Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter included a selection of relevant literatures and studies in adaptation of A case study on
grade 7 non-readers at San Isidro national high school. This includes the related literature, related study,
synthesis-of-the-state-of-the-arts, the theoretical framework and conceptual framework.
Related literature
According to Oakhill et al, (2019) , the Simple View of Reading indicates that reading comprehension
is based upon two broad skills, language comprehension and word reading. This chapter explores the
many factors that directly impact language comprehension and reading comprehension apart from word
reading skills. Vocabulary, inferencing, background knowledge, comprehension monitoring, and
knowledge of text structure are all explored in detail. How these factors interact with reading
comprehension and with one other is described, and how to best improve these skills in struggling
comprehenders is also presented.
The literature above is a description of the Simple View of Reading model and its expansion to
include several key factors affecting reading comprehension beyond basic decoding skills. It focuses on
the importance of language comprehension skills in reading proficiency.
According to Vaughn and Fletcher (2012), their multiyear research examined whether these
interventions could help older students with persistent reading difficulties improve. They also looked
into the accuracy and usefulness of tools for screening and monitoring student progress. The study
discussed the challenges and considerations involved in applying Response to Intervention (RTI)
strategies at the secondary school level, offering insights and future research directions on supporting
older students with reading problems. Their multiyear research examined whether these interventions
could help older students with persistent reading difficulties improve. They also looked into the accuracy
and usefulness of tools for screening and monitoring student progress.
The literature emphasizes that it can still be effective even beyond the early grades, which is critical
for students who reach secondary level without mastering foundational reading skills. The importance of
screening and continuous monitoring to identify struggling readers and track their progress.
According to Boakye (2017), there have been a number of studies on reading interventions to
improve students' reading proficiency, yet the majority of these interventions are undertaken with the
assumption that students' reading challenges are obvious and generic in nature. The interventions do
not take into consideration the diversity in students' reading backgrounds and the specific nature of the
challenges. Thus interventions may not address students' specific reading needs. This paper reports on a
study that explored students' reading profiles as a needs analysis for an intervention programme to
improve the reading proficiency of first-year Sociology students. The aim was to investigate the
students' reading backgrounds to determine their specific reading needs.
This literature takes a different approach by analyzing the reading profiles of first-year Sociology
students to inform a targeted intervention program, studies have focused on reading interventions to
boost students' proficiency, most assume that reading challenges are universal and straightforward.
However, these interventions often overlook the unique reading experiences and specific difficulties
that students face. As a result, they may not effectively address individual students' needs. To inform a
targeted intervention program, this study adopts a different approach by examining the reading profiles
of first-year sociology students. While previous research has concentrated on reading interventions to
improve students' proficiency, the majority of these studies presume that reading difficulties are
common and simple. These interventions, however, frequently ignore the distinct reading experiences
and particular challenges that each student faces. They might therefore fail to adequately meet the
needs of specific students.
Based on the Islamic University, Palestine (2010), the reading texts and exercises found in the Grade
7 English for Palestine student book and workbook were evaluated to determine their alignment with
suggested educational criteria and to identify their weaknesses. because the quality and
appropriateness of reading materials directly affect students' reading performance. If the materials are
not engaging, age appropriate, or level appropriate, they may contribute to students lack of interest,
understanding challenges and overall reading struggles.
The use of expert validation, content analysis, and teacher interviews in the study helped to identify
whether these instructional materials meet learners needs. Similarly, in the case of Grade 7 non-readers,
it is important to examine whether the reading resources used in class support or hinder students’
reading development.
According to Lantakan (2022), It was found that majority of the parents are financially struggling
which results to limited resources, no conducive space at home for learning and many distractions. It
was also revealed that less education and language barrier led to inaccurate instruction in developing
reading skills. The parents also admitted that bringing education at home is a burden to them because
they must work and teach their children at home simultaneously. Another issue was found to be the
challenge in developing reading skills at home since they were not trained for that. On the other hand,
non-readers found to be challenged learning at home with no appropriate learning resources,
distraction such as but not limited to household chores, parents support and no space for learning. Thus,
the parents and learners proposed for home visitation and limited face-to-face.
The literature above examine that the passage effectively highlights the challenges faced by parents
and children in developing reading skills at home, focusing on financial constraints, lack of resources,
and parental limitations. The suggestion for home visits and limited in-person instruction is a logical
response to the identified problems.
Based on Tomelden (2017), who laid great importance on regular implementation of remedial
reading, complemented by diverse and interesting instructional materials, as an important factor that
contributes to enabling struggling readers to develop a deep interest in reading. Her research supports
the implementation of such programs within institutions to cater to literacy shortages and long-term
reading growth among readers.
The literature above examines that when schools provide consistent remedial reading support,
students are more likely to develop an interest in reading, which is essential for long-term literacy
development.
Related studies
According to Steinle (2022), the study synthesized 17 fluency intervention researches conducted
between January 2006 and October 2019 for struggling readers in Grades 7 to 12. Most of the studies
focused on repeated reading interventions aimed at improving reading fluency. Findings revealed that
although it increased students’ fluency, it showed little to no effect on their reading comprehension.
Similar trends were also seen in earlier reviews, confirming that improved speed in reading does not
necessarily lead to better understanding.
The study about Steinle (2022), Grade 7 Non-Readers, suggests that fluency alone is not sufficient for
developing readers at this level. Grade 7 non-readers require deeper intervention that targets both
fluency and comprehension. This implies the need for balanced strategies combining fluency exercises
with comprehension-based instruction, as well as institutional support through teacher training and
school-based reading programs.
Nailon et al. (2023) conducted another research on the effect of young adult literature (YAL) in
facilitating reading comprehension for junior high school students. It was highlighted that many students
could read well, and yet, they lacked comprehension. This inability was said to arise from a lack of direct
instruction for comprehension strategies and an absence of texts that could connect with them. They
argued that indeed reading comprehension is made up of cognitive, linguistic, and sociocultural
elements, and using young adult literature in class, especially when complemented with discussion-
based activities, encouraged learners to think critically and reflect personally as well as apply
comprehension strategies in a natural way. The results of the research favored an appropriate
integration of the YAL in classroom teaching as a meaningful strategy for improving students'
comprehension of the reading material and engagement with it as well.
The study about Nailon et al. (2023) research applies to the Grade 7 non-readers case in that it
points out most students have learned to read words but continue to not comprehend because of the
lack of strategy instruction and reading texts that are unrelatable. With the use of Young Adult
Literature (YAL) and discussion activities, students tend to be more motivated and invited to think
critically. This strategy may assist non-readers in building comprehension skills more naturally and
meaningfully, hence a current policy for enhancing reading performance at junior high school.
The study of Nurma (2010) found that teachers implemented various reading comprehension
strategies at three stages: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading. The pre-reading strategies were
brainstorming, calling for dictionary use, talking about text type, and making predictions. The while-
reading strategies were reading aloud, rereading for meaning, guided reading, talking about unfamiliar
words, and retelling the text. The post-reading strategies were evaluating comprehension, clarifying and
justifying ideas, scanning, reviewing, assigning tasks, and [Link], students responded
positively to these strategies, showing either basic associations or partially developed knowledge
structures. The study also suggested that school administrators should support teachers by addressing
their instructional needs and organizing relevant training programs.
The study about Norma (2010) recommended administrative support and teacher training align
with the needs identified in addressing readings among grade 7 students. This study examines that
effective reading is not only a strategy but also institutional support.
According to Auletto and Sableski (2018), Reading intervention programs provide the foundation for the
educational success of students, especially those who are considered struggling readers. States across
the country recently implemented legislation related to reading achievement, in which districts are
required to provide specific literacy interventions to struggling readers in order to prevent retention.
The choice in reading instructional programs has long-term impact on the future of students, as it is
these programs that determine the need for retention in response to this legislation. This research study
examines the factors that affect the decision of an urban district in selecting a reading intervention
program to support struggling readers.
This study explores the key factors influencing an urban district's selection pf reading intervention
program to support struggling readers. effective reading intervention programs are crucial for students'
academic success, particularly for struggling readers.
Deluao et al, (2022) determined if there is an improvement in students' reading comprehension
after implementing the 4R strategy. The findings revealed significant differences between students' pre-
test and post-test reading comprehension levels using the 4Rs strategy. The study concludes that
adopting the 4Rs strategy improves the Grade 8 learners reading comprehension.
The study above demonstrates the effectiveness of a 4R strategy (Read, Retell, React, Reflect) in
improving the reading comprehension of Grade 8 students. It's a concise action research project
showing positive results from a targeted intervention.
Based on Caraig and Quimbo (2022), Reading Comprehension is the ability to define word by word and
create a profound idea out of the talks given or read. It plays a significant role in the total functioning of
a community. It is also one of the pillars of reading. A person may know how to read certain words, but
Comprehension is something that is developed, practiced, learned, and experienced over time. This
paper amin to assess the Reading Comprehension level of the Senior High School in their Core Science
Subjects and determine different factors that affect one’s reading comprehension skills.
The study above concludes that understanding the reading comprehension levels of students and
the factors that influence these skills is crucial for improving science instruction. It suggests that
educators should adopt holistic approaches to teaching science, incorporating interactive methods to
enhance learning and self-esteem.
Synthesis-of-the-state-of-the-arts
In relation to the study, the research offered a variety of relevant literature and studies. The
researcher created a synthesis into the choosen conclusion in order to better grasp the literature and
investigations.
Current research, the reviewed literature and studies, offers a clearer and more comprehensive
understanding of the reading problem of students in junior high school, particularly in Grade 7 who are
yet to acquire the skill in reading. One of the most important findings is that reading fluency or being
able to read with speed and accuracy is different from comprehension of what is being read. As
emphasized by Steinle (2022) and Vaughn and Fletcher (2012), while repeated reading might assist
learners to read more rapidly, it doesn't necessarily imply that they comprehend the text better. This
indicates that reading instruction needs to transcend speed and accuracy and emphasize meaning and
comprehension as well. This concept is corroborated by the Simple View of Reading (Oakhill et al.,
2019), which elucidates that reading comprehension relies on two aspects: word recognition and
language understanding. In order to support struggling readers, teachers need to enhance vocabulary,
assist students with making inferences, and enhance students' background knowledge. Nailon et al.
(2023) also recommend reading texts with which students can identify—such as Young Adult Literature
—combined with open-class discussions. These methods keep students engaged and enhance the way
they interpret what they read. In the local area, Deluao et al. (2022) conducted research that discovered
the effectiveness of the 4R strategy—Read, Retell, React, Reflect—in enhancing students'
comprehension of texts. On the other hand, Tomelden (2017) emphasized the importance of remedial
reading programs, particularly if accompanied by engaging materials that may trigger interest and lead
students to read more. Other research highlights more profound issues beyond the classroom. Lantakan
(2022) and Boakye (2017) found that poverty, distractions at home, and lack of parental support are
among the leading causes of students' difficulties with reading. These results indicate that reading
interventions need to be tailored to accommodate students' environments and day-to-day challenges.
Schools should also make sure that teachers are well trained and provided with the correct tools and
equipment. Further, research conducted by Nurma (2010) and Caraig and Quimbo (2022) indicate that
reading comprehension is not merely achieved during the reading process—it begins before and extends
after. Successful teachers apply pre-reading strategies (such as predicting), reading strategies (such as
rereading and guided reading), and post-reading strategies (such as reflection and evaluation). On a
larger scale, studies by Auletto and Sableski (2018) demonstrate how school leaders and policymakers
are involved as well. The selection of appropriate reading programs and policies has a significant impact
on how successful students are. In conclusion, assisting Grade 7 non-readers to enhance their reading
capability involves an all-around approach. This involves integrating fluency instruction with activities
that build comprehension, employing interesting materials, assisting educators, and confronting
challenges in home and community life. Reading achievement isn't solely a matter of what occurs in the
classroom—it's influenced by numerous varying elements in a child's life.
Gap to be Bridged by the Study
This research is important as it addresses the challenges faced by Grade 7 non-readers in San Isidro
NHS, a topic that has been widely explored from the perspective of students but lacks sufficient focus on
the underlying systemic and pedagogical factors. Most existing studies emphasize individual student
learning differences, but there is limited research on the comprehensive school-level factors
contributing to non-reading among Grade 7 students. This includes the effectiveness of teaching
methodologies, resource availability, and early intervention [Link] bridge this gap, this study
focuses on understanding the experiences and perceptions of Grade 7 non-readers in San Isidro NHS,
identifying the contributing factors to their reading difficulties, and exploring potential solutions to
improve their literacy skills. It will also analyze the school's current support systems for struggling
readers and identify strategies for creating a more effective and supportive learning environment.
Figure 1: conceptual paradigm
Process
Input
In-depth case Output
- Demographic Profile
analysis of Grade 7
of Grade 7 non- Intervention plan for
non-readers through
readers grade 7 non-readers
interview and
-Uderlying causes of observation of New body of
reading difficulties of knowledge/theories
Supplementary
Grade 7 non-readers on reading difficulties
interview for reading
-Existing theories on teachers
reading difficulties
FEEDBACK
Basis for recommendations to improve reading support and intervention
programs
Figure 2:the theoretical paradigm
Improved
One-on-One Reading Fluency
Remedial Sessions and
Comprehension
-Identification of
Non-Readers - Phonics-Based
Instruction Among Grade 7
Non-Readers
Conceptual framework
Figure 1: the conceptual Framework of the study creates a clear illustration on the flow of this [Link]
imput will be the Grade 7 Non-readers that will be used as the respondent so that we can create a
conclusion on how this will help with their improvement. The process would be assessing the
respondent's through interview and observation. The output basically to identify the factors
contributing of Non readers.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical under pinning of this study was the Constructivist Development Theory, that a case
study of grade 7 non readers [Link] Bruner's (1966), which emphasises that learning is an
active, constructive process, serves as the foundation for this investigation. This theory holds that
students develop their own knowledge and comprehension of the world by having experiences and
thinking back on them. This theory backs up the notion that students learn best when actively deriving
meaning from texts in the context of reading development. One-on-one remedial sessions and
diagnostic reading assessments are used in this study to identify non-readers on an individual basis and
provide focused interventions. Because they give students the chance to actively engage in their
education and develop fundamental reading skills at their own pace, these practices are consistent with
constructivist principles.
Notes
Oakhill, J., Cain, K., Elbro, C. (2019). Reading Comprehension and Reading Comprehension Difficulties.
In: Kilpatrick, D., Joshi, R., Wagner, R. (eds) Reading Development and Difficulties. Springer, Cham.
[Link]
Deluao, C. J., Bernal, D., Padillo, J., & Lim, R. (2022). Improving the reading comprehension of grade 8
learners using 4Rs (read, retell, react, reflect) strategy. International Journal of Humanities, Art and
Social Studies (IJHAS), 7(1), 43.
Caraig, R., & Quimbo, M. A. (2022). Assessing reading comprehension difficulties inTomelden, E. (2017).
Effectiveness of remedial reading to non-readers in the intermediate level at lomboy elementary school.
Sdo-Dagupan. DOI: [Link] org/10.24252/Eternal, 62
Collins, A. A., Lindström, E. R., & Compton, D. L. (2018). Comparing students with and without reading
difficulties on reading comprehension assessments: A meta-analysis. Journal of learning disabilities,
51(2), 108-123.
Nailon, R., Balazuela, K., Catarinen, S., Hemarangan, J., Catat, K. M., Lequin, V. D., ... & Samillano, J. H.
(2023). Enhancing the Reading Comprehension Skills of Junior High School Students Using Young Adult
Literature: A review of Related Studies. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and
Publications, 15-20. core science subjects of senior high school students in a private school in Calamba
City, Philippines: Assessing reading comprehension difficulties. International Journal of Curriculum and
Instruction, 14(3), 1983-2010.
Lantaka, I. (2022). Non-Reader's and Parent's Experiences Amidst Pandemic: A Case Study. Non-Reader's
and Parent's Experiences Amidst Pandemic: A Case Study, 97(1), 17-17.
Tomelden, E. (2017). Effectiveness of remedial reading to non-readers in the intermediate level at
lomboy elementary school. Sdo-Dagupan. DOI: [Link] org/10.24252/Eternal, 62
Collins, A. A., Lindström, E. R., & Compton, D. L. (2018). Comparing students with and without reading
difficulties on reading comprehension assessments: A meta-analysis. Journal of learning disabilities,
51(2), 108-123.
Antoni, N. (2010). Exploring EFL Teachers’ Strategies in Teaching Reading Comprehension: A Case Study
at a Junior High School in Riau (Doctoral dissertation, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia).
A case study of grade 7 Students' reading challenges:... - Google Scholar"
[Link]
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%3A+Understanding+the+causes+an+Exploring+Intervention&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1753087119148&u=
%23p%3DYhW4BPWYbKgJ
"A case study of grade 7 Students' reading challenges:... - Google Scholar"
[Link]
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"Steinle, P. K. (2022). Fluency interventions for struggling readers in Grades 7–12: A systematic review
(2006–2019). Retrieved from [Link]
"Islamic University, Palestine. (2010). An evaluation of reading texts and exercises in English for
Palestine Grade 7 student book and workbook. Retrieved from [Link]
Chapter 3
This chapter represent the methodology employed to carry out this [Link] will includes the
description of the research method, source of data, the respondent, research instruments , data
gathering procedure and data analysis.
RESEARCH DESIGN
This research will employ the Case Study research design which is a detailed and in-depth investigation
of a specific individual, group, client, situation, or organization to identify the factors affecting reading
difficulties among selected Grade 7 students and to explore possible intervention to improve their
reading skills. This format follows the standard structure used in qualitative case study research in
education.
Research Method
The study will employ the descriptive qualitative method, focusing on the lived experiences of grade 7
non-readers.. This method is appropriate for understanding the personal challenges, adjustments, and
coping mechanisms of Grade 7 students in terms of their reading difficulties. Descriptive qualitative
method is a research approach that focuses on providing a detailed and accurate account of a particular
phenomenon. It involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data such as words,
observations, and experiences. This method is commonly used in social sciences, education, and health
research to explore participants perspectives, behaviors, and motivations without manipulating
variables. (Sandelowski, 2000)
Source of data
The primary source of data of the study are the five(5) grade 7 non-readers. Information will be
gathered through personal interview with the five (5) students. Supplementary data will be collected
through the interview taken from the reading teacher. Observation of student and teacher interaction
during will be also supplement the primary data collected. The gathered data will become the
foundation for examing the reading challenges faced by Grade 7 non readers Peace students at San
Isidro National High School.
The Respondents
The respondents of this study were five (5) students from the One (1) section of Grade 7-Peace Students
in San Isidro National High School, Division of Sorsogon. All these participants were selected through
purposive [Link] researchers executed interview at the respondent's free time.
Research instrument
The study will conduct an interview to gather the necessary data. Interview i a research method
used to gather data through direct, in-depth conversations with individuals, often used to collect
qualitative data and gain insight into participants' experiences, perspectives, and meanings (Kvale,
2007). The researchers will prepare interrview guide as the main instrument to elicit in-depth answers
from the respondents.
Data gathering Procedure
The procedure for collecting data will commence with careful selection of research subjects. The
participants will be Grade 7 students who identified as non readers. Specifically, the subject for this
research will be taken from a students at San Isidro National High School. The researchers will secure
the institution's administration permission to use students from San Isidro as subject in this study. The
challenges they faced will explored in using the interview. Within this period of time, the 5 students
will answer open-ended questions.
Data Analysis
The researchers will utilize result of the interview to draw valuable conclusions about grade 7 non-
readers The collected data will be thematically organize in to table to enhnace clarity of the discussion
and facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the findings.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Reading is an essential skill that every student must develop, especially during their early years
in school. It is through reading that students are able to understand their lessons, follow instructions,
and explore new ideas. However, it is a sad reality that some students reach high school without being
able to read properly. Students learn reading to solidify and extend basic knowledge and develop the
basic lingual skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. So fostering good reading ability is a
leading task of learning English (Liao, 2011). Reading difficulties mean extracting the required
information from the material as efficiently as possible. In order to get the information you need from
what you read, you must be able to read both accurately and quickly. A good reader is an accurate and
fast reader. For example, there are lots of reading exercises in different types of examinations today. But
all these readings must be done in a limited time. So students are asked to read them correctly and at a
certain speed. To do this, slow students should change their reading skills and reading habits and
enlarge their English knowledge.
Practical, effective, evidence-based reading interventions that change students' lives Essentials
of Understanding and Assessing Reading Difficulties is a practical, accessible, in-depth guide to reading
assessment and intervention. It provides a detailed discussion of the nature and causes of reading
difficulties, which will help develop the knowledge and confidence needed to accurately assess why a
student is struggling (Wiley & Son, 2015). Each student has different abilities; there are students who
can understand the material presented quickly, moderately, and slowly. On the other hand, a teacher
faces and accepts the situation of students who are indeed non-readers. Education is a medium for
processing input (students) in order to become a quality output. Reality assumes that existing students
are heterogeneous. All kinds of students with different abilities have the same right to gain knowledge
in the formal education system. This is where the role of inclusive education needs to be reviewed
more in depth. Moreover, based on observations in secondary school, many students are detected as
non-readers. Although a substantial amount of research has shown that most reading difficulties can
be prevented or corrected, standard reading remediation efforts have proven largely ineffective.
The same scenario was observed in San Isidro National High School where there were recorded
non-readers based on the results of Reading and Literacy Assessment (RLA). The researchers want to
help the non-readers by understanding the factors that affects their reading ability by conducting in-
depth case study among grade 7 non-readers.
Statement of the problem
This study aims to explore the Grade 7 Non-readers at San Isidro NHS through case study.
Specifically,this study will seek to answer he following questions.
1.) What is the demographic profile of Grade 7 Non-readers?
2.) What are the underlying causes of reading difficulties among Grade 7 Non-readers at San Isidro
NHS?
3.) What interventions can help Non-readers improve their reading skills?
Significance of study
The present study on A case study of Grade 7 Students' reading challenges: Understanding the
causes an Exploring Intervention is important to the following:
STUDENTS. It will assist them to determine the distinct reading difficulties that face grade 7 students,
which will allow them to gain special assistance an interventions for enhancing their reading capabilities
as well as academic performance.
PARENTS. Parents will be told about reading difficulties that their children could possibly have and give
parents ways in which they can assist their child in reading development at home.
TEACHERS. Teachers with the more detailed understanding of the causes of reading difficulties in grade
7 students, they can assist their students in improving more efficient teaching strategies and
interventions to facilitate their students reading development.
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR. School administrator may gain a deeper understanding of effective
leadership strategies and areas for professional development
FUTURE RESEARCHER. They will add to the pool of research on reading difficulties and interventions,
offering valuable insights and recommendations for future.
Scope and Delimitation
This study aims to explore the status of Grade 7 Non-readers at San Isidro National High School
(SY.2025-2026). Moreover, this study will be conducted in San Isidro National High School and utilized
Five (5) Grade 7 Peace Students as respondents. Grade 7 reading teachers will also be included in the
study to gather supplementary data on Grade 7 non-readers.
This study will use qualitative method using case study design to answer the stated problem.. This
study delimited students from the other schools. In addition, Junior High School and Senior High School,
except Grade 7 Peace,were not included in this study. Grade 7 students from San Isidro National High
School who were not classified as frustrated readers (non-readers) are excluded in the study.
Definition of terms
To provide clarity and clarify better understanding of this study, the following key terms are
defined:
Conceptual
Explain what a term means in theory or in general. It is based on existing literature, dictionaries,or
experts understanding of the concept. It gives a broad and abstract meaning of the word.
Operational
Tells how the term is specially used or measured in your study. It is more practical anf focused on how
the concept is applied during the research
Non-Readers
They are the students who have difficult in reader words, phrases or sentence appropriate for their
grade level. In the study, non readers is refer specifically to grade 7 student who are classified as
frustrated readers in the RLA. They are the students who cannot read even the basic words and letters.
Literacy
The ability to read and write on the context of this study literacy focuses on the reading skill of
grade 7 student and how it affect their academic performance.
Case study
A research method that evolves and deep investigation of particular group or situation. This study
use a case study approach to explore and experiences in challenges of non-readers in grade 7.
Grade 7 student
These are first year junior high school, student under the k12 curriculum in the philippines they are
usually 12 to 13 years old.
Notes:
Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties. John
Wiley & Sons.
Nugrahayati, W., & Mustadi, A. (2019, July). Slow learner learning facts in their inclusion class. In 6th
International Conference on Educational Research and Innovation (ICERI 2018) (pp. 421-424). Atlantis
Press.
Liao, G. (2011). On the development of reading ability. Theory and Practice in Lan
