantom
The ATS phantom was first proposed by the American Association of Physicists in Medicine and was designed to test lowcontrast resolution Consist of Plexiglas housing with rows of circular inserts with diameters that change from row to row. These inserts have adjustable attenuation coefficient values, expressed on the Hounsfield scale. The whole of the inside of the phantom is filled with water

During the measurement of low-contrast resolution, the phantom is subjected to radiation of constant, standard intensity.

Mostrms Phantom
This phantom is used to measure the homogeneity of the image In the example of the phantom Shown in Figure the parameter I = 5.

Low-contrast Resolution Phantom

The metal rods, shown immersed in water in the diagram, are arranged in rows, where both the diameter di and the distance between the rods 2di decrease as the index i of the row increases. The low-contrast resolution of the scanner is determined by the smallest diameter of rod, which is visible as a distinct element in the reconstructed image

Spatial Resolution Phantom

Spatial resolution (units: lp/cm) is determined by the use of a phantom to measure the point spread function. Length of stainless steel wire is placed perpendicular to the test cross-section The point spread function, which directly determines the resolution of the scanner, can be calculated using the Fourier transform of the reconstructed image. Because the diameter of the wire is small in relation to the size of the pixels, it can be neglected in the calculation.

CT Linearity Phantom
The phantom described here is used to assess the linearity of the tomographic image as defined The five materials used here are selected according to the Hounsfield number assigned to them. The Hounsfield numbers are chosen to cover the widest possible range of the scale

The relationship between the Hounsfield numbers assigned to these materials and their attenuation coefficients measured by the scanner (at the average radiation energy)

Slice Thickness Phantom

This phantom has two aluminum strips of thickness b = 0.6 mm inclined to the reconstruction plane at a fixed angle (this angle is usually either 30 or 45). Figure b shows how the length d of the shadow of one of the metal strips, which is visible in the tomographic image, is used to calculate the thickness of the cross-section D, using the formula

The absolute minimum slice thickness that can be measured using this method is determined by the relationship

Slice Thickness Phantom continue.

In the new designs of scanner, slice thicknesses can be <0.4 mm, the method of calculating D had to be modified. The modifications included :1.changes to the material used to make the metal strips in the phantom 2. The thickness of the strips. 3.The angle at which they are set. The strips in modern designs of phantom are made from titanium, which gives better contrast; their thickness is 0.05 mm and the angle = 8 The minimum slice thickness, which can be determined with a phantom like this, is Dmin 0.1 mm.

Phantom Simulating a Skull Bone

Filters are often used in reconstruction algorithms to compensate for the distortions to the image at the boundary between the skull and the brain. The use of the phantoms described above would cause these filters to have an adverse effect on the reconstructed image in the absence of a substitute for the skull bone. For that reason, a Teflon rim is used

A phantom simulating t he skull bone

How the phantom is used to simulate the skull bone

Phantom Sets
In practice, phantom sets composed of several sections are often used; each section may contain several (usually two) of the basic phantoms described above

A set like this enables quality control tests to be carried out on the whole measurement system of The CT scanner The X-ray tube The detectors and the instrumentation.

A phantom set

References
[1] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011.

Scan Planning
scan planning plays an important role in clinical applications of CT since the scans cannot arbitrarily be repeated due to the system-inherent radiation dose to which the patient will be exposed The first and most important step in planning a CT scan is the acquisition of an overview scan, which is called a topogram, scanogram, scout view or pilot scan To acquire this overview scan, the rotation of the sampling unit is stopped at a desired angle. In principle, any angulation is possible, but typical positions are anteriorposterior (a.p.), i.e., X-ray examination from the patients front to the patients back, and lateral, i.e., X-ray examination from the side

SPECIFICATION AND ACCEPTANCE TESTING OF COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY SCANNERS

THE BID REQUEST

The acceptance test is a series of measurements performed by the physicist to verify that a CT system conforms to vendor technical specifications or to specifications mutually agreed upon by buyer and vendor Proviso for acceptance testing is written into the bid request which indicates who will do the testing what tests will be performed what level of performance is acceptable to the buyer THE BID REQUEST Is a document submitted by the purchaser to potential CT system vendors which lists, in generic terms, system capabilities desired by the purchaser and any special business terms or conditions required

THE BID REQUEST

typical bid request should contain the following: A full set of technical specifications detailing system performance in terms of spatial resolution, image noise and radiation dose for all standard scan settings. A set of typical multi format images annotated with scan parameters used, and showing anatomy of clinical interest to the purchaser.

A list of local purchasers to facilitate site visits. Typical architectural layouts indicating space, weight, electrical, and thermal requirements. Typical radiation exposure levels around the CT gantry for shielding design. Details of warranties, service contracts, and projected costs of contra and non-contract service over the first three years after warranty

EVALUATING NEEDS OF THE USER

Specific clinical needs to be determined include:

1. patient load, type of patients examined (e.g., ambulatory, inpatient, adult, pediatric) 2. Principal kinds of examinations anticipated. This provides insight into: 1. image archiving requirements 2. shielding design

3.

has an impact on system cost.

More expensive systems may have more detectors I. more powerful computers II. more flexible software III. faster scan and reconstruction times IV. better spatial resolution

Options such as separate diagnostic consoles multi format cameras fast-cycle reconstructions image archiving devices special purpose software can add significantly to the total price. A careful technical evaluation can provide maximum value to the purchaser by matching the system configuration to actual needs

EQUIPMENT SELECTION
After bids are received, technical differences between them can be simplified by tabulating technical specifications of each scanner for a side-by-side comparison. This should be accompanied by a non-technical commentary which relates relative importance of specifications to the users specific needs. Trade-offs of performance levels should be pointed out Trade-off is a situation that involves losing one quality or aspect of something in return for gaining another quality or aspect

SPECIFICATION WRITING
SPECIFICATION WRITING Once the purchase decision is made, the buyer may request that the physicist write performance specifications into the purchase agreement The following should be kept in mind: 1. Ensure that specifications are within the performance capability of the CT system in question. 2. Be certain that a reliable, acceptable means of measurement is available for each specification. 3. measurement methods or reference standard techniques that allow the manufacturer to know how a given parameter is tested.

Shielding Design
consideration must be given to protection of personnel and others in the immediate vicinity of the CT system Manufacturers can provide measured exposure levels in the gantry vicinity under average scan conditions typically in the form of isoexposure contours Isoexposure contours It shows the measurements of exposure per scan in air while scanning a cylindrical phantom Isoexposure contours may be used directly in shielding design, in which case two drawings are necessary, one in the horizontal plane (floor plan) and one in the Typical isoexposure contours around CT gantry during scanning. vertical plane (elevation plan)

(Generally available from scanner manufacturer).

Shielding Design
1. Secondary radiation is assumed to be isotropically emanating from the center of the gantry axis (isocenter) 2. The assumed exposure rate (X) is measured at one meter from the gantry isocenter in mGy/mA-min (air kerma) 3. The worst case exposure rate is at an angle of roughly 45 to the gantry axis 4. Value of X normalized to one meter for both body and head scan are listed in a table

Normalized scatter air kerma rates (Xs)

Table1 shows: Normalized scatter air kerma rates (Xs) in mGy/mA-min measured at 1 m for selected CT scanners

Shielding Design
The required barrier transmission (B), at any location to be shielded, can then be obtained from the expression

Workload can be calculated in mA-minutes/week as:

Workloads for 120-130 kV machines may range from 5,000 to as high as 20,000 mA-min/week for heavily used systems

Shielding Design
Given the barrier transmission (B) the required shielding thickness of a specific material can be computed from the formalism of Archer

where t is the required barrier thickness (in mm for lead, cm for all other materials) B is the barrier transmission, While a, b, and g are fitting constants

Table1 shows: Normalized scatter air kerma rates (Xs) in mGy/mA-min measured at 1 m for selected CT scanners

Table 2 shows : Shielding coefficients for computing thickness of shielding material required for Equation

Example
A control area is 2.5 m from the gantry isocenter for a system where heavy use is anticipated at a tube potential of 140 kVp. Assuming a workload of 20,000 mAmin/wk, a (conservative) design air kerma of 0.1 mGy/wk, an occupancy factor of 1 and Xs (Table 1, GE 9800B, 42 cm phantom) of @1 m, the barrier transmission. Calculate the required barrier transmission (B) and the required shielding thickness (t)?

PerformanceEvaluation
Performance of any scanner varies with operating conditions The acceptance test must acquire sufficient data to adequately characterize the systems performance. Before beginning, consider the following: 1. Review clinical needs, scanner specifications and design principles to determine the most important performance variables to test 2. Devise a short list of 4-5 standard scanning conditions, either suggested by the manufacturer or by local users ( standard body, standard head, spine, pediatric body and pediatric head, as appropriate to the installation) 3. Determine a few more scanning conditions that test performance limits, i.e., the fastest scan, the highest resolution scan, the lowest noise scan, etc. 4. Determine both benefits and trade-offs of a given protocol Performance may also be influenced by the properties of the computer system, and by major electromechanical components, i.e., x-ray generator, collimators, alignment lights, patient table, etc. )

Performance of electromechanical components

CT scanners incorporate specialized x-ray generators and a number of electromechanical components designed to localize and define the scan plane to the patients anatomy. This category includes : gantry and patient table motions scan alignment lights and x-ray beam collimators. Since the x-ray generator and electromechanical components are subject to miscalibration, mechanical misalignment or other problems, careful testing is required Scan Localization Light Accuracy:To test harmony of scan localization light and scan plane. Tools needed: Sheet of therapy localization film, film backing plate, adhesive tape and sharp pin or needle. Method:
Tape film to backing plate with film edges aligned parallel to plate edges. If both internal and external alignment lights are provided position plate so that both lights are visible on film surface (if possible). Turn on internal alignment light and mark light location on film by piercing film pack with pin at several points along middle of illuminated Line Expose film at inner light location using narrowest slice setting at ~50-100 mAs, 120-140 kVp. For external light, increment table to light position under software control and repeat scan Measure alignment error from holes in processed film to midpoint of radiation field Error should not exceed 2.0 mm.

Performance of electromechanical components

Alignment of Table to Gantry:To ensure that long axis of table is horizontally aligned with a vertical line through the scanner rotational axis. Tools needed: measure tape and adhesive tape Method: locate table midline with ruler and mark on tape Locate vertical midline of gantry opening with measure tape Mark gantry midline on adhesive tape on tabletop Measure horizontal inaccuracy from marks on adhesive tape In absence of manufacturers specifications, gantry midline should be within 5 mm of table midline.

Table/Gantry Tilt:To determine accuracy of tilt indicators To ensure that specified tilt can be accomplished under clinical conditions. Tools needed: Carpenters spirit level, protractor, adhesive tape, sheet of therapy localization film, film backing plate, and tape measure with millimeter ruling Method: Tape film centered to side of the film plate, with film edge carefully aligned to edge of plate. Align plate with long axis of table, parallel to vertical plane (verify with spirit level). Fix in position with tape extending from table edge to table edge across top of plate.

spirit level

protractor

Performance of electromechanical components

Table/Gantry Tilt:Method continue. For tables tilting in horizontal plane: Place plate flat on tabletop with plate Ideally, gantry clearance at the extremes edge aligned to table long axis; tape into of tilt should permit the scanning of at position least a 30 cm patient Expose the film at inner light location using narrowest slice setting at ~ 50-100 mAs, 120-140 kVp. Tilt gantry (table) to one extreme from operators console: record angle indicated on gantry (table) and operators console. Repeat exposure. Measure gantry clearance from closest point on gantry to table midline Tilt to opposite extreme, record indicated angles, repeat exposure and clearance measurement. In absence of manufacturers specifications, tilt inaccuracies should be less than 3

Performance of the X-ray Generator Typical CT systems operate at relatively few

Kilo voltage measurements are tube potential settings since each requires particularly difficult to perform in the different calibration data for image clinical setting and are subject to reconstruction. significant sources of measurement error. Tube currents range from 10-600 mA, with Invasive measurements with a voltage mAs values typically between 100-1000 divider should be done only with mAs. cooperation of a qualified service Non-pulsed x-ray generators (in second, engineer fourth and some third generation designs) allow tube current and exposure (scan) time to be varied independently Pulsed generators (some third generation systems) may vary mAs by changing pulse width, tube current, or number of pulses per scan. Non-pulsed scanners may incorporate a beam shutter to avoid spectral problems during rise and fall of the high voltage waveform, the high voltage duration may be longer than the exposure time

References
[1]
T.M. Buzug, Computed Tomography From Photon Statistics to Modern Cone-Beam CT, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. [2] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011. [3] Specification and acceptance testing of Computed Tomography Scanners , Published for the American Association of Physicists in Medicine by the American Institute of Physics,report No 3 , May 1993

Reconstruction from Parallel-beam Projections

Geometry of the Parallel-beam Scanner

The body remains motionless the whole time the system rotates.

The geometry of a parallelbeam scanner: (a pictorial view)

The geometrical relationships

The geometry of a parallel beam scanner: view in the x, y plane

The polar coordinate system

Reconstruction from Parallel-beam Projections

The detectors measure the intensity of the radiation as it arrives at the screen Each measurement of radiation intensity at the screen is evaluated relative to the original radiation intensity as defined by This method of scanning only allows us to obtain the image of the attenuation coefficient distribution for one cross-section of the body under examination The width of this slice is determined by the capacity of the projection system and is one of the basic parameters of CT scanners The next cross-section can be obtained by repeating the scanThe angle at which the projection is carried reconstruction procedure at out another position on the z-axis
The position of a particular place on the screen

Reconstruction from Parallel-beam Projections

projection function defined in this way allows for easy physical interpretation. Its value at each point on the screen (a distance s from the origin of the (x, y) coordinate system) is the sum of all the values of attenuation coefficient l(x, y) encountered by the ray on its way to that point This equation only applies to a scan carried out at a particular angle

Reconstruction from Fan-beam Projections

Geometry of the Fan-beam Scanner

A fan-beam scanner (3D view of the system)

basic geometrical relationships

The distance of the X-ray tube from the axis of rotation is represented by Regardless of the angle at which the projection is made. We can identify a ray emitted by the tube at a given angle of rotation and reaching a particular radiation detector, by the pair of parameter

Reconstruction from Fan-beam Projections

References
[1] T.M. Buzug, Computed Tomography From Photon Statistics to Modern Cone-Beam CT, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2008. [2] R. Cierniak, X-Ray Computed Tomography in Biomedical Engineering, Verlag London Limited: Springer-, 2011.