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CH05: SENSITIVITY AND CO-ORDINATION

5.1. SKIN AND TEMPERATURE CONNTROL
The skin is an organ that covers the bodies B. Granular layer
of human beings and other animals. It is the This is middle layer. It is made up of living
largest organ in the human body. The cells which is called granular cells.
medical study of skin is called dermatology
Function
and the person who studies skin in medically
is known as dermatologist.  The cells of granular layer replace worn
out cells of the cornified layer.
The structure and function of the skin
 Functions of the skin C. Malphigian layer
1. Protection. This is the innermost of the epidermal
a. Protects entry of pathogens.
layers. It consists of the only living cells in
b. Protects damage of ultraviolet rays
from the sun. the skins that are capable of cell division.
c. Prevents excessive water loss. Function
2. It regulates of body temperature.  The cells of malphigian layer helps the
3. Acts as a sensory organ. formation and replacement of both
4. Storage of fats in the adipose tissue. cornified and the granular layers.
5. Synthesis of vitamin D.
 The malphigian layer also contains the
6. Excretion through the sweating.
cells called melanocytes which produce
 Structure of the skin natural skin pigment called melanin.
The human skin is made up of three layers:
The melanin gives the skin its colour
1. Epidermis
and protects the body from UV rays
2. Dermis
which can cause skin cancer.
3. Hypodermis
2. Dermis
1. Epidermis
It is the middle layer of the skin. It lies
This is outermost layer of the skin and is
beneath the malphigian layer. It is thicker
composed of three layers namely the
than epidermis. It contains the following
cornified layer, granular layer and the
structures:
malphigian layer.
a. Nerves- receive sensation of heat, cold, touch and pain.
A. Cornified layer
b. Blood vessels: Supply the cells in the skin with oxygen
This is the outermost layer of the epidermis.
and nutrients and take away carbon dioxide and waste
It consists of dead cornified cells filled with
substances. The blood vessels play an important role in
protein keratin. The cells of this layer are
body temperature regulation.
continuously worn off and replaced from
c. Lymphatic vessels: These drain away lymph from the
beneath.
skin taking into the deeper lymphatic vessels and then into
Function
the blood stream.
i. It protects against entry of pathogens.
d. Hair follicle: To increase skin sensitivity because it has
ii. It also protects mechanical damage.
sensory nerves. Also the erector muscle is attached.
iii. It reduces loss of water.
e. Sweat glands: Release sweat through sweat pores.
f. Sebaceous glands: These open through their ducts into the
hair follicles. They produce an oily substance called
sebum.
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Functions of sebum 1. Nails

1. Keeps skin soft. 2. Hairs
2. Prevents excess water loss. 3. Glands
3. Exhibit certain of microbial growth. 1. Nails
4. It prevents hair from drying. Nails are plates of tightly packed, hard,
Sweat glands keratinized cells of the epidermis. The nail
These are coiled tube-like structures that consists of the following parts:
contain secretory cells. These glands  Nail body: The visible part of nail.
release sweat through sweat duct to skin  Nail root: The part that is not visible.
pores. The sweat contains: 2. Hairs
 Water and mineral salts such as NaCl. Hair is keratinous filament growing out of
 Small quantities of urea and lactic acid. the epidermis. Hairs are present on most
The role of sweat skin surfaces except the palms, soles, lips,
1. Temperature regulation. nipples, and parts of external genital areas.
2. Waste elimination. Functions of hairs
Sweat glands
 Prevents heat loss
 Decrease sunburn
Eccrine sweat glands Appocrine sweat glands  Eyelashes help protect eye
 They are located part of skin  They are found only in  Acts as touch receptors
except: lips, nail beds, and the axillary (armpit) and
ear drum. genital areas. The Structure of Hair
 They are very numerous  Appocrine glands The hair consists of these structures
palms and soles. produce thick an organic  Shaft- portion that projects above
 They secrete sweat which secretion. the skin.
cools the body.  Have ducts that open  Root- portion below the skin.
 Have ducts that open into the into hair follicles.  Hair follicle- two layers of cells that
surface of the skin through  They are usually larger surround the hair root.
sweat pores. than eccrine glands.  Bulb- the bulbous shaped structure
 Eccrine glands function  Become active at of the base of the follicle.
throughout life. puberty.  Papilla- where blood vessels enter
the hair follicle to nourish the hair
3. Hypodermis cells.
This is fatty layer that lies beneath the dermis.  Matrix- the region of the bulb where
It is made up of connective tissue which binds the skin to new hair is produced.
the muscles and organs deep in the body.  Erector pili muscle- smooth muscle
which control hair movements for
Function temperature regulation
i. Acts as a heat insulator.
ii. Acts as storage region for fats. Classification of hair
Accessory The bod
iii. It also provides askin structures
channel for blood vessels and
nerves to the skin.
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There are three main categories of hairs

found in the human body and they are: 1. Internally: the heat produced by internal organs
1. Vellus hairs: cover most of the surface such as the heart, lungs and the brain.
area of our bodies which are short and 2. Externally: such that from the sun and other hot
fine. objects and also drinking and eating hot food gives
2. Terminal hairs: are the long, dark, thick the body heat.
hairs found on the eyebrows, scalp,
Over heating
pubic and axillary regions.
3. Vibrissa (guard hair): they keep the If the body temperature rises it is lowered by using
nostrils, ear canals to prevent foreign these mechanisms
 Hairs on the skin lie flat(less insulating air trapped)
Figure5.1.The skin structure
 Sweating starts.
 Blood is diverted close to the surface of the skin.
 The blood vessels widen (vasodilation)

Over cooling
If the body temperature falls down it is raised by using
these mechanisms:
 Hairs on the skin stand up (more insulating air
trapped).
 Sweating stops.
 Shivering starts so muscles producing more heat.
 The blood vessels become very narrow
particles from entering easily. (vasoconstriction).
Temperature control  The blood is diverted away from the surface of the
The degree of hotness or coldness of a body skin.
or environment is called temperature. The
process by which living organisms control
their body temperature is called
temperature regulation or
thermoregulation. The normal human body
temperature is constant around 37oC.
Heat loss and Heat gain
The body losses in two ways:
1. Internally: such as when you drink cold drink.
2. Externally: such that radiation, conduction,
convection and evaporation.
Figure.5.2. Skin and temperature regulation
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5.2. The sense organs

.
 Sense organs: are the body’s organs that contain
sensory cells responding to specific stimuli.
There are five main sense organs The sense of Sight
1. Skin General sense organ
2. Eye
3. Ear
4. Nose specialized sense organs
5. Tongue
 A stimulus: is a change in the organism’s
environment which affects the behavior of the
organism
Sense Stimuli Type of   Effector: a part of the body that
Organs Sense brings about a response. The effectors
Ears Sound Hearing can be either; muscle or gland.
Eyes Light Sight
Skin Pain, cold, Touch
heat,  The eye is an organ containing receptors for light.
Pressure (photoreceptors)
Tongue Chemicals Taste  The eye responds to light stimuli.
in the food The structure and function of the human eye
Nose Chemicals in Smell
the air Functions of the eye
1. Three dimensional vision
2. Judging distance
 Receptors: are structures which detect Vision
3. Focusing on far or near objects
the stimuli. Each receptor detects to
4. Colour vision
particular stimuli. The main types of
receptors are Structure of the eye
1. Photo-receptors- detects light.
2. Chemo-receptors- detects chemicals.
Accessory parts Other parts
3. Mechano-receptors- detects touch,
1. Eyebrows 1. Sclera
pressure, vibration, hearing and equilibrium. 2. Eyelids 2. Choroid eye layers
4. Thermo-receptors- detects temperature 3. Eyelashes 3. Retina
5. Electro-receptor- detects electrical fields. 4. Conjunctiva 4. Cornea
5. Tear glands 5. Aqueous humor
 Response: change in activity of an 6. Extrinsic 6. Pupil
organism as initiated by a stimulus. muscles 7. Iris
First pair 8. Lens
Examples of response Second pair 9. Ciliary muscles
 Secretion of saliva in response to smell of food. Third pair 10. Suspensory ligaments
 Contraction of biceps to withdraw the hand from 11. Vitreous humor
a hot object. 12. Fovea
13. Blind spot
14. Optic nerve
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The table shows the other parts of the eye and their stru
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Parts of the eye Structure Function

Cornea The front curved part of the sclera  Allows light to enter the eye.
 It also bends light rays towards the retina.
Iris Coloured ring of muscular tissue  Controls the size of the pupil
 It also responsible for the color of the eye.
Pupil A small hole in the center of the iris  Controls amount of light interring the eye
Lens Is a soft elastic and transparent structure  Lens enables us to see objects clearly
which locates just behind the iris.  Lens focuses light on to the retina

Ciliary muscle Circular muscle surrounding the lens  Controls the thickness of the lens
arising from choroid
Suspensory Ring of elastic fibres  Holds the lens in a place
ligaments
Aqueous homour Transparent fluids that fills space  Supports the cornea and the front chamber
between the lens and the cornea of the eye.
 Aqueous humor provides oxygen and
nutrients.
Vitreous homour Jelly-like liquid behind the lens  Maintains the shape of the eye
 It reflects light rays towards retina.
Fovea Most sensitive part of the eye contains  This is where images are normally focused.
cones.
Blind spot Is the region of retina where no  Where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
photoreceptor cells.
Optic nerve Nerve firbre that links the eye and the  Carries nerve impulses from the eye to the
brain brain for interpretation.

Accommodation
This is the automatic change in shape of the lens of the eye to ensure that clear image of near or far objects
are formed on retina. To do this lens changes its shape, becoming thinner for distant objects and fatter for
near object.
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Image formation
Light from the object is pass-through the following pathway:

The image formed on retina has following characteristics:

 The image is smaller than the object.
 The image is inverted- upside down.
 The image is reversed-it shows back-to-front orientation.

Fig.5.4. image formation

Interpretation of the image
Visual centre of cerebrum interprets the image. For example:
 The smaller image is given to correct appropriate size.
 Side –up the inverted image.
 Lateral inversion is corrected into a right way orientation.
Common eye defects
The most common abnormalities of human vision are:
a. Long-sightedness Test Your Understanding
b. Short –sightedness
c. Old-sightedness 1. The diagram shows a section through an eye. 2. The diagram shows a section
through an eye.
d. Astigmatism
Which structure contains cells
e. Cataract sensitive to light
f. Colour blindness
g. Glaucoma

What are structures x and y?

a. Sclera and optic nerve
b. Choroid and auditory nerve
c. Choroid and optic nerve
d. Choroid and blind spot
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A. Long-sightedness or hypermeropia B. Short-sightedness or myopia

Can see distant objects clearly; objects appear blurred. Can see near objects clearly; distant objects appear blurred.
Caused by Caused by
 The lens is too thin.  The lens is too thick
 The eyeball is abnormally short.  The eyeball is abnormally long.
Image formation Image formation

 Since the light rays formed behind the retina, the  Since the light rays formed infront the retina, the image
image formed on the retina is blurred. formed on the retina is blurred.
 Corrected with convex (converging) lens  Corrected with concave (diverging) lens

 The light rays are converging as they pass through

 The light rays are diverged as they pass through the
the converging lens into the eye.
diverging lens into the eye.
 This allows the light to be focused on to the retina
 This allows the light to be focused on to the retina and
and the clear image is formed.
the clear image is formed.

C. Presbyopia (old-sightedness) D. Astigmatism

Presbyopia s the eye defect brought about to This is an eye defect brought about by uneven curvature of
the old age. the cornea. Remember that the cornea has a role in bending
Caused by or refracting light rays before light goes through the lens.
 The ciliary muscle weakens. If the cornea is not even the image formed on the retina
 The lens hardens. becomes blurred.
Characteristics of presbyopia
Correction of astigmatism
 Distant objects are seen clearly.
 The size of the eyeball is abnormal. The defect is corrected by wearing spectacles with special
 Ciliary muscles weaken. cylindrical lens whose shape counteracts the unevenness of
 The lens loses electricity. the cornea.
 Near objects cannot be seen.
Correction of presbyopia E. Cataracts
The defect is corrected through the wearing this is an eye defect that also common in old people. The
spectacles with suitable convex lenses which lens get cloudy gradually and becomes opaque such that
increase the converging power of the eye. light cannot pass through easiy and the person cannot see
properly.
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The main functions of the ear are:

.
Correction of cataract  Hearing
The defect can be corrected through:  Maintenance of balance and posture
 Surgical removal of lens, which makes the patient long
sighted such that the patient has to use spectacles with
very strong convex lenses to increase the converging
power of the eye.
 Surgical removal of the lens and then insertion of a
plastic lens inside the eye.
A. choose the correct letter
F. Colour blindness 1. _____collects sound waves
a. Pinna
This is an inherited condition where cones lack one or more
b. Auricle
primary colours. Normal people have three cones-red cones, c. Ear canal
blue cones and green cones. They are described as being d. Both a and b correct
trichromatic vision. Those with only two cones are said to 2. All of the following are structures within
a middle ear except:
be dichromatic and may in most cases be lacking in red
a. Ear bones
cones hence are said to be colour blind. Men are more likely b. Auditory canal
to suffer from colour blindness because the gene for colour is Testc. Your
Auditory Understanding
nerve
held in the X chromosome which men carry only one per d. Oval window
cell. 3. _____communicates pinna with
eardrum.
G. Glaucoma a. Ear canal
This is condition most common in old people. It is caused b. Eustachian canal
by a blockage in the eye which prevents excess aqueous c. Ear ossicles
d. Ear bones
humor from draining away leading to its build-up in the
4. The sense of hearing is detected_____
eye that causes pressure in the eye. The pressure distorts a. Smell
the eye shape which brings about blurred vision. If b. Sound
untreated by creating a drainage system for the eye, the c. Ear
d. Eye
condition could lead to blindness.

Sense of hearing
The sense of hearing detects sound. Its sensory organ is the ear.
Structure and functions of the Human ear

Middle ear

Eardrum Ear ossicles Oval window Eustachian tube

Is a thin membrane like a Are three small bones found Is a membrane that A narrow, air-filled
drum across the inner end of in the middle ear and covers a hole that opens canal linked the middle
the auditory tube. attached together by into the inner ear ear to the pharynx.
Function ligament. through another Function
♦Eardrum changes sound Ear ossicles window called round ♦ Equalizes the air
waves into vibrations and window. pressure on both sides of
then transmits them to the Malleus Incus Stapes Function the eardrum preventing
ear ossicles. Function ♦Transfer the distortion of eardrum.
♦It separates the outer ear ♦Magnify the vibration and vibrations from the
from the middle ear. transfer them to the oval ossicles to the cochlea.
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Another names of ear ossicles based on their

shape.
1. Malleus 3. Stapes
♦Also called hummer ♦It also called stirrup.
♦Is the largest one ♦Is the last bone.
♦ Is first one ♦Is the smallest one.
2. Incus
♦Also known as anvil.
♦Is the middle bone.
Inner ear

Semicircular canals Cochlea Auditory nerves

Three semi-circular fluid-filled A coiled fluid-filled canal, A bundle of nerve fibres that
canals situated at right angle of resembling a snail shell, and links the ear to the brain.
each other. lined receptor cells that are Function
Function sensitive to vibrations. Transmits nerve impulses
♦Helps the body to keep its Function from the cochlea to the brain
balance by detecting the ♦ Changes fluid vibration so that the sounds can be
movement of the head. The three into nerve impulse. interpreted.
directions detected are Mechanisms of hearing
1. Up and down (nodding head)
2. Rotating (shaking head)
3. Side to side (ear down towards
the shoulder)

1. Sound travels in the form of waves.

2. Sound waves that reach the ear are collected by the
pinna, which directs them into the ear canal.
3. The ear canal channels the sound waves to the ear
drum.
Interprets the impulse as a sound
4. The eardrum vibrates in response to the sound waves.
5. Vibrations from the eardrum reach the ossicles, which
in turn, magnify the vibrations and pass them to the
oval window.
6. The oval window vibrates and causes the liquid in the
cochlea to vibrate as well. Diseases of the ear
7. Receptor cells in the cochlea detect the vibrations andThe following are some of the diseases of the ear.
change them into nerve impulses (messages). 1. Otitis
8. The auditory nerves then carry these impulses to theThis is a disease that occurs due to infection of the ear which
brain. leads to the inflammation of the ear. The condition can be
9. The brain interprets these nerve impulses as sound. treated with antibiotics especially for the inflammation of the
external ear- referred to as otitis extreme.
2. Meniere’s disease
Is a disorder of the inner ear that more often than not appears
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3. Deafness
This refers to loss of hearing due to defective ear.
Deafness Test Your Understanding

The diagram below shows the structure of

Temporary Permanent a human ear.

Is often caused by Means complete and

the accumulation terminal loss of hearing.
of wax. Clear Causes
hearing may ♦Infection of the ear.
resume after ♦A heredity abnormality of
thorough cleaning the ossicles which cause
to remove wax. non-conduction of the
a. State functions of human ear?
sound from the outer ear.
____________________________________
♦Injury of the hearing ____________________________________
centre in the brain, the b. Give the name of structures labeled
cochlea or the auditory C_________________________
nerve D_________________________
♦Damage of eardrum or E_________________________
cochlea due to very loud F_________________________
music or quarry blasts. G__________________________
c. What is the function of the structure
labeled H and J?
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_________________________________

Fig.5.5. structure of human ear

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Sense of smell Sense of taste

The sense of smell detects the presence of chemical The sense of taste detects the presence of
substances in the air. Its sensory organ is the nose. chemical substances in food and drinks. Its
Structure of human nose sensory organ is the tongue.
Structure and function of human tongue
Other functions
of the tongue
♦Suckling in infants.
♦Mastication.
♦Mixing of food
with saliva.
♦Formation of food
bollus.
♦Initial oral stage of
swallowing.
♦Cleaning of teeth.
♦Articulation of
sounds in speech.
1. In the nasal cavity, there are
1. The tongue can detect four basic taste:
a) Sensory cells, which acts as smell receptor;
a) Sweet
●These cells are located at the roof the nasal cavity.
b) Sour
●They function to detect stimuli.
c) Salty
b) Glandular cells, which secrete mucus.
d) Bitter
●Mucus lines the walls of the nasal cavity.
2. The upper surface of the tongue is covered
●This mucu lining warms and moistens the air
with little pointed lumps called taste buds
before it enters the lungs.
which contain many taste receptors.
2. Certain smells are more easily detected than others.
3. Each receptor of taste receptors can detect
3. The sensitivity to smell is affected when we have
only one particular taste.
common cold.
4. Different types of taste receptors are located
4. When we having common cold, excessive mucus is
in different areas of the tongue.
secreted in the nasal cavity. Eventually, the smell
5. Therefore, different areas of the tongue are
receptors are covered with a thick layer of mucus that
sensitive to different taste.
prevents them from being stimulated by the dissolved
chemical substances. Detection of taste
Detection of smell